STUDENTS TEXT

FIRST COURSE IN ALGEBRA

PART I

SCHOOL MATHEMATICS STUDY GROUP

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YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

School Marhenlatics Study Group

First Course in Algebra

First Course in Aloebra a

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FOREWORD The increasing contribution of mathematics to the culture of the modern world, as well as its importance as a vital part of scientific and humanistic education, has made it essential that the mathematlcs in our schools be both well selected and well taught.
With t h i s in mind, the various mathematical osganizations 5n t h e Unlted States cooperated in the formation of the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) S E G includes college and university mathematiclans, teachers of mathematics at a11 l e v e l s , experts i n education, and representatives of science and technology. T h e g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e of SMSG 1s the Arnprovement of the teaching of mathematics in the schools of this country. The National Science Foundation has provided substantlal f'unds for the s u p p a r t of thls endeavor.

One of t h e prerequisites f o r the improvement of the t e a c h i n g of mathematlcs in our schools is an improved curriculum--one whlch takes account of the increasing use of rnathematics In science and technology and in other areas of knowledge and at t h e same t l m e one which r e f l e c t s recent advances In mathematics i t s e l f . One of the first projects undertaken by SMSG was to enllst a group of outstanding mathernatlclans and rnathematics teachers to prepare a serles of textbooks which would illustrate such an Improved curr iculwn

The professional mathematicians In SMSG believe that t h e mathematlcs presented in this text is v a l u a b l e for a l l well-educated citizens in our society to know and that it Is important for the precollege student to learn in preparation f o r advanced work in the f i e l d . A t the same time, teachers I n SMSG believe that it is presented In such a form that it can be r e a d i l y grasped by students.

In most instances t h e material w i l l have a familiar n o t e , but the presentation and the p o l n t of view w i l l be different. Some material will be e n t i r e l y new to the traditional curriculum. This is as it should b e , for mathematics Is a living and an ever-growing subject, a n d not a dead and frozen product of antiquity. T h i s healthy f u s i o n of the old and t h e new should lead students to a better understanding of the basic concepts and structure of rnathematics 2nd p r o v i d e a flrmer foundation f o r understanding snd u s e of mathematlcs in a scientific society.
It is n o t intended that t h i s book be regarded 3s t h e only d e f i n l t k v e nay of presenting good mathematics t o students at t h h s level. Instead, it should be thought of as a sample of t h e kind of Improved curriculum that we need and a s a source of suggestions for the authors of commercial textbooks. It I s s i n c e r e l y hoped t h a t these t e x t s w Z l l lead t h e way toward inspiring a more meaningful teaching of Mathematics, t h e Queen and Servant of the Sciences.

Below are listed t h e m e a of a l l t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n any of t h e w r i t i n g S e 8 8 i o n s

a t which t h e foliowing SMSG t e x t s were p r e p a r e d :

F i r s t Course 111 A l ~ e b r a , Geometry,

I n t e r m e d i a t e Mathematics, Elementary F u n c t i o n s , and I n t r o d u c t i o n to M a t r i x fl~ebra.

Alexander, Earlham C o l l e g e Allen, Lyons Township High School, La Grange, I l l i n o i s Alexander Reck, Olney Hi@ School, Philad e l p h i a , Pennsylvania E.F. 2eckenbach, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
H.W. F.B.

at Los Angeles
E.G.
F e g l e , School Mathematics S t u d y Group,

Yale U n i v e r s i t y P a u l Berg, Stanford U n i v e r s i t y Emil Berger, Monroe Hiph School, S t . Paul, Mlnnesot a
Arthur Bernhart, University of Oklahoma R.H. Bing, University of Wisconsin A.L. Blakers, U n i v e r s k t y of Western Australia A . A . Blank, New York U n i v e r s l t y S h i r l e y Eoselky, F r a n k l i n High School, S e a t t l e , Washington K.E. Frown, Department of H e a l t h , Educat l o n , a n d Welfare, Washington, D.C. J .M. Calloway, C a r l e t o n C o l l e g e Hope Chipman, U n i v e r s i t y Hi@ School, Ann Arbor, Yichigan R.R. C h r i s t i a n , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia R.J. Clark, St. P a u l b Schaol, Concord, New Hampshire P.H. Daus, University of C a l i f o r n i a a t Loa Angeles R . 3 , Davis, Syracuse University C h a r l e s DePrlma, C a l i f o r n i a Institute o f Technology Mary Dolc i a n i , Hunter College Edwin C . Douglas, The Taft School, Uatertown, Connecticut Floyd Downs, E a s t H i @ School, Denver, Colorado E . A . Dudley, North Haven H i g h School, North Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t L i n c o l n h r s t , The Rice I n s t i t u t e F l o r e n c e E l d e r , west Hempstead High School, N e s t Hempetead, N w York e k1.E. Permson, Newton Hipb School, Newtonv i l l e , Yassachusetts N. J F i n e , U n i v e r s i t y of Pennsylvania Joyce D. F o n t a i n e , North Haven High School, North Haven, C o n n ~ c t i c u t F.L. Friedman, M a s s a c h u s e t t s Institute of Technology E s t h e r G a a s e t t , Claremore High School, Claremore, Oklahoma R.K. Getaor, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington V.H. Haag, F r a n k l i n and Marshall C o l l e g e R .R Hartman, Edlna-Morningside S e n i o r KZgh School, Edina, Minnesota M.H. Heins, Unlversity or I l l i n a i a Edwin Xewitt, University of Washington M a r t h a H i l d e b r a n d t , Prov18o Tawnshlp !i& -f School, Magwood, I l l l n o i a

R.C. JurRensen, Culver M i l l t s r y Academy, Culver, Indiana Joseph Lehner, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Marguerite Lehr, Bryn M a w r C o l l e g e Kenneth L e i s e n r i n ~ ,U n t v e r a l t y of Michlean Howard L e v i , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y Eunice L e u l s , Laboratory High School, Un1vers:ty of Okl zhona M.A. Llnton, William Penn C h a r t e r School, P h i l a d e l p h i a , Fennsylvania A.E. L l v i n g s t o n , U n i v e r s l t y o f Waahington L.B. Loomis, liarvard U n i v e r s i t y R.Y. Lynch, P h i l l i p s meter Academy, Fxeter, New Hampshire W.K. F:cNabh, Hockaday School, Dallas, Texas K . G . H l c h a e l s , N o r t h Haven H i ~ hSchool, North Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t E.E. M o i s e , University o f Michigan E .P. h'ortnrop, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago 0.J. Peterson, Kansas State Teachers

College, Emporia, Kansqs

5 . J . P e t t i s , U n i v e r s i t y of North C a r o l i n a R .S. P i e t e r s , F h i l l l p s Acadeny, Andover,

Massachusetts H.O. Poll&, B e l l Telephone L a b o r a t o r i e s k ' a l t e r Prenowitz, Brooklyn College G . 9 . P r i c e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Kansas A.L. h t n m , U n i u e P s i t y of Chicagb Persis 0. Redgrave, Norwlch Free Academy, Norwlch, Cor.nect1cut Mina Rees, Hunter C o l l e g e D.E. Richmond, Williams C o l l e ~ e C .E. R i c k a r t , Yale U n i v e r s i t y H a r v Rudeman, Hunter C o l l e g e High School, New York Ckty J .T. Schwartz, New York U n i v e r s i t y O.E. S ' a n a i t i s , S t . O l a C C o l l e g e Robert Starkey, Cubberley H i g h Schouls, i 310 Alto, C a l i r o r n l a Phllllp Stucky, Roosevelt High School, Seattle, i l z s h i n g t o n Henry Swain, Hew T r i e r Township H i g h School, Winnetk?. I l l i n o i s Henry Syer, Kent School, Kent, Connecticut G.B. Thomaa, ? I n s s s c h u s e t t s institute of

Technolorn
A.W. Tucker, P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y

3.E. Vaughan, U n i v e r s i t y of I l L i n o i s John Wzgner, U n l v e r s i t y o f Texas A .J. X a l k e r , Cornell U n l v e r s i t y A . D . Wallace, %lane Universlty E.L. W-llters, William Penn S e n i o r High School, York, P e m s y l v a n i n Warren White, North High School, Sheboygan,
Wlsconzln

D.V. Widder, Harvard University W i l l i a m Wooton, P l e r c e J u n i o r College, Woodland Hills, C a l i f o r n i a J.B. Zant, Oklahoma S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

CONTENTS Chapter

. .

SETS AND THE W E R LINE 1- P . S e t s and Subsets

............. 1- 2 . T h e N u m b e r L l n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1- 3 . A d d i t i o n and Multiplication on t h e Number Slsle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.

..............

1 7
14
19

...... MultipLication . . . . . . . . . . . . . The D i s t r i b u t i v e Property . . . . . . . . . 22- 4 . Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . SENTENCES AND PROPERTIES OF OPERATIONS . . . . . . . 3- 1 . Sentences. T r u e and False . . . . . . . . . 3- 2 . Open Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3- 3 . T r u t h s e t s of OpenSentences . . . . . . . 3- 4 . Oraphs of T m t h Sets . . . . . . . : . . . 3- 5 . Sentences Involving Inequalities . . . . . 3- 6 . Open Sentences Involving Inequalities . . . 3- 7 . Sentences WithMore ThanOna Clause . . . . 3- 8 . Graphs of T r u t h Sets of Compound Opensentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3- 9 . ~ u m m a r g Open Sentences . . . . . . . . . of 3-10 . Identity Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 . Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3-12 . Associative and Commutative P r o p e r t i e s of Addition and ~ u l t i ~ l i c a t i o . . . . . i 3.13 . The D i s t r i b u t i v e P r o p e r t y . . . . . . . . . 31 . Summary: Properties of Operations on .4 Numbers of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . .
Review Problems

NUMERALS ANDVARIABLES 2- 1 Numerals and Numerical Phrases 2- 2 Some Properties of Addltion and

...............

19
23 29

34

41 41 42

45
47 49 50

52

54

56
57 60

61 66
72 73

.................
........ ..... ... ... .................

OFEN SENTENCES AND ENGLISH SENTENCES 4- 1 Open Phrases and English Phrases 4- 2 Open Sentences and English Sentences 4- 3. Open Sentences Involving I n e q u a l i t i e s Review Problems

. .

77 77

82

86 90

PREFACE

To The Student:
This textbook I s w r k t t e n f a r
just n l i s t o f problems.

you t o

read.

It I s n o t

Your mathematical growth and, as a conseqxence, t h e satisfaction and enjoyment which you d e r i v e from t h e s t u d y of algebra will depend l a r g e l y on careful reading of t h e book. F o r this reason, you will f i n d It Important t o develop effective h a b i t s of reading mathematics.
Reading mathematics is n o t the same as reading a novel. YVJ w i l l f i n d t h a t there are t h e s when you will u n d e r s t a n d o n l y p a r t of a paragraph t h e fkrst tlme you read I t , a l i t t l e more t h e second time, and will f e e l sure of y o u r s e l f o n l y after the t h i r d r e a d i n g . Sometimes working out details o r examples w i t h paper and p e n c i l w i l l be necessary.
You have a new and enriching experience ahead of you. Make the most of it. Go t o it.

Chapter 1,

SETS AND THE NUFJTBEZ LINE

1

Sets and --

Subsets

Can you give a description o ' the following: f Alabama, Arkansas, Alaska, Arizona? How would you d e s c r i b e t h e s e ? Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday? Include: S a t u r d a y , Sunday in the preceding group and then describe all seven. GPve a description of the collection of numbers:

1, 2,
of t h e collection o f numbers:

3 4, ,

5;

2, 3, 5, 7 , 8. You may wonder if you drifted into the wrong class. \ h a t do t h e s e q u e s t i o n s h a v e to do w k t h mathematics? Each of t h e above collections is a n example of a s e t . Your answers to the q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d have suggested t h a t each set was a p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e c t i o n o r members or elements with some common characteristic. This characteristic may be only t h e characteristic of being listed together. The c o n c e p t of a wLll b e one of t h e simplest of t h o s e you will learn in mathematics. A set is merely a c o l l e c t i o n of elements (usually numbers in o u r work). Now we need some symbols t o Indicate t h a t we are forming o r d e s c r i b i n g s e t s . I f t h e members o f t h e set can be l i s t e d , we may I n c l u d e t h e members w i t h i n b r a c e s , as far t h e s e t of t h e f i r s t five odd numbers:

set

C , 3, 1

5, 7, 91;

o r the s e t of a l l even numbers between 1 and 9;

12, 4, 6, 83; o r t h e s e t of states whose names begin with C : [California, Colorado, Connecticut].

Can you list all the elements of the set of all odd numbers? Or the names of all c i t i z e n s of the United S t a t e s ? You see t h a t in t h e s e cases w e may p r e f e r o r even be forced t o g i v e a d e s c r l p t i o n o f t h e s e t wlthout a t t e m p t i n g t o l i s t all I t s elements. It i s convenient t o u s e a c a p i t a l l e t t e r t o name a set, such
as
A =

r1, 3, 5, 73

or
A i s t h e s e t of a41 odd numbers between 0 and 8. R child l e a r n i n g t o count r e c i t e s t h e first few elements of

a s e t N ,;:hich we call t h e s e t of counting numbers:

N = (1, 2, 3, 4 ,

".*I.

We write t h l s set with enough elements t o show t h e pattern and then u s e t h r e e d o t s t o mean "and s o f o r t h . '' When we t a k e the s e t N and i n c l u d e t h e number 0, we call the new s e t the s e t W of 71hole numbers :

2, 3 , 4 , . . . I . An i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n now arises. How s h a l l w e d e s c r i b e a s e t s u c h as t h e s e t of all even whole numbers which are g r e a t e r than 8 and a t t h e same time less than lo? Does t h i s set c o n t a l n
W={O,l,

any elements? You may n o t be inclkned t o

call this a set, because t h e r e is no way to list its elements. In mathematics we say t h a t the s e t which c o n t a i n s no elements is described as t h e empty, o r n u l l s e t . Me s h a l l u s e t h e symbol $ t o denote the empty set. Warning! The set; ( 0 ) is not; empty; it contains the element 0. On t h e o t h e r hand, we never write t h e symbol f o r t h e empty set wfth braces. Perhaps you can think of more examples of t h e null set, such a s the s e t of a l l whole numbers between and
J -

3.

Notice t h a t when w e t a l k i n terms o f s e t s , !ge are concerned more w i t h collections of elements than with the individual e l e m e n t s themselves. C e r t a i n s e t s may contain elements which a l s o

* kle sometimes

refer t o c o u n t i n g numbers a s " ' n a t u r a l numbers."

Csec. 1-11

b e l o n g to o t h e r s e t s .

For example, let us c o n s i d e r the sets R = ( 0 , 1, 2, 3, 43 a n d S = 10, 2, 4, 61. Form the s e t T of a l l numbers x h i c h belong to b o t h R and S . T h u s , T = [O, 2 43. , !-vie s e e t h a t every element of T is also an element of R . W e say t h a t T Is a s u b s e t of R .

If every element of a s e t
a s e t B,

A belongs

to

t h e n A is a s u b s e t o f B.

Is T a s u b s e t of S?
One result is that every set is a subset of I t s e l f ! Check 1, f o r y o u r s e l f t h a t ( 0 , ? 3 , 43 is a subset of itself. We shall a l s o a g r e e t h a t t h e null s e t @ is a subset of' e v e r y set.

Problem Set 1 - l a
1.
L i s t t h e elements o f the set o f
(a) (b)

All odd 1:1hole numbers from 1 to 12 inclusive. All numbers from 0 t o 50, inclusive, which are squares of whole numbers. ( c ) A 1 1 t w o - d i g k t whale numbers, each of !lrhose units d i g i t is twice i t s t e n s d i g i t . ( d ) All ! h o l e numbers from 0 to 10, I n c l u s L v e , whfch are the square roots of whole numbers. ( e ) A l l cities in t h e U. S . w i t h p o p u l a t k o n exceeding f i v e million. ( f ] A l l numbers less t h a n 10 which a r e squares o f whole numb,ers ( g ) Squares of all t h o s e whole numbers which are less than 10, (h) All w h o l e numbers l e s s than 5 and a t the same time greater t h a n 10,

4
2.

Given the following sets: P, the set of whole numbers greater than Q, t h e s e t of c o u n t i n g numbers less than R, the s e t of numbers represented by t h e
S,

0 and less than

7;

-T;
symbols on the faces

13

of a di-e; t h e set; 11, 2, 3, 4,

5, 61,

( a ) List the elements of each of the s e t s P, Q, R . (b) Give a d e s c s i p t i o n of s e t S. ( c ) From the answers to ( a ) and (b) d e c l d e how many possible descriptions a s e t may have.

3,

Find U, the s e t of all whole numbers from 1 to 4, i n c l u s i v e , Then f i n d T, t h e set o f squares of all members of U. Now f i n d V, the set of all numbers belonging t o both U and T. (Did you i n c l u d e 2 in V? B u t 2 is not a member of T, so t h a t it cannot belong t o b o t h U and T . ) Does every member of V belong t o U? Is V a s u b s e t o f U? Is V a s u b s e t of T? Is U a subset of T?

4 Returning to problem 3, l e t K be t h e s e t of a l l numbers each .

of which belongs e i t h e r t o U o r t o T o r t o both. i id you i n c l u d e 2 in K? You a r e r i g h t , because 2 belongs t o U and hence belongs to either U o r t o T. The numbers 1 and b e l o n g t o b o t h U and T but we include them only once I n K.) Is K a s u b s e t of U? Is U a s u b s e t of K? Is T a s u b s e t o f KT Is U a s u b s e t of U? *5. Consider the four sets @
A = (0)
I I

B =

10, 11

= ( 0 , 1, 21

How many d l f f e r e n t s u b s e t s c a n be formed from the elements of each o f these f o u r sets? Can you tell, w i t h o u t writing o u t the s u b s e t s , the number of s u b s e t s in t h e s e t D = [o, 1, 2, 33? t h a t I s the r u l e you d i s c o v e r e d f o r doing this?

Ha::? many elements a r e in t h e s e t of a l l odd numbers between 0 and LOO? C o u l d y o u count the number of elements? Do you need t o c o u n t them t o determine how many elements there a r e ? How many elements a r e i n t h e set of whole numbers which a r e m u l t i p l e s of 5? ( A m u l t i p l e of 5 i s a whole number times 5.) Can you count t h e elements of this s e t ( t h a t is, w i t h t h e c o u n t i n g corning t o an e n d ) T Consider a s e t ~ f h o s e elements can be counted, even t h o u g h the
job o f c o u n t l n g would e n t a i l an enormous amount of time and e f f o r t .

A s e t may have any number of elements.

Such a s e t is t h e s e t o f a l l living human beings a t a given instant. On t h e other hand, there a r e s e t s whose elements cannot

possibly be counted because t h e r e I s no end to t h e number of elements. W s h a l l say that a set I s f i n i t e if t h e elements of the s e t e can be counted, w i t h t h e counting coming to an end, ex if the s e t i s t h e n u l l s e t . Otherwise, w e c a l l I t an infinite set. We say t h a t an L n f i n i t e s e t has infinitely many elements. Sometimes a f i n i t e s e t may have so many members t h a t we p r e f e r t o abbreviate its I l s t i n g . For example, we m i g h t w s l t e t h e s e t 2 of a l l even numbers between 2 and 50 as E = 14, 6, 8, 481.

. ..,

Problem S e t 1-lb

--

1.

How many elements h a s each of t h e following s e t s ?

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

The s e t The set The set The set

of a l l of a l l of a l l of a l l The s e t of all sive,

whole numbers f r o m 10 t o 27, inclusive. odd numbers b e t l ~ e e n0 and 50. m u l t i p l e s of 3.

m u l t i p l e s o f 3 from O t o 99, i n c l u s i v e . m u l t i p l e s o f 10 from 10 t o 1,000 inclu-

2.

C l a s s i f y t h e following sets (finite or infinite):

(a)
A l l natural numbers.

(b) All (c) A l l ( d ) All (e) A l l

squares of all c o u n t i n g numbers. citizens of the United S t a t e s . natural numbers l e s s than one b i l l i o n . n a t u r a l numbers g r e a t e r t h a n one b i l l i o n .

3.

G i v e n the s e t s S = 10, 5, 7 , g ] and T = [O, 2 4, 6, 8, 103. , ( a ) Find K, t h e s e t of a l l numbers belonging t o both S and T. I s K a s u b s e t of S ? O f T? Are S, T, K finite? (b) Find M, the s e t of all numbers each of which belongs t o S o r to T o r t o b o t h . (We never include t h e same number Is M a s u b s e t of S ? Is T a more than once in a s e t . ) subset of M? Is M finite? ( c ) Pind R , t h e subset of M, which contains a l l the odd numbers i n M. Of which others of o u r s e t s i s t h i s a subset ? ( d ) Find A, t h e s u b s e t of R, which c o n t a i n s a l l the members of M which are multiples of 11. Dfd you find t h a t A has no members? \ h a t do we c a l l t h i s s e t ? ( e ) Are s e t s A and K the same? If not, how do they d i f f e r ? ( f ) From your experience with the l a s t few problems, could you draw the conclusion that subsets of finite sets are also f l n i t e ?
R e f e r r i n g t o the definition o f a m u l t i p l e of 5 given above i n the text, d e f i n e an even whole number i n terms of m u l t i p l e s .

4.

I s 0 an even number?

1-2. - ?;c;nker TI-IP Line.

In y o u r s t u d j r of a r i t h m e t i c p u began b y u s i r l g nur:~ters ts c ~ u ~ : L ,ar,d l ~ t c r you t h ~ u g k t ;of t i + l e m ir, t e m z of zgrnkols 2p;;r:; f r o I You ila.,e a l s o :.;orked ~ L t h points sn scales or lines, s:lch A; on a r u l e r ; 3 therncneter. Suppose -!? r~o:! r i z s o c l a t c nuabe;-z :rich ? ~ i n t s ,>n a l i n e .
First, :,:e
::r.5:1

a l l r . e , regal-di_r.g it as

set, o f points.

3:>',!

many pzint;? Ccrtainl;;, there z ~ I r l i i n i t e l y many p,,3Lnts. PI:>,' e let; Es a ,,,,r,ciate sot:? of t h ? ~ ?~ 3 i r . t ~ t . 7 n u m b s r ~ i ; ~ e ?:1L13':- . r -.. ~ii th
ir!g :!ay:
C:lr,,>;;?

t:,!c d l . j t i n c t points on ',he 1n :e

V l 1 5 ?i.zht

a:ld
l.rit1-i

the

left :;l+,h che syrnbol ? r.nd ; n

lzbel 1.

:1 i2

poin;

qr.

Using the? intervsl bet:;eer, ' ~ k ~ d s pc?i:lt.: =IS 2 l i ~ . ' L t ~ , lf 3 ? . . ; l l P 2 , 2:1d e b :;,?ginnj.ng a",lle o i n t : ~ s s z c l a " i 2 d :jitn 1, l l : ! e p o i n t i 5 q : l a l l y i:?t .. 3pace< L ? l o l ~ thr: 1i:ie t . 2 t h e r i ~ : l t . ; e thit-~% f thl;;prcceSs :iL g : r~ c a n t i r j u i r , g : ; i t i l o u t end, ?,;en ';;IOJ&~ :;=: c a n ! l ~ t~ : 2 3 . : t.!lil ~ I C t: C ~
'-,e;,und

t n e :,l;i?t m r g i r l of %?IF: n s g e .

TTP,,,

1.1kcl

%i?e;.e goints ,"-=rn

left to righ:,
e.
r'l~::'

lzbeling cdr!! p o i n t :;ith

1 7 3 k ~LLkc

- 3

1 b

l i n e r;;~'.;

thi

!.;e sic.? that 123211 :!hole numbel, i:; f o l l o n e d c!l the rli.gP.l: ! it? : b 3~1~~.;;,;3r. I.:;,at i s trle succcssgl, r ~ f 133'; 3f 1C.@c,jSC32': Cnc,7;,;e
1~r3g?
3

~2

cc!,lr:: j.ng n < ~ n b ? ~ > s,: you <an i 1 n a ~ i r . e

2

s ~ ~ i c e ; s o ~Gi:;c S

rule for f:!lLilng

d ,

Doc; it I!?v.c. n the z d c c e s s z ? of a c?nn:ing

i?urr.::~3r..

:I:3~t Cicelj : i ~ l s ?mpl;yT/ a s;;cces;or,

bf

z u m b e ~h: ::

~ i n c e? ~ c ! - Icoua;ir,g :,>~2r:?a n n ~ i ,I.)? l l a r g c s t c-,~.Arltr.~ng c r! :?::mi-,er,

~ n thing, c

and . h e set

:minting n u l ~ , b e ~ s - i . ? ~ T i n ; t e . is

::tt-c:?zd
u,

tc

7:ir.t

J? t h e e;;f,ended

l i n e sr;d

P.jFl?;.

r 3 i ~ tS O

far

pFrrcl;F 3 n ~-,IUL 5et::eec s e t s cf !1~15ers 2nd sets of p i n t z o n a :0x 3

Ilr;e is s n i:i_!o3 :e s k e l l u s e c:?.::y :ir.es :

3:31.i;l!:g

i:1

tllic. c;Jr;?.
iYb!

.i !%

the line

.:k.ich p ~ i n t c ~ 1 e b e l i . d 3 e
by cii;.lcill:~

::hslc

.A~L;:):

e: r,

::?

c a n l a b e l a t h e r s>int,z

i~-~tzr_:zls

e tc.

+
0
I
I

1 2
1 I
1

1
1

I I

e tc.

I 1

etc.

etc.

::?- -. l e , : < ,

-:isu3li zu

2:) . ~ n e n d l n gzc'i

sf 1 i r . e ~?;:ith thc i n t e r T i s l s

> . ~ ~ i d ict; i . ~ c e s z i ~ c l y - e a t e r c d c g
I '

: f

n .A*.- ~ - ~ L- - ~ \ : l L" ' . ?

n u n b e r s of p a r k s . :J;.: p:;t 211 these t d g e t h e r 2 3 c.re line. :ie :~:'.~:e l a S e l i r . , 3 521-I.c ; - . r e s p ~ r : d i r ? g t c x : : I ~ of Lhe e l e ~ e f i t ~uf' 3 s e t of l: * - . ; l ~ i z i : .31-e called r i t i = , ~ ~ l nurcbers

etc.
d i d a?8?ve,
,

s ~ ~ u r n h e1':ne. r~

Th1? nur~ber s s q c l a t c i i : i ? h
L:

: i

;i ;

n t i ;.

celled L?I~? c . ~ 3 r d i n ; ! L e of the p o i n t . . 1i.1; t l ~ l r ;tii.15 let L I Z re./ic::! what is mea:it b;r

'!i'rcr,tic.r:.I t

2 . Thc ~:ur;lbcr nancjl '3? 10 5 ' y 2 l j r c s e n t e d i ) ; ~frs ?r,ian;l; : , F , -6, c t i . f

f'3r

t h e same nxjnt8:r

I1

&
2

11

~ : + ~ .-.-l i l

, ; '~: ~ 7

~ ' i i ~ j ~ ; ,

':I:*?

211~::;1'?-~'

:e s h * l l also r c z !

:.e;rt'%cn? r n l ; l ~ ~ - : an;lmbcr.r;, l

t?r briat, i ~ u t ,sll. i-: :?;l; ', :,:A bat i; defin1 tL;n e-;-17,: v,.:l;ln:~.r. 1 -:
l:i

)
(I\)

T'.l?;.e

rr;.:~y po.;sl2:lc narr:::s f o r the 5ame :-umber. ::c , ~ i : ; s v ca pra3r e::s ~ ' o ; ,l c l c ~ t i n gt h e aoirlt o : : ~ the :lur:lbe~ 1::-!ct r;~.?raspor:J-lr;g to a n y ~ i . , ~ c r o t i u n a l n u r ~ b e , l ; >h a t rl t~ ::,, 1: '- CLZI-. el~-r::;.:lt o-T the s e t cf ~ a t i o r i a li-iurhuru 0 t k 1 2 r c - 1,; cc;.r,esp:~:~d:i:~g o i n t on the tlumber line. a p
7x2
;.iS.ll

Y L ; ' ~C:,33.: t h i n k -:e

u s e u p t!ze s u p p l y of points in t h i s
-',-

procc::;
3,::

of ? ~ s ! ; g t ~ i n g : ~ x b c r ' s t, ~ 3 ; r . z ~ . Are t!c s u r e , l t betc!sen n : .a k:;o dl:;c;n:'~ ! j ~ . i n t . ; , n> r::at",r i-~o:iclc:se, t h e r e is 23c:';;le t,
! E zar: 3nss:f.r '~211:: ques t i z r l fc r p;;i~-it.; c a r > r e s ? c ! l d i n g ;:

polr,t' !
1
-

L. :

e
z L

x
1-

n
m c

Il'.-",
I

-:

c : -, 7,
'd

7 ,

5
' , L

t:;o z;lcPL ~ 3 l l : t s , for 1 I L l a ::e k1;c.; ~:1-3t 2 3 ; . n < . 1. ,?LC., ar,d : ha:: t h e r,ar,:es :
: CF,..cJse :
d

T?

T*

I,J?

l , l ~ ~ : < : ~ : -L;,: ~

~ 1 , ~ ; TL-: ; ~ : ,~ ,.-., ;ervc-: to ah:,,,,

7

t h a ;r. !;he;.s

s r ; ~l c t r

[ s e c . 1-21

o n l y a great many p o i n t s b e t w e n a n y t w o giver! points, b u t

i n Y i n i t 2 l y many p o i n t s . Nolw w e are q u i t e s u r e t h 2 t e v e r y r a t i o n a l n u m b e r c o r r e s p o n d s Go a p ~ i n ton t h e number l i n e . Do you t h i n k t h a t every poinr on t h e number line (to :.he r i g h t of 0) corresponds t o a ratiilnal nurnber? In o t h e r wards, cia you t h i n k we can label e v e r y poi.nt to t h e right o i 0 w i t h a r a t i o n a l number? T h e answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n , amazingly, is "No. I ' L a t e r t h i s year ;.la s h a l l pFove t h i s Pact k c y o u . And we s h a l l s o o n s s s d c i a t c :-lumbers wirh points to the left o f G . Meanwhile, we assun.e t h a t e v e r y p o i n t t o the r i m t of c? has a n u m b e r c , > o r d i n a t e , a l t h o u g h s ~ m rof t h e s e numbex? are - rational. no's To s:~mmariz-:the above statcmepts : There arc i n f i n i t e l 7 many points on the n ? : ~ i o e rline. There a r e alsc I n f i n i t e l y rnany points w i t h ~ a t ; i o n a l nuinbers as coordinates. I n d e e d , t h e r e a r c i n f i n i t e l y many p o i n t s bet::ieen each pair of point:; or, t h e number l i ! ? e . A1 t h o u g h xe h a v e seen t h i s o n l y f o r p o i n t s x i t h r a t i c t ~ a lcool*dLnates, Zt is z l s o t r ~ e for a l l . p ~ i n t : ; . In Chapters 1 t h r o u g h 1; we shall be concerned with the s e t af numbel-s c3nsLzting of C and a l l numbers corresp~ndingto p c l l n t s on ! s t h e r i g h t ~f C. I n t h p s e chzpters whell xe s p e a k of " n ~ : : ~ t b e r of arithnetic" we shall mean numbers of this s e t .
Problen: S e t 1-2a

1. Ho;l m r ; n u m b e r s ar? t h e r e between 2 and 3 ? 3 6 t ; ? ~ e e - a n d a!; r~ 500 3 2 and 3 List t ~ o numbers b e t x e e n 2 a n d 3 ; bot:ueen

--

rn'?

m.

2 O n t h e namber line i n d i c a t e w i t h heavy d c t a the pcints r.:hose . coordinates a r e

(b)

R a t i o n a l numbers r e p r e s e n t e d by fractions -r:.Lth iieno::ii1 n a c o r s 5, beginnLrig u i t h and endirig v ? i t h 20

-.

<

(c)

0, c.5,

0.7,

1.1, 1.5, 1.8,

2, 2 . 7 ,

3 '

..,,

3, ll.l.

[sec.

1-21

( 2

?;hii,h 2f t h e s y : : i h l s s~L~;.:!Iin parts frac',ic,zs?

Vhich
?f

(A)

and ( c ) a r e n o t

"rl~ee:?mb'~ls i n

( a ) a n 3 ( c ) ?epr.esa?nt

rEt i o n 5 1 n ~ ~ ~ b e r s ?

-1

In thc p r u b l c 3 7(b), t h o coo;>dir.at; of t h e p o i n t a s s o c i a t e d v;.:ith - c o u l d hevc had a n o t h ~ rn a n e , t h r c a m o n name sf a n a t u r a l

':> 9

nunlb?r.
irf

Ca.r you write f o u r 3;her names the : ~ u r n b ~ i ~ that c i ~ u l dserT;e a s t h e c v o r d i r r a t s or' t h i s

ihdt

?:~ulc! t h l s be?

r:)i? k ?

.
11

7 -

m.,,rit: S

~ X ranes

f:>rthc coordlnnte of the p o i n t a z s o c i s t e d w i t h

-.
r.
t ? ~ a: ~ i ~ ~ lbi r+. 2 !!e s e c t h a t sorne p o i n t s lie to t h e r i g h t of r :thws, sonc t o t ? e l e f t ~f 3 t P t ~ 1 ~ 3 , M ~ b e t u e e n o t h e r s . Iforr S i s tr,e p o l n t ; l i t h c o o z - d l n a t e 5,5 l o c a t e d nlt,h r e s p ? c , t t o tl-,e p j i l n t ; r:i-,h csor3;nate 2? Which is the greater of 3 . 5 and 2': ' ,>'., J .is the 1,alr.t : i i t h c=z:*dinst? 1 . 5 l o c a t s < l:it,h r e s p ~ c tto ., V . .
,,.I

Lhe p ~ i l ? t :.%?I ?:
1 .

caordina",

F? Which is the g r e a t e l - (f 1.5 ;

;jiici

27

i
m-

22 1s h c t i : ? e n i:l?Lck s u c c e s s i 7 . r e s:b.c,Le numbers i , : l l l ;O:J find T ? ?cl - 022 <''-kat.er l h a n 5.1':' 3ves :,he p o i n t ?l'ith c o o r d i n e ~ e lie

7-

*7. ::hat can

:c :l

s a y a u o u t a s e t S af !.iilole nucbers if it hzs t i ~ e

t:,n chayscteris tics :

(1) 2 is a r ~e i r . ~ : ~ v r.f S; t 2 ) :!l?encvel- a nufiber -2elongs to S it: s u c c e z s o y a l s 5 t . e l c ~ ? g s

Z''

Let us r,:t~~;*;-i t h e idea s ' a s e t of numbers 22 i

sek u 5:-,c n\ll-,kcr line. l :
Bor e~;nplr_-, a c h ~ elcrce:?:

and

visuzlize 'af tile s e t

is a r i u n 3 e r a s s c c i a t e d ,;:ixh a _ n o i ~ l t ,on
I.L

n.dm%er l i n e , ?;F;. c a l l A ~ Sse? sf s s s o r i a t e d points the graph of ?.he set A . Let as ind:catc t h e p o i n t s of t h e gra3l-r by markirjg then s p e - i a l l ; . i,:itl:
he

h02vy d z t s :

Thus, t h o g r a p h nf 2 set of n : ~ r i b c r sIs ti15 c o r ~ e s p o n d i n gc c t nf p o l r : t ~ on the r.u::her line ;:hose c g c r d l n a t c s sre the ncn;l.ers o ' i the set, a n d 3nly t : i o s e p ~ i n t s . Ii? g a s s i r . g , ::ie no", t t h n t the g r a p t ~ s of the s e t Y 11f c o u n t i n g r . u ~ ~ L - ~ r s che s e t a.ld o? ?;hole nunb,.rs a r e :

wF x r n t h e s e dlagrarr.5
I!e

*
7

r eetc.
3
4

T h e graph5
EVEN

iif

s e e I r r m e d i a t e l y t h a t N 1:; a s u b s e t a ? ';!. t h e s.?ts u f e x f e n a n d o d d ~ . h o L en u ~ l l z r sare :

e t c.
?

& b - + t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Prcblem -Sst 1-2b

1. G i v e n the s e t s S
=

{rJ,

3,

ll,

7) and T

=-

[C),

2,

!:,

6, 8, '13).

(a) Find the s e x , t h o s e t cf all numbers b e l z n g i r r g ~o hot!! S and 7 , a n d tile set M, t h e s e t g f a l l n u m h r s e a c h sf'
tb)

(c)

T or ta both. D r a : four i d e n t i c a l numbcr lines, one bel~?;the ~ t h e r . On 3 ~ l c c e z s i . ; e lines sho!! t h e g r a p h s of t h e sets S, T, K, and M. schemes do you see for o b t a i n i r l g the g:?apilz of %
:!l:ich
Gr

belongs t o S

14
3 d I-:! fror:; 'h graph,; (:.f S and T,'? r ,?
2.

r o r l s i d e r t h e sets A

{o, 5,

'(,

9) and F !

(1, 3, 5, lC].

(a) D I ~ :tr!?, '_dentricsl. :lumber l i r : ~ ; , gne bclc:; t h e other., 31td on t h e z c lines shcs! the grapi~.; o r k aqd. B. (b) If set C is t h e set of r ~ > ~ r r ~ bxhich s r r ncmbers of b o t l ~ ers A a1;d E, ?;hat do y o u i n f e r a k o u t s e t C f m n t h e g r a p h s qf A and b? :hat is the name of +;hi; set?
7 Y.

3:;ery

f i l j i k e set e x c e p t the null s e t has t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t it

can be p a i r e d off, one-to-one, wlth a f i n i t e s e t of n a t u r a l numbers. F o r example, t h e s e t of a l l l e t t e r s of t h e English alphabet can be paired o f f , one-to-one, wlth the s e t o f t h e f i r s t 26 natural numbers

An I n f i n i t e s e t , ho;.:c:rer, c a n n o t be p a i r e d qff, o n e - t c - m e , :ri.th a f i ~ i t e set. Furthermore, it has tI-12 S ~ l r ' p r i ~ i ngrgg p e r t y that all i t s members can b e palred off', ol:c-to-one, (A p r o p e r ~ l t The elements of sorne prijpc? subset or' i t s e l l ' . h S E of a ;St ~ is ~~ n w h i c h dces g o t conLalt-, :?11 the ~ 5 ; e ~ e ~ ~

meats of t!le s e t . ) Hex c a n t h e set ot' 1:~hole n u ~ l b e r s ( x h i c h j-s ~ n f i r ~ i t e ) p i r e d off, sne-to-one, ! r i t ; h t h e s e t of a l l be r n ~ l t i p l e sof 3 (;.:hi& iz a p r o p e r subset o ? tkic set of

1-3. A d d i t i o n and T ~ u l t i p l i c a t i o n- -c Nunber L i r a ? , on t h

Ye ! ~ e v es e e n h b w to portray sets of nurr:bcrs on a n u m b ? ? line I*i-,,n l e t us u s e t h e ntlrnber line t~ .;isual:Ze zc?Cl4io:: 2nd : n u l t Z plicatidn of numlters, At the beginning we recall that

diagrans, a l t . 1 3 u g h ";~ejr t e r r x i n z t c

"5 +

I..c

31; t h c sari!? 3,:iit. T!-LE: 15, -: are : i i f f e r e n s sy,t.>3l>; ,".~r- :;.lc ::z.me :lu::lbi.r ;<. !! 3" 2nd "', + , J - mag $ : r ~ l l i . l e e 5:hcthcr s d a i t ? : : n c,:] l t:le r.l.arr.he~ ll2c ~ : i l L a l : . ; ~ ) ; ~

b e pn:;s?t.>,

;11 ;:1

r.he sum

zf an;.

tvcir

ra1;iorinl n.~rn3erz on t h e

nunker line I z si!r1ilal3 t~:,mat;

3f' a

c d i t l ~ ~ l ~ r cr l e c s l l t h 3 f , if

fcr

As a dii'l'erc-?l e:iample,

consider

.. .li.;n L > '

a s:;nbol f ~ thi: ~:un:'ue:> 3 b t a i :?cd 'cy a d d i n g t v s c 3 I s . 3n r :h? ncrrSur l i ~ ee u 3 e d e segment f r ~ n to 3 and move t o t h e ;: O 1,ii:J;t r ~ m a d i s t s ~ c c O of ~1;!3 s u c h segments. T h e terminal p o i n t
C'
< - 7

; .,.* 2o:clrdi.12tc

2 ti 3 .

F?o;n , .
i:r .I:

$he rl;?,gra,;ls
:1l:-r.kc.r

rl :e

obserir,? t h a t t h c s c t r r o m d l i l ~ l l 3'i.ions c

cn

1 t a e aye d i f f - . r e n t , b u t again t h e y ierminafe a t t h e

s ? x e 73 - i n t .

Problem j e t 1-3

-n u W e r 1ir.e:
(dl
5 X 2

I.

P , e r f zrm t

i fi.llcis;:l:lg ~ p t - i ~ a t i ~ a St h e ~ ~ OR

(a)

j;

+ 6

(f)

4 x 2

3 e s c r i b c 9 ?rr,cedl;i-c f o r s u b t r x t i n g numbers on th? number l i e A p ~ j l ; : ;rdLrra p r o c e d u r e to

*2 ,
<,

;,'f .

m - A1 <- J

*z,.*

'lXb 3 s-->- . ~ g : i z - t h l r d ~ ijf T. 02 t h e nur.ben l i n e i:e divide L l L J-L t ';hc ,:t?,~;?r.t r'rz?n O to 3 L L L , ~ h r e e eqi:zl payt,s snd l z c a t e t h e t
<

: ~ i z . ~ a L i z e ~ i l l t i 1 ; L i t i m zf rat:oml th? r~ nurr:l?cr? on the 1 3 t t , 1,:rhicJl i a s y m b o l 1 0 ; : co:;sl.de :

:I

7 -

3 : - 7 - ? ? r-? -

--

t h ? r:811z::ing

s p e r a t . ' c , n . ; or, th2 n~::.be~ l i n e :

' i 2 (2) t x ?.

(a)

' +x -

-,
I

:1,~13b:r? .'

Give zn exxr~:~le .

0,) I f
rl ?
:Lb

::e r m l t i p l ~ :22.y t . ~ i : odd nun3ers, .:111 c h c i r p r o d u c t a r odd r~rr;~.?:~? $1-:e aE exa~ple.

t h e sefu

Co.:s:de.. ,

select 2-97 elsrr:c?.t ' -- +:set arid add to It m y olcrr.cxn c,t' the scl; ( i i - i ~ l - . : Y ? r - ~ ~ i 3 :!,yi<]i:lg 2. ?le~pr,(- i t s e l ? ) , :,.:-,ztt!-le se': 5 "f 211 : ' : ; :z
= ;
:: ;?

11, 2 , 3, h].

If

L,

- *

~
: t

~2 = ~L3, i 1 j .c c;I'J:J~"~an;; ~clenent cf ~ ~

i n c l u d i n g T.he
2,?71*?

T aand

r;Lilki:21y

b y a:,;! c l ~ r . ? nf &, :

elenen:;.

This set, i:< P = {l, 3 , 5, 7, 9, . . . I . I is a sujs?t , .: c, 2nd :.:: dclr;:ci;!e : I t n : ~ s ?rope*lt;: cf ;I-,? ~ 2 3 n:;mbers '23' . ,?-.: - n z tilat t:;e s e t 12 is " c l a s e d i l n d e r : 7 i l i t i p l i c a t i z n . " 2~ L2
3:

' -. 7

L,

::e c ~ t,h?t. y

j.f

sci; Ei is gi-,?en, arcl

r,err,:iil;~

o 3 , 2 e ~ c t l o ni; a > p l l e d t ~ ; 1 p y i r s sf clcn?nts ( ~ f s!:d : , I K,

i? t h e

(
(t:)

Is i;hc sa+; 2 aSo7:e c l s s e d under addition?

Ic:
ti-1:3-

~ e t of u-..en nu.nuers c l o s e d under addition? ;

Under

t F - 1 ~

~ p e r h t i r ~ r ! takirig t h e 3,~erage: ~f

(c )

??t: cf : - . ' r . 3 1 ~n.lrr'nel-z c l c s e d ur-der e d c i i t l m ? : - q u l t i ? l i catigr:'?

lo

t.1-.c

Under

(d)

3.; : : ~ t ? ~ ' : i ? n a l nuybel-2 c l o s e d u g d e r a d d i t i o n ? qf 1,,- - ~ * , r : . ~ l L i ~ l i c 3 t i ~ > ~ ? :. ,

A

* S? .

(2)

D.::c;.iimZ
3escribi:
;;-LC

i ?

st?

at iz c l o s e d under t : ? ~ p e r a t i o n o

"t::'lce
''txice

tke ? r o ~ u c c " .
(L)
a zck tka"si
c l l c s p c i ur?de? ;he
It

c;t.ratigfi

!;r.z<,~ct a:13

ad(< cne.

?hap ter 2

NUFER.%S
P-1

AND VIIRIABLFS

N w n e r n a lu and Numerical Phrases.

McsZ o f y o u r l i f e you have been r e a d i n f i , : ~ r l t i n g , .tali:ing

a b o u t , and worliiw with numbers, Y o u ha9re a l s r , used nany d i f f e r e n t names f o ? the same number. Some numbers have one or more common names which arE t h e ones most, o f t e n u s ~ d referring t o t h c numin bers. Thus thc cornmon name f o ~ tlle number r l v ~is "5" and f o r one g r o s s is " 1 4 4 " . Comm names f o r t h e rational number 0 1 - l e - h ~ l f r e a " " 1 and " 0 . 5 " . A problem ir. a r i t i m e t l c c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a ilrob-

of finding a common name f o r a number k ~ h i c h is q i v c n I n some o t h e r wag; f o r example, 17 times 23 is f o u n d b : ~ arithnetic r o bc the number 391. The names of numbers, as distinguished from t h e numbers themselves, a r e c a l l e d numerals. Two numerals. f o r example, which rep r e s e n t t.he same nunber a r e t h e indicated - "!: - *'' snri t h c 31x * -1 i n d i c a t e c p r o d u c t "2 x 3". The number represerlted in each case i.s number 2 ': 3 ir, G " , 6 and we say t h a t " t h e number 4 + 2 i s h", "th1? and " t h e number 4 + 2 is the same a s t h e number 2 x 3 ' . These statements can b e w r i t t e n more b r i e f l y as " 3 t- 2 = 6", "2 x 3 = 6 ' ': and "il 2 = 2 x 3". This use o f t h e equal s i s n illustrates 1:s general use wlth numerals : .4n equal sign standlng be tween t x o nume r a l s i n d i c a t e s t h a t the numerals represent - - the same number. We s h a l l need sometimes 50 e n c l o s e a ~ u m c r a lin parentheses in o r c e r t o nake clear that it r e a l l y is a numeral. Jence it is conv ~ r ? < e n tt~ 1-egard the symbol o b t a i r - e d by - r ~ c l u u i n g a numeral For a : given number in parentheses as another numeral T o r the same nunber. Thcs "(4 A 2 ) " I s a n o t h e r nuneral f o r i; and we m i ~ b tw r i t e " (4 + 2 ) = 6". h o r d e r to save w r i t i n g , t h e symbol f o r mul t i p l i c a ticn " v " is o f t e n r e p l a c e d by a d o t .Hence " 2 x 3 " can b e w r i t t e n as " 2 . 3 " . A l s o t o sav? ~mit'ng, we agree that two numerals p l a c e d side-by-slde is an indicated product, FOT example ";l'('i - J L ) " is t a k e n t o mean t h e same as ''2 x ( 7 - 4 ) " . N o t i c e , howe-J?F, that "?? i s already c s t a b l l s l l e d a s the common name S O P the number twefity3". three a n d so cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e indiczted p r o d u c t " 2 It2 ., 1,I A similar exception is 2 " ; which means "2 rather than A T .
lenl

"."

a"

1 : ~xa:r. h o r ; e v ~ r , ? r r i t e ' ' 2 r 3 ) ' ' or "(2)(5)"

i r l ; , "2 C@n;ict?r

1 F"

m i g h t be replaced by

'in p l a c e of "2 x 3 " . 71 1 2 .F It cr t r ? 1 !I

t h ~ x p r 2 s z i o n "2 Y 3 + 7". Is t h i s a n i m c r a l ? F e r e ha?:. ;vu l ; ~ l lacre2 that it. ia a i n c e 2 x 3 = 6 and hence l ? :Y 3 -+ 7 = 6 - ; On tllc other bar-d, someon t?7 r;e night d z c i d e that;, since 3 1- 7 = IC,
2 x 3 + 7 = 2 ; 4 3 3 = 2 0 .

Let u s ~ x a n l r ~r,he expression more c a r e r ' u l l y . 3ol.1 d o p!e read It;? o !,;hat n u m c ~ a l sa r e Im-olved in it? Obviously " 3 " , " 3 '!, and "7 a r c " nur:erals, b u t ~ b ~ h a t ahcl~1.t "2 x 3" and "3 '7":' It is tru-. + , h a t "2 Y 3 " , as an i n d i c a t e d product.. and "3 + ? " , 3 s an i n d i c a t e d sum, a r e bo;h numerals. Rov!eve-, ~ i t h i n :he expression -- -- " 2 x 2 c ? " , ii' " 2 - 3" 5 s an f n d i c a t e d prcduct, ther. " 3 + 7 1 1 cannot b e ~n i c d 4 II cacz:l sun,, r.,r; if "2 i 7 " I s an Indicat.=lcl s-m. Chen "2 x , cannot h e arL 5ndlc:ted product.. 'I"nerefon~,w i t h o u t a d d i t . i o r ~ a l .l n f f i m a s l o n to dec:de between t h e s e a l t e r n a t i 7 1 e s , the expression "2 Y, 3 ! 7'' is r e a l l y not a r~wnerals i n c e it d o e s n c t represent a d e f i n i t e number. A n n t h e r cxprcssicn 1 1 1 wlifch th; same p r o S l e n a~ises i s "10 - 5 ). 2". In order b~ a v o i d the con ? u s i o n i n c x p r e ~ s l u n sof : h i s k i n d . x e s h i l aqrec t o give multiplica5ion p r e f e r e n c e o v e r a d d i t f o n and s u b .,,,c%iorl ~ x i l e z so t i l e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d . In otI-.er words, " ? . 3 -c 7" :
A

t r i l l be r e a d v.l_Lh " 2
=

Y,

2" as an Indicated pr-ocluzt, so that: ?

Y

13, 3Lm:larly,

" 1 0 - 5 x 2'' w i l l b e mad w i t h "5

2 ' as e n i n d i '

Exp:,,.<-. a ,2,-on <.

Parcnt,heses can a l s o b e used t o Fndicate how we in t e n d f o r qn c o 5e r e a d . We h a v e only to e n c l o s e w i t h i n parentheses

;

t h o s e p a r t s oY thc espresslon whlcn are to be taken as a x m e r a l . PLUS,t h e c a s e o r " 2 v 3 t 7 " , we c a n wi7:e " ( 2 >: 3 ) in

7" if w e

3'' t o b e a numeral an3 "2 x: ( 3 + 7)"If ;v? want " 3 ; 7'' . . t 3 b e a nun;ral. sn a t h e r ~0rd3,t h e operations indicated w i t h i n p a r e n t h c o c r , 31-2 talcsn fi r n t . . You should alw2ys f ~ e f r e e t - o i n s e r t l v!';~;~'ie.:rer papent.hew:', are necdcd t o remuljc a11 d o u b t a s to how an e x p r e s s i m is to be r e a d . Another casc i n ts'hlch ve need to agree cn how an xpr?ssinn ! ~ h o u i dbe r e a d :s i l l u s t r a t e d by the f o l l o w i n g example:
!:r?nt,
II

It is understood t h a t the exprezsfons above and below t h e fraction

bar a r e t o be t a k e n as numerals. T h e r e f o r e the e x p r e s s i o n is a n i n d i c a t e d quotient of t h e numbers 5 ( 6 - 2 ) and 13 - 3 .

Problem -S e t 2-la 1. Write sFx o t h e r numerals f o r the number 8. How many numerals are t h e r e f o r 8? 2. In each o f the following, check whether t h e numerals name t h e same number. ( a ) 2 + 4 x 5 and 22 ( e ) 4 + 3 x 2 and ( 4 + 3) x 2 (f) ( 3 + 2 ) c 5 and 3 -t ( 2 -+ 5 ) ( b ) ( 2 4 4 ) x 5 2nd 3 0 ( g ) 14 - 3 x 3 and 2 ( c ) 3 x 3 - 1 and 6 2 1 2 1 ( d ) 2 r 5 i l arid ( 2 x 5) + 1 (h) ( 4 + 5 ) + g and 4 i ( 5 + 3)
3.

Write a common name f o r each numeral.

(a)

2 x 5 + 7

(9)

3 5

+ 7 x 3)

(b)

a 5

-t

7)

(h)

4(5) +

(e)

(8

316 + 4

(f) 4 + 15(2) + 5
such as -+ 2 " , "2 x 3", "213 + 71, "(1 - y)(16 + 4 ) - 5" a r e examples of numerlcal phrases. Z ~ c hof t h e s e is a numeral formed from s i m p l e r numerals. A numerical phrase is any numeral g i v e n by an expression which involves other numerals a l o n g wi$h the s i g n s for operations. It needs to be e m p h a s i ~ ~that a numerical phrase must actually name a number, d t h a t is, it must be a numeral. Therefore, a meaningless expression such as " ( 3 +) x ( 2 +)-'' is not a numerical phrase. h e n t h e expression "2 x 3 + 7 " is not a numerical phrase without the agreement g i v i n g preference t o multiplication.
Expressions

sentences; Numerical phrases may be combined to form n ~ z a c r i c a li . q. , s e r r t e ~ s~ c ~ which makc statements about r.mbers. For example. 23 ( 7 ) = ('2 + , 3 ) ( 4 t 0 ) 13 a s e n t e n c e v;hic;? s t a t e s t h a t the number r e p r e s e n t e d by " 2 ( 3 -t 7)" is t h e same as the number r e p r e s e n t e d by " ( 2 + 3 ) ( 4 + 0)". It is read " 2 ( 3 + 7 ) i3 e q u a l to ( 2 + 3 ) ( 4 + O ) " , and you can e a s i l y v e r i f y that it i s a true s e n t e n c e . Zonsider the sentence, ( 3 4- 1 ( - 2 ) = lo. )5 This s e n t e n c e asserts t h a t the number ( 3 + 1)(5 - 2 ) is 10. mes t h i s b o t h e r you? Perhaps you a r e wondering how t h e author could have made such a r i d i c u l o u s mistake In arithmetic, because anyone can see t h a t ( 3 -t I ) ( ? 2 ) is 12 and n o t 10 ! However, " ( 3 . t 1)(3 - 2 ) = 10" i s s t i l l a p e r f e c t l y good sentence in s p i t e cF the fact t h a t it :s f a l s e . The important T a c t a b o u t a s e n t e n c e Involvinr: numerals is t h a t 1k :s either t r u e or false, b u t not bcth. Much of the wol-2 In a l g e b r a is concerned w i t h the problem of d e c i d l n g whether or not c c r t a l n sentences i n l ~ o l v i n e ; numerals arc true.

Problem Set 2 - l b

I.

T e l l w n i c h of t h e felio~ingsentences are true and which are

false. (a)
( 3 --

7)'; 2 + 7 ( b ) =

16 , (f) - 2 I 4 (g)
1

3
=

= - A

16

. (a

- 3)

(b)

'~(5) ?4(8)= 4(13} +

i

5(7

+
+

3)

l( o,

20
3

4, 1)

(c) 2(5
(d)

F)
=

2(5) .+

2($)

12 12 ((h ) T = 5 ( p ) =
(i)

23 - 5(2) = 25

3(8

2)

x
=

5
12(9)

(e) 7 + 9 2
2.

(5)

1 2 t (2 x 3 )

3 + 7 ( 9 + 2 ) = ( 3 +- 7)(9 -1- 2 ) ( 1 ':;rite a common name for e a c h numeral. ( a ) 3 -+. 3(5 - 2 ) - ( 3 - 5) (b) Z . 2 ( 5 ) + 7.G

(c)

" 3 (b)(5)

2("

33)

I s e c . 2-11

3.

You a r e explaining the use of parentheses C G a f r i e n d i.rhz does n o t know about them. I n s e r t parentheses in e a c h o f the followin5 expressions in such a !my t h a t th? expression will s t i l l be a n ~ ~ e r for t h e same ntlmber. al 1r G c 3 (a) q (c) > x 3 - ! 4 x 3
2 . 5 - 1 6 . 2 (a) 3 x 5 - 4 I n s e r t parentheses in each of the fcllowing e x p r e s s i o n s so t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g s c n t e n c e is truc.

( )

4.

(a) 7.0 - 7 - 3 = 6 (b) 3 5:7=36

(c)

(
(k)

3 x 5 - 2 x , ! ! = 7

. 5 +

'7

= 22

3 7 5 - 2 ~ 4 = 5 ? (1) 1 2 x 1p - 1 x 9 = 5 1 ~

(d)

3 . 5 - h z 2

(m) 1
(n)
(0)

2 1 ~ 1~

(e) 3 - 5 - 4 = 1 1
(f)
(g)
(h)

1 1 1 2 ~ ~3- - ~ 9 = 1 8

3 ,<- 5 1 2 y 3 = 23 3 x 5 4 2 ~ 4 = S 4

3 + 4 * 6 + 1 = 4 9
3 4 - 9 ' 6 + 1 = 3 1

(p)
(q)

3 ~ 5 + : ? r k = 6 8 (i) 3 s 5 - 2 ~ 3 = 3 6

3"; a . 6 + 1 = 4 3 (r) 3 . i 4 . 6 + I = 2 8

2-2. - P r o p e r t i e s - A d d l t i o ~and Multiplication, Somc of >."tie end of C h a p t e r 1. you r e c a l l e d additlon and Its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on the number line, 'We a r e now g o i n g t o c o r l s i d ~ r some of t h e n r o p e r t i e s q of addition. First o f a l l , a d d i t i o n is a binary operation, in the sense t h a t it is always performed on two numbers. This may not seem very reasonable at f i r s t s i g h t , since you have o f t e n added l o n g strings of figures. Try an ~ x p e r i m e n t ; on yourself. Try to add t h e numbers 7 , 8, 3 slmultaneously. No
* P r o p e r t y , : the most familiar sense o f t h e word, Is something n you have. A p r o p e r t y of addition is something additi~nhas; i . e . , a characteristic o f addition. A similar common usage of t h e word would be "sweetnees is a p r o p e r t y of sugar".
[sec.

2-21

matter hcw you attempr It, you a r e f o r c e d t o c h o o s e t w o of t h e nwnbers, add thern, ar.d thcr. add t h e t h i . r d to t h j . s sum.
writ-

T;?us. t&en w e

3 o r 7 t (8 t 3 ) . NC 1 ; ~ s par3ntheses here, as we have I n the p a s t , tc single o u t c e r t a i n groups ohnunlbers to b e operated on f i r s t . Thus, (7 -t 8 ) + 3 i r n p l l e s that :qe add 7 and 8 and t h e n add 3 t o that sun, so t h a t we think "15 3". Simila?ly, 7 + ( 8 - 3 j 1npl:e~ thzt t h e sum of 8 and 3 is a d d e d to '(, g r l v i r g 7 t 11. L e t us now g o one s L ~ p further and observe thaL 15 i 3 - 18, and 7 + 11 = 18. We have thus f o u n d tkat (7 + 8) t 3 = 7 -I. ( 8 + 3 ) 3 s a true sentence. Check w h e t h e r o r not
3 , we really mean

7+ 8

(7

-+ 8)

1-

13 a t r u e sen5ence.

Check s i r n l l a r l y

(1.2 t 1.8)
and

2.6 = 1.2 + ( 1 . 3 + 2.6),

apparent t h a t these s e n t e n ~ e shaye a common pat tern, and t h e y ~ l lu r n e d o u t bo be t r u e . He conzlude t h a z cl?or;r sent

I t

1s

t e n c e h a v i n g t h i s p a t t e r n is t r u e . T h i s l o a s r o g e r t y of' a d d i t l o n of nwnbess; t.Je hope Lhat y o c w 3 1 1 t r y t n formulate it f a r yourself. !Compare yuurn e f f o r t w i t h a statement s u c h as t h i s : If you ad3 a z e c a n d number to a flrst number, end t h e n a t h i r d n m b e r t o t h e l r sum, t h e outcome is t h e same If you add t h e second numker and the t h i r d number an? then add their sum t o the f i r s t n m b e r . This p r o p e r t y o f addition is called the a s s o c i e t i v e p r o p e r t . y of - addition. T t Is one 3f the basic f a c t & a b o u t t h e number system-one of t h e f a c t s on wtllcl~all o f nrathematf c s depends. I t l c i d e n t a l l ~

it Is o f t e n handy for cuttine Aown t h e w o r X in a d d i n g . In the ' is second cxarn~leabcve, f o r i n s t a n c e , "2 + 1 ' a n o t h e r name f o r 2, 1 so that "5 i ( $ + prodcces a s i m p l e r addition t h a n 3 1I, . 3 m l . l a r l y , in t h e t h i r d example, 1.2 + 1.8 = 3 ; "(5 + 7) I which of t h e two expressions "(1.2 + 1.8) i 2.6'' -

25

and " 1 . 2 + (1.8+ 2 . 6 ) ' leads to a simpleer second addition? 1. 2 11 Now l e t us l o o k a t t h e f o u r t h exarnpl a. N e i t h e r I ?) 7 1 1 2 nor ,I Y + [ 7 + -) " g i v e s a part:cularly s i n p l e f l r s t sum to help us d 3 c I w i t h t h e second sum. If we could o n l y add 7 t o 7 first, t h i s 1 would g i v e I, and addlng - t o 1 i s easy! What tie would l i k e is t o 2 1 1 2 I1 t a k e t h e first i n d i c a t e d sum in t i7 , a d write it i n s t e a d
r-,

as

,l

1 (H t

1
3-)11,

1 order t o put "

11$"

next t o
1

"3'. To do t h i s , we need

t o know t h a l

1
1 s a t r u e sentence.

S + T = F + S
Although we can perfectly well do t h e a r i t h e t l c t o check this,

let us first c o n s i d e r some s i m p l e r examples.

Is the sentence

3 + 5 = 5 + 3
Perhaps you think: ' I I earc $ 3 today and $5 tornorrnw, I 'f s h z l l earn the same amount as If L earn $5 today and $3 tomorrow." Perhaps Cohn t h i n k s : "Walking ; b e e m i l e s b e f o r e l u n c h and f i v e m l l e s a f t e r l u n c h c o v e r s the same distance as walking 5 m i l e s bef o r e l u n c h and 3 miles a f t e r l u n c h . " Now r e c a l i t.he nwnber 21ne. What Bid we find o u t , in Chapter 1, about moving from 0 to 5 and t h e n moving t h r e e units t o the right.. and h o w d i d t h i s comparc with moving fr u m 0 to 3 and t h e n moving 5 u n i t s t o the r i g h t ? What d o e s t h i s say a b o u t 5 + 3 and 3 -t 5? S i m i l a r l y , on t h e number l l n e , dec.l.3e w h ~ t h e r;he f o l l o w ing a r e true sentences:

true?

0 + E = 6 + 0 ,
1 2F

+ 5

1 2-* 2

T h l s p r o p e r t y of addikion 1 s p r o b a b l y yery f a m l l i c r to y o u .

It is called the commutati7e p r o p e r t y - addition. of

Try

to

formu-

l a t e it for y o u r s e l f , and compare your s t a t e m e n t with the follow: If two numbers a r e added in different o r d e r s , t h e results are t h e same. The a s s o c i a t i v e property o f addition t e l l s us that an indic a t e d sum may be w r i t t e n with o r without parentheses as group in^ symbols, as we wish, The commutative property, in t u r n , tells us t h a t t h e additions, which m e always o f two numbers a t a time, may

"(i

be performed in any o r d e r .

For instance, i f we consider 32 + 16 -t 18 -+ 4, t h e associative p r o p e r t y tells us that we do n o t have to use parentheses to group t h i s i n d i c a t e d sum, because any way we g r o u p I t g i v e s t h e same r e s u l t . We may, if we wish, just add 36 t o 3 2 , then 18 t o t h e i r sum, and t h e n 4 t o that sum. The commutative p r o p e r t y t e l l s us that we may choose any o t h e r o r d e r . For purposes of mental arithmetic, it is e a s i e r t o choose p a i r s whose sms a r e multiples of 10 and consider them f i r s t , We may think of " 3 2 + 16 -k 18 + 4" as " ( 3 2 + 18) t (16 + 4)", where t h e indicated sums mean that we first add 32 and 18 (because t h i s g i v e s t h e "easy"
t h e n 16 and 4, and finaily t h e t w o partial sums 50 and 2 0 . I n our thinking, we first used the commutative p r o p e r t y to interchange t h e 1 6 and t h e 18 in t h e o r i g i n a l indicated sxm.
sum SO),

Problem -Set 2 - 2 a

1.

Consider various ways t o do the following computations mentally, and find the one t h a t seems easlest (if t h e r e is o n e ) . Then perform t h e indicated additions in the e a s i e s t way. 1 2 !I 2- + 3 5 + 6 + 73( a ) 6 + ( 8 + 4) (e) 5 2 2 1 8 6 1 ( b ) 5 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 5 (f) ( P 5 + 1) +

(g) (d) 2.

(1.8

+
7)

2.1)

(1.G

+ -9) +

1.2

7i

(h)

(8

4 + (3

+ 6)
W

From the t i p o f a mouse's nose t o t h e back of his head Fs 32 millimeters; from the back of h i s head t o the base o f hls t a i l

t
a
t
!
1

71 miilimeters; from t h e base of h i s tail to t h e t i p o f his

tail 7 6 millimeters. What is the length of t h e mouse from the t i p of h i s nose t o t h e t i p of his tail? Is he t h e same l e n g t h from t h e t i p of h i s tall t o the tlp o f his n o s e ? Wy do you h t h i n k we Tnclude t h i s exercise here?

a'
8

W shall now l o o k at t h e corresponding properties of multiplie c a t i o n . C o n s i d e r this sentence, 1 1 (7 x 6 ) r 5 = 7 x ( 6 x 5 ) .

[ n l

Check whether o r n o t t h i s is a t r u e sentence; be s u r e to carry out t h e multiplications as i n d i c a t e d . sentences

S i m i l a r l y check t h e truth of the

and

3 3 ( T x 7 ) x 4 = = x (7 X ' i ) . Once again, we f i n d t h a t t h e s e sentences are t r u e , and t h a t t h e y f i t a common pattern. We conclude that a l l sentences of t h i s p a t t e r n are true, and call this p r o p e r t y o f multiplication the associative p r o p e r t y - multiplication, R e c a l l y ? u r effort towards of stating in words the associative p r o p e r t y of a d d i t i o n , and make a similar statement f o r t h e a s s o c i a t i v e p r o p e r t y o f multiplication. In t h e examples above, the indicated multiplications were n o t n always equally d l f f l c u l t . I t h e first sentence, '17 u 6 ) x;",
1 whlch becomes "42 x 7 , is more work t o c a r r y o u t than "7 x ( 6 x gY' which becomes j u s t ''7 x 2". Which p h r a s e in t h e second sentence is e a s i e r to handle? Thus t h e associative p r o p e r t y of multiplication, j u s t a s t h e associative p r o p e r t y of addition, can be used t o simplify mental arithmetic. In the third s e n t e n c e , neither form l e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r l y
simple second product. The e a s i e s t t h i n g t o do would be to take 3 x 4 first, even thougn 3 and 4 are n o t adjacent in e i t h e r phrase, and then to m u l t i p l y by 7 . Is this l e g a l ? We could be s u r e that it is if we knew t h a t

This is a p o s s i b l e interchange we might l i k e t o make before applying t h e a s s o c i a t i v e p r o p e r t y . (What would be another?) As in t h e previous section, make up some simple problems about walking or earning money which v e r i f y t h e t r u t h o f a sentence such as

were a t r u e sentence.

2 X 5 = 5 X 2 .

You have also had the experience in C h a p t e r 1 of seeing on t h e

number line t h a t
2 X 3 = 3 X 2

is a true sentence. You a l s o know, from al7iL1mletic, t h a t you may p e r f o m long m u l t i ~ l i c a t i o nin either o r d e r , and j?ou have p r o b a b l y used t h i s to check your w o r k :

A l l t h e s e , in various 3ituations. a r e instances o f t h ~ commutative p r o p c r 2 y of r n u l t i p l i c a -- o n : If two nlmbers are to b e tj multiplied, t h e y niay b e multiplied in ei;her o r d e r w i t h t h e same

result .
A s in t h e c a s e of addition, t h ~ ass3ciativc and commutati,~e

p r o p e r t i e s of multiplPcation bell us that we may, in a n i c d i c a t e d prodcct, k h i n k of t h e ambers grouped a s we choose, and msy a l s o -earrange s u c h a p r o d u c t at will. Thus in finding 9 x 2 x 3 x 50, it is con:ferilent to h a n d l c 2 x 50 first,, and t h e 1 t o m u l t i p l y 3 x 3 , or 37, by 100.

1.

Problen S e t 2-2b Consider v a r i o u s ways t o d o t h e following c o ~ p u t a t l ~ n s mentally, and f i n d t h e one that seer.s e a s i e s t (if there is one). Then p e r f o m t h e indicated operations in the e a s i e s t way. 1 1 5 I (f) 2 Q X g (a) ' x 7 x 25
(b)

1 5 x (86 r

5)

(E)
(h) (1)

6x 8 x

125

( e ) 73+62-27 (d) ( 3 x 4 ) x ( 7 x 2 5 )

(1.25)x 5.5 x 8 (2 x 5 ) x 1.97

2.

Is it easier t o compute 9' 5(

H:vr
~lb3ut

x 222
3.E9

or
or

222

1i l l

< 141 :

x 3.89

The - Distributive Property. John c o l l e c t e d money in h i s homeroom. On Tuesday, 7 people gave him 15$ e a c h , a n d on Wednesday, 3 p e o p l e gave him 15# e a c h . How much money d i d he c o l l e c t ? He f i g u r e d ,

2-3

15(7) + 1 5 ( 3 )
105
So he c o l l e c t e d $1.50.

45 150.

to k e e p d i f f e r e n t r e c o r d s . S i n c e everyone gave him the same amount, it is a l s o p o s s i b l e to keep an a c c o u n t only of t h e number of people who have p a i d him, and then t o multiply the t o t a l number by 15. Then his f i g u r i n g l o o k s l i k e this :
we shall a s k him

But now

The final result is t h e same in both methods of k e e p i n g accounts;

theref ore

15(7) + 1 5 ( 3 )

15(7

3)

is a t r u e sentence. S i n c e t h e above t r u e s e n t e n c e means t h a % 15(7) + 15(3) and 15(7 + 3 ) a r e names f o r t h e same number, we might also have written 15(7 + 3 ) = 1 5 ( 7 ) -t 1 5 ( 3 ) . h%lf the money John collected is to be used f o r one g i f t , and one t h i r d of it f o r another. How much i s s p e n t ? Again, t h e comp u t a t i o n can be performed i n two ways:

As before, we have found a true sentence,

Another way o f writing t h e same t r u e sentence d o u l d b e

Let -2s t-y another exm-ple. M r . J u n e s 2med a c - t t y l o t , 150 feet deep, :vifh a f r o n t of 162.5 f e e t . Adjacent LJ h i 3 lot, and separated f r o 3 it by a Tcnce, i s a n o t h e r lot with the same depth, but wi th a mnt of 3nly 3'1.5 :eet. What a r e t h e a r e a s , In square f e e t , o f ~ c cT these two l o t s , and :(fiat; is t h ~ i rs7m? M r . J m s s k SWJS t h e seculrd 2 0 t and r e m ~ v at h e f e n c e . Now w l i a t I s the area ~ 3' t h e lot? f Tqe nl.mber of squ21-e f e e t In t h e n s w lat is 150(162.5 3 7 , 5 ) = 150(200) = - - -. - - - - - 37s' 162.5'

3,3000.

The

t o t a l area of tfie Ewo

150'

seyaratc l o t s i s

L:

15~(>62.5)+ 150(37.5) = 2 4 3 - { 5 + 5.625=

3 OOUO
~ I U S ,

2
W

T , E ~ua l o c k more closely at i:~o te

~ W O of

our t r u e sent?nces.

iq-2

15(7) + 15(3) = 15(7 t 3 ) . 15(7) represcn5s one r r m k c r , which ire h s - ~ ezhoson t o vrl-lte 23 ar: indicate3 7radx:; so does 1 5 ( 2 ) . Thus 2 5 ( 1 ) s 15(3) Is an i n d i c a ted sum or t t m n - m b e ~ s , On t h e c u ~ e r hand, 7 -c 3 r e g r e s e n t s a number ~ ~ : h i c we~ have chosen 5 0 wrlte a s an I n d i c a t e d zum, a n d so ,l 1.3(7 t 5 ) is an F n d l c a t e d groduc?,. %us the s e n t e n c e

15(7)
asser23 that
ti12

.i- 1 5 ( 3 )

- 15(7 +- 3)

i n d i c a t e d sum and Ehe i r l d i c a t c d p r n t u c t are names ~ Z Fh e same nunbcr. P e true sentenc t 1 1 I

i50(& + -1 3
.

SO(,)
L

i -

150(-) 3

mn!ics a s i m i l a r sta:ement.

1.

P r o b l e m 3e t 2 - 3 3 TesS t h e t r u t h of t h e following s e n t e n c e s :

2.4 + 5.4 = 7.9 ( b ) 15.2 = 7 . 7 + 8-2 25(4U + 3 ) = 25(Ji0) 25(3) + ( I d ) 3(2) + 6 C 3 ) = 9(6) ( 13(19 + 1 ) = 1 3 ( 1 9 ) -I 1 3 ( 1 ) 1 1 1 1 (f) ? ( F + a) = pH A 2~
(a)

(h)

3 ( 2 .?)

Z(1.5)

S(2.5

+ 1 .TI

I
1

It appears that we fsund a p a t t e r n by vrhinh t r u e s e r t e n ~ e s may b e f o r m e d . Try to say t o y o u r s e l f in varfous ways what; this pattern I s . After you have made a n effort, w m p a r e your result with t h e following: The p r o d . ~ c tof a n m b e r times t h e s w n of two otYLers i s t h e same as t h e product of t h e first and secohd p l u s t h e p r c d u c t of t h e first and t h i r d . . This p r o p e r t y is c a l l e d the d i s t r i b u : i v e p r o p e r 5 f o r mu1 tipllcation - e r addition, o r j u s t , ov as we s h a l l f r e q u e n t l y say, the distributive property. As in t h e case of t h e o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s we have s t u d i e d , the d i s I I t r l b u t i w p r o ~ e r t yhas rn:lch t o d o with arithmetic, b o t h w i t h d e v i c e s for mental facility and with the very foundations cf t h e s u b j e c t . / In our f i r s t exampl?, t h e comparison in arithmetic labor between : 1115(7) -1- 1 5 ( 2 ) " and "15(7 -t 3 ) " favors t h e i n d i c a t e d product, bei cause '; t 3, or 10, 'leads t o an easy mu1:iplication. In t h e next example, hovrever, t h e comparison between 11150($) i-5 ( ) " and - 10$ I I TI "5( c -t- =;) S s v o r s the I n d i c a t e d sYm,because it is more work to 10: 3 1 1 add t h e fr a c t i m s - and 7 than it i s t o add 75 and T O . Ifnich form 2 was e a s l e r in the t h i r d example? In t h e s e n t e n c e s of W l e m S e t 2-3a? More imporbant t h a n these niceties of mental manipulation is t h e
V

r n o l e .of the distributive p r o p e r t y in much o f our aritihme t i c tedmique

suck! as, f o r example, I n lone; multiplication.

How d o we perform

62

This r e a l l y neans t h a t we take 6 2 ( 2 0 t 3 ) as 6 2 ( 2 9 ) + 6 2 ( 3 ) , o r 12'10 136. (The " 0 " at t h e end of "1240" is understood in our l o n g r n u l t i p l l c a t i o n form.) Thus the distributive p r o p e r t y is t h e f o u n d a t i o n o:' t h i s s t a n d a r d technique Suppose we wish ta c o n s l d e r several ways of c ~ m p u t i nt ~ e i n d i h c a t e d product

T h l s phrase does n o t q u i t e fit t h e p a t t e r n of t h e distributive

p r o p e r t y as we have discussed it so f a r . You c a n p r o b a b l y guess on t h e bacis of your p r e v i c u s e x p e r i e n c e , that

i s a t r u e s e n t e n c e . L e t us, however, see how the properties as we have discovered ;hem t h u s far p e r m i t us to conclude t n e t r u t h of t h i s sentence.

First we ]mow t h a t

is a true sentence (by what p r o p e r t y of r n . x l t i p l i c a t i o n ? ) . ?Tien we may apply t h e d k t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y as we have dissevered I t thus f a r t o wfte

3.

and a p p l y the commutative p r o p e r t y twice nore t o w r i t e

The l a s t s t e p , which would be unnecessary if we were j u s t trylrg 1 t o compute "(I + Ti)1211in a simple f a s h i o n , finally l e a d s to the A d e s i r e d sentence, n a m e l y

This sentence, once a g a l n , seems t o have a slmple form, and in fact suggests an a1 ternete p a t t e r n for the d l s t r l b u t i v e property which Isec. 2-31

33

I s o b t a i n e d frcm u!lr p r e y i ~ u spattern ty ae>bcral a p p l i c a t i o n s of t k

commutative p r o p e r t y of multiplication. I n your own w o r d s , s t a t e t h i s alternate p a t t c ~ ? n . What pattorn is s u g g e s z e d by t h o sentence 1 1 1 1

(g)12
i

($12

= ;( J

+ h)lp

p p

Problem - 2-3b Set -

1,

F o l l o w t h e paY.tt?rn of any c o n v e n i e n t form o f t h e distributive

property in c o r n p l c t i n g e a c h of t h e following as a true s e n t e n c e : ( a ) lF(3 + a ) = 12( ) - 12( ) (b)

3(

(c)

(2.5

(7) = 3 ( 5
'..!I)

7)
,

- (2.5) + ( k ? ) ! ~
1 YE + 1 F)

Id) ( 1 7( 1
(f)

" 6(

13(

11)~ = C o n s i d e r in two d i f f e r e n t ways and in e a c h c a s e decide which, if a n y , is t h e e a s i e r computation. Ther. perf c r n Lhc. i n d i c a t e d o p e r a t i o n s in the e a s i e r way.
.i

(3

(a)

?7(&) + 27(6)
(+)12 "

(c)

(2.3

.I

11.6)

--

7.7

(b)
I

($132

(f) 6 ( 3 F

$1

3.

( . 3 6 - .2.4).5 ( g ) :71(.8) + .?{.:l) ( d ) 12(5 - 5 ) (h) 3 ( 2 -. 7 -I 6 - - 5) The f i g u r e b l : e o : sho7vs a number or' triansles
(c)
D

I
(
I

: h a t r e 1 a f ; i a n hoicla b e t v ~ e e nt h e area o i triangle ACD and t h e areas c f Lhe L w c f;riangles EFT and PC97 Use the formula f o r t h e a r e a nf a trian~lein t e r n s al le:-gths of base a n d u l t i tude
[ s e c . 2-21

Write a common name f o r

1 ( ~ i n t )Thin!< of 1 i 5 as one n u m e r a l , and don't start working w t i l you have t h o u g h t of a way of doing this exercise which i s n ' t much work. l:J~ite t h e common names f o r

6. Write cormnon names f o r

(a) 3 s (17 + 9) x
(b)
(c)

( g > 7 ( 4 ) t 42

=Lp
1 5(3

1 (h) 3(?)

+ .I

5 2
12
1 x -

+ 8)10

(I> 3 ( 1 7 )

1
(4

3 ( 7 ) + 3(11)
3 0 ) + 3(2)

(J)
(Ic)

6(19) +
(10

-+

2) x

!:

(f) 3 ( 7 ) r- 6

2-4. Variables.

C o n s l d ~ r , f o r a moment, a simple exerclse in m e n t a l arithmetic:

"Take 6 , add 2, multiply by 7 , and d i v i d e by 4". F o l l o w i n g t h e s e Instructions, you w i l l no doubt t h i n k of t h e succession of numbers 6 , 8 , 56, 14 and o b s e r v e t h a t 11 is t h e answer t o the exercise. P r e t e n d now ' t h a t your best f r i e n d is a b s e n t from c l a s s and t h a t you have promised to g i v e him a d e t a i l e d r e p o r t on the dayts work. lt1l.th your f r i e n d in mind, you w r i t e down t h e instructions for e a c h s t e p of t h e exercise as f o l l o w s :

Does t h i s method o f v r r i t i n g the exercise g i v e more information o r

less Information: It c l e a r l y h a s t h e advantage of showing e x a c t l y what o p e r a t i ons a r e involved in each s t e p , but; it d o e s have the disadvantage of !lot endim up w i t h an answer to the e x e r c i s e . On
t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e phrase

"w"

is a numeral for the answer

14, a f a c t which is r e a d i l y shown by d o i n g t h e i n d i c a t e d arithmetic. This is an imaginary situation in 1'111ich you were led t o record f o r your friend t!ze form o f the exercise, r a t h e r t h a n j u s t the answer. I illustrates a p o i n t of' view which is basic t o mathet m a t i c s . Tnere w i l l be many p l a c e s in this course where it is t h e ~ t t e r n . or forn o f a problem which I s of primary importance rather -

than the answer. As a matter of f a c t , we are rarely Interested o n l y in t h e answer to a problem. P y the e x e r c i s e with t h e following instructions: " ~ a k e7 , multiply by 3 , add 3 , m u l t i p l y by 2 , and d i v i d e by 1 2 . I' What is the phrase w h i c h shows a l l of t h e o p e r a t i o n s ? Is it a numeral for t h e same number you o b t a i n e d mentally? L c t us now d o one of these e x e r c i s e s w l t h the added f e a t u r e t h a t you a r e permitted t o choose a t t h e start any one of t h e numbers from the s e t s = 11, 2 , 3 , . ., 10ooj. The instructions this t i m e a r e : "~a,ke any n m b e r f r o m S , multiply by 3 , add 12, d i v i d e by 3 : and subtract 4." This e x e r c l s e might be t h o w h t of as actually c o n s i s t i n g of 1000 d i f f e r e n t e x e r c i s e s in arithmetic, one for each choice of a starting n m b e r f r o m the s e t S. Consider the e x e r c i s e obtained by starting with tile n m b e r 17. The a r i t h e t . i c method and t h e pattern method l e a d to the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :

Eat tern I. .(' 2(1;) .3(1() 12

2-

11;9rher. ;';21'13~, :ilc f ' k ~ a lpl.~??rr- n b t a i n 4 i : ~ h ~ 3 a t t ~ r 1 : " a. t " 13 1 . o 7 , T2.y xone norc c i - ~ o i c c s f'rorn t:?e s e t 3 . ;;!ill you 2iy;:;ays e:~c? up ,i: t : ~ ? :,,ut:fLcr y o u c k ~ o z3t t ! ; ~~ . Z P ~ ; Onc nc',hcd ~ S 9 : at-,s;.:e:-;fi;' t:: 33e.;';iL>r. i: :.:3121a be to 8,~2r!.: cv.t; er.ch 0 : t h e 105C8 ' : T e f i ,zc, ,.?c;.l j:a~:e zlr ;a<:? cu.^:p,s.?<, j7j-r,p !,:r~rk, :

i n 2 t:?c p 3 t t c - r n for. :3c-..rerr2 c z s c z , S ! ~ a tft r: ,y

not,b c x c e s s a r y

c:-~osen:r.om \:hezed; ,?. !r T a c t , :'.? i.:e r ~ f ' c ?t;c; t i l ~number chosen -, by t h e xord " n m b e r " , Lhe step; in t h e cxel-cise b?corne:

1 o r d e r tc savc r ! ? l t l r l i ~ ; , 3er:ctc t h c chczcn n u - ~ S c r : by "n". t h c s:,eps bccomc :

Rle1-1

. .

Note t h a t I J n 17 I s used h e r 9 as a numeral f o r the chosen number and t h a t t h e ph-aze in each of t h e other steps is a l s o a r,umeral. (Thus, 2f n happens t o be 17, t h e n t h e Lndicated product "2n1' is "3n t- I? - 'I l o a a numeral f 3r 51. ) Ln parclcular , :he phrase 3 numeral rclr the "answer" to the exe-clse. Morecver, by t h e dist r l b u t i v c p r o p e ~ t yfor numbers,

3n
Henc f

12 = 3n

4. 3 ( 4 )

= 3 ( n -F

4).

Thel-efo r e ,

Since 'In" can represent % particular Element ul" Lhc set S , wc conclude t k a t t h e end r e s u l t In t h i s exercise is i n d e e d alnayc ths sane as t h e number chosen at the start. The above d i s c u s s i o n Illustrates the g r e z k p c w r of methods based on pattern o r form rather t h ~ n on simple a r i t h r n c t i c . The m e t h ~ d ?in a sense, e n a b l e s us to r e p l a c e 1000 d i f f e r e n t arithmetic problems lyr a s l n g l e problem! Would =he discussion of t h e exercise be chenged in a n y e s s e n t i a l way if we had decided t o denote t h e chosen rmmber f r o m S by some l e t t e r o t h e r than n, s a y rn or x'? A l e t t e r used, as "n" was used i n t 5 e above e x e r c i s e , : d e n ~ t e o one of a given s e t of numbers, is c a l l e d a v a r l a b l e . In a gi7jen computation involving a v a r i a b l e , ; e v a ~ i a b l e Fs a numeral which h r e p r e s e n t s a d e f i n l t e t h o u g h unspe~ifled nmbe- from a g i v e n s e t of a&vlssible r:u;nbers. The admissible n - m b c r s r o r the variable "r?" in t h e above exercloe a r e th? who15 n m b e r s from I to 1000. A numb e r h k i c h a gl-/en variable c a n r c p ~ c o e n tis c a l l e d a value o f the

variable.

The s e t of values of a variable is sometimes c a l l e d i s ;

domain. -

The donmin of t h e v a r i a b l e "n" in t h e a b w e cxercise is =

1000). Unless t h e domain of a variable is s p e c l f i . c a l l y skated, we s h a l l assume :t Lo b e t h e set of a l l numbers. For t h e time b e i n g , we a r e considering o n l y t h e numbers of arithnetic.
t h e set S
2, 3,

11,

. .

.,

I.

If

t h e sum o f

the following
2.

If 5 is a d d e d
divided by 3 ,

Problem ,Set P - ) i . -a c c r t a i n number t and 3 is d o u b l e d , which would b e a c o r r e c t form: 2 t + 3 or 2 ( t + 3 ) ? to t w i c e a certain number n and t h e sum is which is t h a correct form:

'2f

3.

If one-fnurth < ~ r c e r t a i n :-lumber x ie a

~ d d e dCo m e t h i r d ? f

f o u r times the same number, which is the correct form:

4.

If the number o t gallons of m l l k purchased i s y , whlch is the c o r r e c t form f o r t h e n~mtbero f q u a r t b o t t l ~ st h a t wlll eontair,
it:

4 ,

0,

5. If a

is t h e number of f e e t i n t h e l e n g t h of a c e r t a i n r c c t angle a n d b is the number or" f e e t in t h e w i d t h gf the same r e c t a r z l e , i s e i t h e r form t h e c o r r e c t form for t h e perimeter:

6.

a + b o r at., 7 3 If 2 is 2, b Is 3 , c Is I4 - , m 1s 1 and n is O . then what ' I s t h e v a l u e of (that iz, what number is r e p r e s e n t e d b y ) : (a) 6b ac ( f ) n ( c + ac)

(c)

6(b

ac)

(h) m(b -

)LC)

7.

{ e ) nr: + ac (J) Find common names for (a) 32, when C is 85

a + 2(b - rn)

ZC

[ s e c . 2-41

(b 1
(c)

h(a+ 2
P(1

'I,

when

13

4. a

is 3, and
I)

1s

rt), when

is 500,

is 0.0k. t

is 2

8.

( e ) j w h , vhen If a is 3 , b

i s 10, h is 6 is 2 , and c Is li, t1Icl1 what is t h r v a l u e of'

1 is 18, w

9.

Summarize tile new I d e a s , including d e X n i t i o n s , which ha.:t?

been introduced in t h i s chapter.

3-1. Sentences, --True a n d False Lhon we make assertions about numbers we write sentences, s u c h
as

( 3 + 1)(5 + 2 ) = lo Remember t h a t a s e n t e n c e is either t r u e o r false, but n o t b o t h . This particular sentence i.s f a l s e . Some sentences, s u c h a s the one abo-le, involve t h e v e r b "=", meaning "is" or "is equal to". There a r e o t h e r v e r b forms that we s h a l l u s e in mathematical s e n t e n c e s . F o r example, the symbol "#" >dillmean "is n o t 1 ' or "is n o t e q u a l to". Then 8 + 4 # 28.2 1s a true sentence, and

3 + 4 # 24 T

i s a f a l s e sentence,

'

1.
2

Problem S e t 3-1 Ifi~LC:? .?A? "Y?e f 71 1 ?vLng ~ e n 5 e n ~ eas e ?,rue', y 4+8=10+5 11. 65 x 1 =
e + 3 = 1 0 i - 1
12.

--

Which a r e fa 1 ce ?

65

1 3 ~ 0 = 1 : !

Open Sentences -We have no t r o u b l e deciding whethe? o r not a numerical sen-

t e n c e Is t r u ~ ,h c a u s e such a s e n t e n c e l ~ ~ v o l v e s e c l f l c numbers. sp Ccns l d e r the sentence

Is this scntcnce t l h u e ? nu-nber "x'I represents ; w i t h o u t this i n f o m a t i o n y o u cannot d e c i d e . In t h e sane way you c a n n o t d e c i d e whetker t h e s e n t e n c e , "He is a d u d o r , " 1s true m t i l "he" is Identified. In t h i s sense, tke va~iable "x" I s used I n much t h e same way as a pronoun in o r d i n a r y languaze Consider the sentence Sn + 1 2 = 3 ( n + 41, w i t h which t a l e rvorlked in Section 2 - 4 whcn the i d e a uf a v a r i a b l e ! a s flrst i n t r o d u c e d , Again we cannot d e c t d e w h e t h e r t h i . 3 sentence Is t r u e E n t h e b a s i s a f the s ~ n t 3 n c ea l o n e , but here we have a different sitvat ion. A= before, we could d e c i d e if we knew what number "n" r e p r e s e n t s . Eut i n t h i s c a s e we can d e c i d e without knowing t h e value of n . I can r e c a l l a g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y of k number; to sl-low that ;his ser.tence is true no matter number "nu = r e s e n t s . ( \ h a t d3d rJje all this g e n e r a l p r o y e r t g o f numbers?) W say that s e n t e n c e s such as e

x + 3 = 7 . You wlll protest t h a t you d o n ' t know what

x i 3 = 7

and

3 ( n + $1, ~ v h i c n c~ntainvariabl~s, are Dpen s e n t e n c e s . The word "open" i s suggested by t h e r a z t that wc do n o t knox whether tney ar2 t r u e w i t h o u t more i n f o r m t i o n . A n opcn o e n t e n ~ e1 s a s e n t e n c e I n v o l v i r g one or nore variables, and t h s question o f whether it is true is l e l ' t open urtil we have e c o ~ h additional information to d e c i d e . In t h e same way, a p h r a s e I n v u l v l . n g one o r more var'ables Is c a l l e d ax open p h r a s e ,
h

J n

+ 12

Problem -Set 3-2a

In each of the f o l l o w i n g open s e n t e n c e s . d e t e r n i n e w h e t h e r t h e s e n t e n c e is true If the v a r i a b l e s have t h e suggested -.:slues: 1 7 t x = 12: l e t x be 5 2 , 7 + x 1 1 2 : l e t x be 5

+ 9 4. t + 9
3.
y

11: l e t = 11: l e t
2 '

6 t be 6
be

5x + 1 # 3 ; let

x b e 3; l e t
x
be 4 and
a

x
y

be 4

6.
7.
8.

2y

+ 5x

2 3 ; let

be 3 ; let
b

be 3 and

be 4

5 # (2a + 4) - b ; l e t 3 and b be 9 5m + x = (2m + 3 ) t x; l e t

2a

be 3 and
be

be 9: l e k

be

If we are is specified, variable that numbers u n t i l

g i v e n an open s e n t e n c e , and t h e domain of t h e v a r i a b l e how shall we determine the v a l u e s , if any, of t h e will make it a t r u e s e n t e n c e ? We c o u l d guess various we h i t on a "truth" number, b u t a f t e r t h e f i r s t guess, a b i t of t h i n k i n g could g u i d e us. Let u s experiment with t h e open sentence "2x - 11 6". A s a first guess. try a number x l a r g e enough s o that 2x I s greater than 11; l e t x b e 9 , Then Z X - 11 = 2 ( 9 ) - 11

7.

Thus, the numeral on t h e lest represents 7, which is different from 6 . A p p a r e n t l y 9 was t o o l a r g e ; s o we try 8 for x. Then - 11 = 2 ( 8 ) - 11
= 5.

Here t h e numeral on t h e left r e p r e s e n t s 5 , which is a l s o d i f f e r e n t from 6 , S i n c e d was t o o small, ne try a number between 8 and 9. 1 say b. Then 2x - 11 = 2 ( %1 - 11 )
L

6.
Do you t h i n l r t h e r e a r e o t h e r

"6 = 6" is a true sentence; "2x - 11 = 6" Is true if x

so we find t h a t t h e open s e n t e n c e

is

1 %.

values o i x making it t r u e ' Do you think e v e r y c p e n s e n t e n c e h a s I value of' t h e varla'ble which makes I t t r u e 1 : w h i c h ma.ies it f a l s e ?

Frcblem -- e t S 3-?b

D e t e r m i n e what numbers, if any, will make each of t n e r o l l u w ing open scntenc~st r u e : 6. ' I x - A x = 14 1. 12 = 3 2 qy 5 = Q5 7. s + 3 = s t > ? 3 . 3x - 2 = l ( 3 2 , t + 2t # 2{ + 3t ' !I. 3x - .2 = 15 9. t + 3 = 3 + t 5 . 'IX 3~ 11: 10. ( X + I)? # PX 2

'-7

T, ;

-!

If a vzriable occurs in an open s e n t e n c e i n the form " a . a f f meaning ''a mul:ripllied by a", it is convenient t o write "a.al' as d "", r e a d "a squared".
7 ,

"<

Problem -S e t 3-2c Try t o find values of the variables which make t.he following open sentences t r u e : 2 (a) x = ( e ) r. -1 2 9
: J

(b)
(c)

- x'

5
r

x
x

(f)
(g)

( x - 1)P
- x
2

(d)

- 7 - 3

[*hat is a ~ ' a l u eof

(h) x - + 7 = 7 f o r which

is a t r u e sentence? A number of interest t o u s l a t e r 1s a value of x for whlch rr L' x = 2 " i s a t r u e sentence. We c a l l t h i s number t h e square root of 2, a n d m i t e it G. Later you w i l l flnd t h a t vT is t h e coordinate o f a p o i n t on t h e number 1 F n e . Approximate where on the number l i n e would it; l l e r

3-3.

Truth Set5 3f Open S e n t e n c e s ---L e t t h e ??ma!.?

nf

t':e

-rri=rblc i r
>,

t!-;e se?tep?ce

1 1 x = 7

be t h e s e t a h a l l numbars or' arithmetic. If we speclfy that x has a p a r t i c u l a r yalue, the!> the 1-esulting sentence i s t r u e or is talse Par I n s t s n c e , I t h - sentence is --f x is - e0 31-3-7 rqa1se 1 3 ~ 1 - 7 . false

I 2
2
1,

1 3 + -2 = 7 3 + 2 = 7 3 + 4 = 7

i'al s e

false true

3 + 6 = 7 false In t h i s way the sentence "3 t x = 7" can b e t h o u g h t of as a sorter: it s3rts the domain of the v a r i a b l e inzo two subsets. ~ u s t you might s o r t a d e c k of c a r d s into two subseYs. b l a c i i and as red, t h e domain of t h e variable is s o r t e d lnto a s u b s e t 3: 311 1 those numbers w h i c h make t h e s e n t e n c e t r u e and a n o t h e r s u b s e t zf a l l t h o s e numbers ~ h i c h make the sentence f a l s e . iiere we sFte t h a t 4 belongs t o :he f i r a t s u b s e t , while F, 1 , t belong t u t h e second s u b s e t . The -- ~ t an open s e n t e n c e in ore v a r i a b l e is t h e set truth s of of all those numbers from the domain of t h e v a r l a b l e whi:h make the s e n t e n c e t r u e . If we do n o t s p e c i f y o t h e r w i s e we shall continue t o assume that t h e dornaln of the v a r l a b l s is t h e set o l 3 7 1 [ numbers af' arlthmrtlc. ( R e c a l l t h a t t n e numbers of arithneti: consist c f 0 a d all nurr~bersw h i c h a r e c o o r d i n a t e s of p c i r t s t,n I t h e r i g h t ~ f ' O. )

i
1
/

I/

Problem -S e t 3-3a
1,
T e s t w!ret;tler' t h e number b e l o n g s t o t h e Eruth set 3 f t n e p i . ~ e r ?

open s e n t e n c e : (a) 7 T x = i2; 5

(b)
(c

+
4-

?
I

11:
#

5x

3; 3

(e)

-:-

I -

X
=

(f) 3m
(g)

2. 1 3 rn .I 2m: 15
=

2.

Pn f n ( n - 2 ) ; 3 With e a c h of t h e following open s e n t e n c e z i s given a set which contains a l l t h e n m b e r s b e l o n g i r g to i5o t r u t h s e t , with pl~sslbl)r some more. You are to f i n d Lht? truth set. 1 2 (3) S ( X - 5) = 17; 10, j 3, 1 ) .

n-

x (b) '
(

-,

7 x2 + 1 - x
t:
.t

(a) x
(e)

y_ - :J;
t

(kx

- 3)
=

(1, 2 , 3 , 2 ) 0; [1, 2 , 6, 1
=

c;

(1, 2 , 31

X(X

(0 5x
(5) x )

i
=

2x; 10, 1, 2)

-/

3;

lo,
'(;

2 , Lj

:-

1 = 5x - 1.;

3.

[O, 2 , 3 ) I : ' r i t ~ oper, s e r ~ z e n < e whose truth s e t I s t h e null set en

x + 7

{I.

1 7,21

P.

used in s c l c n c e n:ld b u s i n e s s are i:i t h e forms of opei? sente:~:es in several v 2 r i a b l e i ; . For example, :he furmula
i h n y i'orm;llas
:.I
I;_s used t o find ',he
=
I iEh
, I

-i:olume uf' a cone. The v a r i a b l c n r e p r e z e n t s I* ?.he n-umber of > m i t z in Lke height of the c o n e ; B represents the ! nu:incr of square u n i . t s In t h e base; V r e g r e s ~ n 2 2t n e number of c u b i t ~ m i t sin ',he v j ~ l ~ i S i h e n r.:alues a r e s p e ~ i f l c df o r a l l b u t . one o :;he .;ariables in such a formula, t h e r e s u l 5 i n g open z e ~ t e n n c e'i : contain:; ,Jne remainLng v a r i e L l e . Tile3 t h e t r u t h n e t 0 9 t h i s sen1 tencc gives i n f o m a Z i o n & o u t the nurr.ber representei b y this ~rarlable. Continuing "he c x m p l e , l e t us consider a partiruler ?one whose volume is 66 cubic f e e t and t h e area of whose b a s e is 33 square f ' c c t . *om %is I n i ' o r n a t l o n we d e t e r m i n e ti:at 7 is 66 an3 B is 3 3 ,

and

we w y i t e

the

ccrrcspondlng open s e n ~ c n z ein one v a r i a b l e h ,

[sec.

3-33

ft = ,

q(33)h.
L.

h e t n ' 3 h :;et o? t h i s scnto!?.:c is

{El.

Applying This information t o t h e cone, Tvie f i n d that ' n e h e i g h t

of

t h e cone is

I'eet.

1.

Problcm -S e t 3-3b The formu1.a ;awd ko change a temperature

3 2 h r e n h c i t z o ;ha
Cent,i;:,rade
is

F m u a s u r e d in degrees c o r r e s p c n d i n ~ :temperature C in decrees

C = -5 F (

32). Find t h e -:slue of' C when 7 is 86. 2. The f o r n u l a used to compute simple i n t e r e s t is i = prt. where I is ?he number of m i o l l a r sof interest, p I s t h e nunber of dollars of p r i n c i p a l , r is t h e i n t e r e s t rate, and t is t h e number of years. Find t h e v ~ l u eof t when i is L P G , r is 0.0!:, n d p is 1000. a 3. A form:lla u s e d in physics t.s ?elate pressure a n d volume of a g i v e n a?omt o f a gas at c o n s t a n 5 kernpsraturc is

pv

PV,

where ?J is :he number of c u b i c unltz of :,olume a t P units of pressure and v is t h e number of cubic u r i t s of volume at p tulits cf pressure. Find t h e v a l u e o f V when is 600, P is 7 5 , and p is 15. ~ 4 . The fmml-ila Tor t h e area of a t r a p e z o i d is

where A is ti; n m b e r of square units in the a r e a , B is t h e number of units in ohe one base, h is t h e number of units in t h e other b a s e , and h Is the nunber of u n i z s in the h e i g h t . Find t h e - % ~ a l u e B when A is 20, b is ' 8 , and h I s j-!. of

.3-4.

Graphs of Truth S e t s

---

The r r a p h ol' a z e t

S of n u m b e r s ,

: t .

vril

I. kp

c~:8'1

erl , is

the s e t of a l l p o i n t s on t h e number l i n e corresponding t o t h e numbers of S, and only t h o s e p o i n t s .

[sec.

3-41

T h u s , t h e g r a p h of t h e truth s e t of a n open s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n -

------

i one v a r i a b l e is t h e s e t of a l l points on t h e number w l i n e whose coordinates a r e the values o f t h e v a r l - a b l e which nlxe t h e op?n sentence t r u e . L e t us draw t h e graphs of a few bpen sentences. Sentence Truth S e t Gr;lph L A h (aj I = 2 (23
I 1 1

I
I

A l l numbers

3 A

4
1

5 5

(c)

(7 + x )

of arithmetic except 3 4 A l l numbers of arithmetic

(f) 2x

-t

2(x

1)

la

(Graph contains no p o i n t s ) You w i l l n o t i c e in ( b ) that we i n d i c a t e that a p o i n t is included in the graph if it is marked w i t h a heavy dot, but n o t included I f it is circled. The heavy lines i n d i c a t e a l l t h e p o i n t s t h a t are c o v e r e d . The arrow at the r i g h t end of the number l i n e i n ( b ) and ( c ) indicates t h a t a l l o f t h e points to the r i g h t are on t h e graph.

Problem S e t 3-4

-6. 7. 8.
3 + x f 6 2 x + 3 = 8 5 f 3 n + 1
y

S 5 a t e t h e +rut17 s e t 9 f e ~ r _ t a p e n s e n t e n c e ~ n d r p w i t s ~ r ~ p 3 : l

1. x
2.

10 ? x = x - t 3
4

"
S.

x + x f 2x

x + 3 = 3 + x 5. ( x I ( 0 ) = x

9. ~ . ( l ) f
10. x2 = 2x

[sec. 3-41

Sentences I n v o l v i n g h e q u a l i t i es If w c o n s i d e r any two d i f f e r e n t numbers, t h e n one is l e s s e than t h e o t h e r . Is t h i s always t r u e ? This suggest,^ a n o t h e r v e r b form that; we shall use in numerical s e n t e n c e s . We use t h e symbol '1<'1 t~1 mean "is less than" and ">" to mean "is greater than". To a v o i d confusing t h e s e symbols, remember that in a t r u e sentence, such as 8 < 12 or
3-5.
12

> 8,.

t h e p o i n t of t h e symbol ( t h e small end) I s d i . r e c t e d toward t h e

smaller of t h e two ~ u m b e r s . Find the two p o i n t s on t h e number l i n e which correspond to 8 and 12. Which p o i n t i s t o the left? Will the lesser of two numbers always correspond t o t h e p o i n t on the l e r t of t h e o t h e r ? Verify youT answer by locating on t h e number l i n e p o i n t s correspond3 8 ing to s e v e r a i p a i r s o f numbers, such as 5 and 2 . 2 : 5 and r . J Just as " f " means "is not equal to", "$" means t 1 is n o t g r e a t e r than". ' a does "#I' mean ? &t
L

P r o b l e m S e t 3-5

-Which are f a l s e ?

iShich D? t h e f o l l o w i n g sentences are t r u e ?

Use the number l i n e to h e l p you d e c i d e . 7. 5 . 2 - 3 , s < 4.6 1. 4 4 - 3 < 3 + L ; 2. 5(2 + 3 ) r 5 ( 2 ) + 3 8. 2 +1.3)3.3

- o l v i n g Inequalities Inv I a a t is the t r u t h s e t of the open sentence x + 2 > 4.r W can answer tRIs q u e s t i o n as follows: W know t h a t the truth e e set or

3-6.

- Sentences Open

r ; + 2 = 4

is ( 2 1 . \ h e n x is a number greater than 2 , t h e n x + 2 is a number g r e a t e r t11an 4. Whcn x is a number l e s s thx? 2, then x + 2 is a number l e s s than 4. Thus, e v e r y number g r e a t e r than 2 makes t i l e s e n t e n c c true, and every other number makes it f a l s e . That is, t h e truth s e t of t h e sentxnce "x + 2 > 4'' is t h e set of all numbcx g r e a t e r :ban 2 . The graph cf this t r u t h s e t is t h e s e t of a l l p o i n t s on the number lirie whose coordinates are greater than 2. T h i s is the s e t o f a l l p o l n t s which l i e t o the r i g h t of the p o i n t w i t h coordinate ;

As a n o t h e r example, consider t h e graph of t h e truth s e t of

1 + x < 4 :

Truth s e t A l ! numbers ?f a r l t h t n e t P c from 0 to 3, i n c l u d i n g 0 ,

not including 3 .

Graph
0
I

T t is c u s t m a r g to c a l l a simple s e n t e n c e Involving

"=11

an

equation and a s e n t e n c e involvkg

"("o r

")I1

ar. inequality.

Problem -S e t 3-6
1.
D c t e m i n e whether Lire i r i d l c a t e d a c t of points is t h e graph of the $ r u t h s e t of t h e given open sentence. If t h e graph I s not the g r a p h of t h e truth zct, explain why
(a)

2 + x = k

(b)
(c)

3x=5
2y
=

0 I

1 L 1

2
L

I
1

* I

3
1

4 L
4

5
I

6
I

7
L

3
*
T

7
A

7
l

(dl x >

0
7

2
A

5
A

6
L

2.

I 2 3 4 5 6 Draw t h e g r a p h s o f t h e t r u t h s e t s of t h e f o l l o w i n g open

(4

>5

r L

sentences: (a) Y = 3
(b) x # 2 tc) x > 2 (d) 3 - i

(h) 3 t Y > h (i) 3 .t y < ' l

~ = ~

(4

3 + Y # 4

m < 3 (k) m > 3 (1) x(x I 2 )

(J)

= 'IX

3.

(f;) F X > 5 (n) 3a -I 2 = 3 ( a 2) Below a r e some graphs. F o r each g r a p h , find an open sentence whose t r u t h s e t is the s e t whose graph is g i v e n .

0 1 2 3 4 5 4. If t h e domain of the variable of each open s e n t e n s e

(4

below i s

the s e t [ O , 1, 2 , 3 , h, 53, find t h e truth s e t of e a c h , and draw its graph.

I

(a) I'D)
(c)

b x
!?x + 3
2x

(d)

.- 3

< 6
=

(e)

2x

+ 6

?(x

3)

>5

! 5.
[

If t h e domain +of the variable of each open sentence in problem is the s e t consisting of 0 , 5, a n d all numbers
greater than 0 and l e s s t h a n 5, find t h e t r u t h s e t of each
and draw its graph. Which o f the t r u t h s e t s in problems 4 and 5 aare f i n ; t e

/ 6.

sets?

3 -

S e n t e n c e s Nith N o r e Than One Clause ----A l l the s e n t E n c e s d i s r - u s s e d so far have been simple---that is,

,
i

t h ~ y conteincd ~ n l y one verb form.

L e t us c o n s i d e r a sentence

sc~h as
A t

I =j a n d 6 + 2 = 7 .

Your f i r s t impression may b e t h a t ? ~ e have w r i t t e n t w o s e n t e n c e s

But if you read the sentence from left to r i g h t , ic w i l l be one t corpound - t e n c e with t h e c o n n e c t i v e - between I w c clauses. sen and n So in m a t h e r n n t i c s , as well as in E n g l i s h , we e n c o u n t e r sentences (declarative scntcnces) which are compounded o u t of s i m p l e s e n t e n c e i 1 Fiecall t h a t a numerical sentence i s e i t h e r t r u e or false. The compound sentence 4 L 1 = 5 a n d 6 + 2 = 7 is c e r t a i n l y Yalse, because the word - means " b o t h " , and here and !a t h e second o f the two clauses is f a l s e . The compound s e n t e n c e ! :B 3 $ 1 + 2 a n d L + 7 > 1 0 i i : t r u e , because both clauses a r e t r u e s e n t e n c e s . : 'a1 In g e n e r a l , a compound s e n t e ! ~ c e with t h e connectLvc -d ~ n is ~ F u ? if a l l i ~ clauses a r e tru? sentences; otherwise, it is lalse. s
I $1

Problem --t S e 3-7a 'thich of t h e following sentences are true? 1. : + = 5 - 1 a n d 5 = 3 i 2

?,.

>

1-

2 and 4

.I-

<

11

5. 3.F

9.:; # 12.6 and 7 11 8<12

C o n s i d e r n e x t the sentence

4 + 1 = 5 o r 6 i 2-7. Tnis is a n o t h e r type of compound s e n t e n c e , this t l m e with t h e c o n n e c t i v e or. Here we must b e v e r y c a r e f u i . P o s s i b l y we can
g e t a h l n t from English sentences. If.we say, [ s e c . 3-71

h he Yankees o r

t h e I n d i a n s will wln the pennant", we mean t h a t e x a c t l y c n ? cf

t h e two w i l l w i n ; c e r t a i n l y , t h e y cannot b o t h a i n . But when v;z say, "My package or your package will arrive within a week, " it is p o s s i b l e t h a t b o t h packages may a r r i v e ; here we mean t h a t m e o r more of t h e p a c k a g e s w i l l a r r i v e , including t h e posslbili i? :ha+

a r r l v e . The second o f these interpretations ol' "or" iz t h e one which t u r n s out to be t h e b e t t e r suite3 for ow ~ o r i cin mathematics. Thus we agree t h a t a compound sentence w i t h the c o n n e c z i > ~ er o I ' is true if one or more of i t s clauses i s a t r u e sentence; otherwisr, i t i s false. we classify 4 + 1 = 5 or 6 + 2 = 7 I as a t r u e compound s e n t e n c e because its f i r s t clauae is a t r u e I sentence; we a l s o c l a s s i f y 1 5 < h + 3 or 2 + 1 # 4

both may

'

/
I

as a t r u e compound sentence, because one o r more of I t s c l a u s e s is t r u e ( h e r e b o t h are t r u e ) .

Is t h e sentence
3+'2+1 or
2 > Q + 1

Problem -S e t 3-7b Which of the rollowing sentences are t r u e ? 1. 3 = 5 - 1 o r 5 = 3 + 2

3-?.

S r 2 p h s of

Truth Sets of Compound

ope^ S t ? n t e n c ~ _ --- . s

have so far i n v o l h ~ c d only simple sencenzes. Graphs o f compo-~1'1d open sentences r e q u i r e s p e c i a l handling. L e t u s c o n s i d e r the open sentence
Tnc c l a u z ~ scf
;his

c'zLll ~rcijlernsin g r a p h i n g

sentence and t h c corresponding graphs of t h e l r

truch s e t s arc:

if a number bcllongs t o t h e truth set; rll? t h e s e n t e n ~ e " x > 7 " o r t o t h c truth s e t of the sentenc~ "x = 2", it is a numtcr b e l o n i: t o f;he t r u t h set of t h e compound s e n t e n c e " x ) 2 or x n 2". 'I"r.erefore, e.3er-y number g r e a t e r than o r e q u a l to 3 belongs t o the t r u t h set. On the otncr hand, any number l e s s than 2 makes b o t h clauses of %he compound s e n t e n c e false a n d so fails t o b e l o n g t,o its truth s e t . Tt-le g r a p h of t h e t r u t h s e t is then

j : > i o r ; c = 2

2
0
1

"x

2 o r x = 2 " to "x - ? ' I , read > is 5 r e a t . e ~ h a n or equal t o 2 " . t Give a corresponding meaning
We a b b r e v i a t e t h e s e n t e n c e "x
"<'I

>

f'oy

Let us nakr: a precis? staterr,ent of t h e p r i n c i p l e in-rolved: The graph of t h e truth a c t of a cvrnpaund senCcnce w i t h connec; il:c - consictz of t h e s e t of a l l p o i n t s which b c l o n g to e i t h e r or one of t h e g r a p h s of t h e two clauses of the compound sentenc.e. Sinally, we c o n s i d e r the problem of f i n d i n g t h e grsph of an open s r n t e n c e s u c h as
Acair! zets:
?Te

x > P and x < j!. begin wlth the two c l a u s e s and the g r a p h s of' t h e i r t r u t h
I

x > 3

0
0

1
1
[sec.

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

x < q

3-81

55
Then i , f o l l o w s (using an arguimrnt, r,.irnilar t o that a b o v e ) t h a t ; t h e t

graph of the t r u t h s e t of t h e compound s e n t e n c e i s

'

Sometfic-s we write "x ) 2 and x < 4" as "2 ( x < j ! " . We s e e t h a t the graph of the t r u t h set of a cor.pound zentence with connecti-,!e - c o n s i s t s of all p o i n t s l:ihich are common t o and t h e graphs of the truth s e t s of t h e two c l a h ~ s e of t;h? com?ound s senterce It has required many trords, carefully cnosen, t o d e x ribe t h e various connections between s e n t e n c e s , truth s e t s and graphs, We consistently r e f e r r e d to the graph, of the t r u t h a e t u r zn open sentence. In t h e f u t u r e , let us s h o r t e n this phi-ase to t h e g r a p h of - sentence. It w i l l be a s i m p l e r d e s c r i P t I o n , and no confusion - a w i l l r e s u l t if wu r e c a l l what is r e a l l y meant by t h e description. For t h e s2me r e a s o n s I+/? shall t'Lnd it convenxent t o s p e a k of 1 the p o l n t 3 , 3r %IF! p o i n t , when we mean t h e po;ln: w i t h coorriinate . 7 3 or :he p o l n t with caordinate $. Points and numbers a r e d i s t i n c t e n t i t i e s t o be sure, b u t they c.orrcspond e x a c t l y on t h e number llne. tlhent.:~er~ tllei-e i s any pozalbility of' confusion we shall remember t o g i v e t h e complete descriptions.

Prcblern - S e t 3-9

Construct the g r a p h s of t h e following open sentences:

x( 3 o r - x = 3 x$3andx#4

S u m m a 3 - - Sentences. of Open We have examined some s e n t e n c e s and have seen that each cne can bc c l a s s l f i e c as eithcr true o r f a l s e , b u t not both. We have c s t a b l i s h e d a s e t o f symbols t o indicate r e l a t i o n s between numbers:, "=If means " i s " o r "is equal t o " "#I1 means "is n o t " or "is n o t equal t o " I "<" mear,s " i s l e s s than" C ">" means " i s greater t h a n " "<If - means "1s less t h a n o r is equal to" ")"means "is g r e a t e r than o r i s equal t o " We h a v e d i s c u s s e d compound sentences which have two clauses. If t h e clauses are connected by t h e word the sentence is t r u e ir --- one clause is t r u e ; otherwise it is f a l s e . I t h e at l e a s t f c l a u s e s are connected by , & a the s e n t e n c e is true if b o t h c l a u s e s are true; otherwise it is false. An oper; sentence is a s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g one or nore v a r i a b l The truth - e t of an open s e n t e n c e containing one :rariablc is s . t h e s e t of a l l t h o a e numbers which make t h e s e n t e n c e true. The open s e n t e n c e a c t s as a sorter, to sort the domain of t h e v a r i a b l e i n t o t w o subsets: a subset of numbers which make the s e n t e n c e true, and a subset v ~ h i c hmake tihe sentence f a l s e . The g r a p h o f a s e n t e n c e is the g r a p h of the truth s e t of the --sentence.
- 7 .

or,

Problem Set 3-9 State the truth s e t of e a c h of t h e following open sentences

-

--

and construct its graph.

Some examples of how you m i g h t s t a t e

the t r u t h s e t s are:

Open Sentence

Truth S --e t
(21

x 4 3 = 5
2 x f x t 3

The set of a l l numbers of arithmetic except 3 .

X L 1 < 5 2x - g >

The s e t of a l l numbers of arithmetic less than 3. 1 Tie set of numbers consisting of $ and all n m u 1 bers g r e a t e r than 'lT.

[sec.

3-91

2.

3.
4.

2+v<15 2x=3 G > l t 3 and

12. ( 3 ~ = ) 36 ~ 13. 9 + t < 1 2 or

5+1#6

5 + t 2 4
2 t t = l

14. 5 ~ 4 - 3 ( 1 ; 1
15.
( n - 112 =

5.

6>1;3

or

7.

x 4 2 = 2

or

x + 4 = 6
t 4 5 j r 5

17. x 2 + 2 = 3x

8.
9.
XI

7 > 3 t + 4 = 5
3 a # a + 5

or

18. t + 6 - 7 a n d t + 6 > - ; < 19. 3 ( x 4- 2 ) = 3x -t 6

20.

t + 2 # 3

and

8 + 2 < 5

3-10. I d e n t i t y Elements Consider t h e truth s e t s of t h e open s e n t e n c e s

5 + x = 5

'7 + a

3 , 1

-1. j = .

3
cI

= 2 1~ .

Do y o u f i n d that the truth s e t of e a c h o f ehese s e n t e n c e s is (o]? For what number n is it true thzt
Here we have an interesting p r o p e r t y whtch we s h a l l c a l l the addition p r o p e r t y - of zero. l i e c a n state this p r o p e r t y in words: " ~ h esum of any number and 0 is e q u a l to t h e n u m b e r . " We can s t a t e t h i s p r o p e r t y i the language o r a l g e b r a a s i'ollows: n
For every number

a,

a + O = a .
S i n c e adding O t o any number g i v e s u s i d e n t i c a l l y the same

number, 0 is o f t e n c a l l e d t h e identity element - addition. for Is t h e r e an i d e n t = element f o r multiplication? Consider the truth s e t s o f t h e following open sentences: 3x = 3 2 2

y = 5
= =

.7 n(5)

.7y 5.

You have surely found t h a t t h e truth set of each of these is {I]:

Thus n(1) = n

seems t o be a true sentence f o r all numbers. How could you st;ai;e i n words this property, which we shall call t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n properb -of one? We c a n also s t a t e this In t h e language of slgebra:
For every number a,

a(l)

= a.

We can see t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y element f o r multiplication i s 1. Tliere is another p r o p e r t y of zero which will be ev3dent; if you answer the following questions: 1. What is t h e result when any number o ' arithmetic is multif
p l i e d by O?

If t h e product of two numbers is 0 , and one of the numbers is 0 , whas can y o u tell about t h e other number?
2.

The p2operty that becomes apparent is c a l l e d the

p r o p e r t y -of zero, and can be stated as follows:

FoY every number
a,
a ( 0 ) = 0.

These properties of z e r o and 1 are very ussful. ??r i n s t a n c e , we use the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n property of 1 in arithmetic in working e ; with r a t i o n a l numbers. Suppose w wish t o find a numeral for i. in the form of a rraction with 18 as its denominator. Of t h e many 2 3 , we choose "3" bezause 3 is t h names for 1, such as F , 5, 5 3 5' ' ' number which multiplied by 6 s i v e s 18. We then have

=
=

20)

g(;)
15 rn'

=@j
=

[ s e c . 3-10]

27

SUppose

we now wish t o add

$ and 2,

to To do this, w e desire o t h e r V n m e s which ere fractions w i t h t h e same denorni-

& Y

2.

nator.

denominator should we c h o o s e ? It must be a m u l t i p l e and 9, but it cannot be 9. Thus 3 6 , o r 18, c r 5 4 , o r my others, are p o s s i b l e choices. For simplicity w pick t h e e amllest. which is 18. (This is called the least common m u l t i - l e ~ 5 of 6 and 9 . ) In o r d e r , now, to add to 6, we already know that

mat

Find a cormnon, name f o r

;+

5 7

3'

+ = -

% (Why

d i d vr

+ 5(21) ?(21)

(Note use of the distributive

Problcm -S e t 3-10

I n prcblerns 1 t o 10, show how you use t h e p r o p e r t i e s of 0 and 1 t3 find a common name f o r each of t h e following:

( a ) If you know t h a t tk-e p r o d ~ ~ c t two numbers is of

0 , and

t h a t one of t h e numbers i s 3, vhat can you t e l l a b o u t

the o t h e r nunber? ( b ) If the p r o d u c t of two numSers is 0 , what can you t e l l about at l e a s t one of t h e numbers? ( c ) Does the multiplication p r o p e r t y of 0 p r o v i d e answers to these queotionc? Is a n o t h e r p r o p e r t y o f -5 lmplled here?

Closure In our work so far we h a ~ e f t e n combined two numbers by addio t l o n o r multiplication t o o b t a i n a number. We have n e v e r doubted 3-11.
t h a t we always

always do.

a number because ou? experience is t h a t we However, t h e r e are some primitive t r i b e s who can c o u n t
sec

2 get

. 3-11]

only t o t h r e e . Suppose you tried t o teach such people t o add -what would you tell them when you came t o "2 + 2" and " 2 + 3 " ? Obviously, you would have t o enlarge t h e i r s e t of numbers until the sum of any two numbers would be a r-umber of the s e t . T?e s e t o f a l l numbers of arithmetic is such a s e t . If you add any two of these numbers the sum is always a number of this s e t . When a certain o p e r a t i o n is perf'ormed on elcrncnts of a glven subse4 of the numbers of arithmetiz and the resulting number i s always a member of t h e s m e s u b s e t , then wc say t h e t c l ~ esubset; - is closed under - o p e- n . We say, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e s e t of the -atio r numbers o f arithmet-1.c i s c l o s e d under -. addition. L i l r e w l s e , s i n c e the produc; of any two numbers is always a number, t h e s e t of nmbers is closed lmder multiplication. W? s t a t e thesf? properties i n t h e language of algebra as f o l l o w s :
Closure P r o p e r t y - A d d i t i o n : of nwnber b , E t b is a number.

F o r every number

a n d every

Closure P r o p e r t y - Multiplication: of e v e r y number b , a b is a number.

F o r e v e r y number

and

Associative -and Cornmutative Properties -- Addieion of and Multiplication. In Chapter 2 we d i s c u s s e d a number of patterns f o r f o r m i n s t r u e s e n t e n c e s about numbers, and saw that these p a t t e ~ n swere closel:r c o n x c t e d w i t h many of the techniques o f arithmetic. idhat were some d t h e s e patterns? For ixxtance, xe found t r u e szntences such a s ( 7 + 8 ) + 3 = 7 + (9t3)
5-12.

ar~d
( 1 . 2 t 1 . 6 ) -:- 2.6 = 1.2
.t

(1.8t 2 . 6 ) .

We concluded a p a t t e r n rnr t r u e sentences f r o n these examples, which we ver3alized as f o l l o w s : If you add a second number to a first n m h ~ r ,and tnen a third number ;o t h e i r sum, t h e outcome is t h e same i f you add t h e second number and the third number, and t h e n add t h e i r sum to the f i r s t numker. What was the name of this
pr3perty?
[ s e c . 3-12]

The algebraic language w i t h which we have been becoming

familiar p e r m i t s US, as in t h e case of t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f 1 and 0 which we have just s t u d i e d , t o g l v e a statement about the a b o v e p r o p e r k j in this language. We have t h r e e ( n o t necessarily d i r f e r e n t ) numbers t o d e a l w i t 1 1 a t o n c e , Let us call the first "a", the second "b", and Che t h i r d " c " . "Add a second nwnber to a first number1' is t h e n interpreted as " a + b t l ; "add a third number to t h e i r s u n " is interpreted as "(a + b ) + c". (Why d f d we I n s e r t t h e parentheses?) Write t h e second half o f our verbal statement i n the languase of a l g e b r a . The words "the outcome is the same" now tell us that we have two names f o r the same number. Our s t a t e ment becomes ( a t b ) -+ c = a + ( b + c ) . F o r what n m b e r s i s t h i s sentence t r u e ? We have concluded prev i o u s l y that it is t r u e f o r all numbers. And ao we w r l t e , finally, For e v e r y :lumber
a, for every number
(a

b, for every nwnber

c).

c,
!
I

+ b)

+-

c = a

(b

-t

Some o t h e r t r u e sentences were o f the form

3 + 5 = 5 + 3 . The property of addition which s t a t e s that a l l sentences following t h i s p a t t e r n a r e true we called t h e cornmutatlve property of addit i o n . It waa verbalized as f o l l o ~ v s : If two numbers a r e added in d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s , the results are t h e same. In the language of a l g e b r a , we say
For e v e r y number
a
and every number

b,

a + b = b + a .
How would you state t h e associative property of multiplication i n t h e language of a l g e b r a ? What p r o p e r t y is g i v e n by t h e following statement?

For every number

and every number

ab = b a .

b,

These properties of t h e operations enable us to m i t e open

phrases in " o t h e r forms". F o r e x a m p l e , the open phrase 3d(d) can be w r i t t e n in t h e form 3(d-d), i . e . , 3d 2 , by applying t h e a s s o c i a t i v e p r o p e r t y of multiplication. Thus, two "forms" of an open phrase a r e two numerals for t h e same number. Among t h e properties with which we have just been concerned a r e t h e commutativity of addition and multiplication. ?my are we so concerned whether b i n a r y o p e r a t i o n s l i k e a d d i t i o n and multip l i c a t i o n a r e commutative? Aren't a l l t h e o p e ~ ~ a t i o n s a r i t h of metic carnmutative? L e t us try d i v i s i o n , f o r example. R e c a l l that 6 + 3 means "6 d i v i d e d by 3 " . Now, t e s t whether E ? 3 = 3 + 6 is a t r u e sentence. This is enough evidence t o show that d i v i s i o n is not a commutative operation. (By t h e way, can you f i n d some a and some b such that a + b = b a?) Is t h e d i v i s i o n operation associative? Another v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g example f o r t h e counting numbers is the following: let 2 * * 3 be d e f i n e d t o mean ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ; a n d 3 ** 2 to mean ( 3 )( 3 ) . I g e n e r a l , a -:t* b means a has b e e n used n as a f a c t o r b times. Is t h e following sentence t r u e :

5 **
commutative?

2 = 2

** 5' :

Do you conclude t h a t t h F s b i n a r y operation on c o u n t i w numbers is

Is it a s s o c i a t i v e ?

You may complain t h a t t h i s second example is a r t i f i c i a l , On t h e c o n t r a r y , the * * operation d e f i n e d above is actually used in t h e language of c e r t a i n d i g i t a l computers. You see, a machine is much h a p p l e r if you g i v e it a l l I t s instructions on a l i n e , and s o a "linear" notation was d r v i s e d f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n . B u t you see that t o the machine t h e o r d e r of the n u m b e r s makes a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e in t h i s operation. Is there any restriction on t h e types of numbers on which we may o p e r a t e with

Problem - S e t 3-12 I. If x and p are ~ m b e r s a r i t - m ~ e t i c ,the c l n s u r e p r o p e r t y of assures us that 3xy, 2x and t h e r e f o r e , (3xp)(2x) a r e numbers of a r i t h m e t i c . Tiler] tlre asuoclatiqre and commut.ati~ep r o p e r t * o f r n u i t i p l i c a t i o n enable us t o w r i k t h i s in a n o t h e r form:

(3xp)( 2 ~ = )

(3.2)( x . x ) ~

Write the indicated p r o d u c t s in another form as in the a b o v e

example :
(a)

(2m)(m)

(dl

(&b)(6c)

2.

(5P2)(3d ( 4 Iloal(l~b) n(~n)(3rn) (f) (3x)(12) IT x and y are n-mbers o f arithmetic t n e n t h e closure 2 property a l l o w s us t o think of 12x y as a n u m e r a l w h i c h r e presents a s i n g l e number. ?he c o r n - u t a t i v e and associative properties of mulLiplicatFon e n a b l e u s to w r i t e o t h e r nunE P Z I ~ ,f~ r t h same n u m b e r . o ~ (4xy)(2x), (?x)(Gxy), a r ~ d l 2 ) 1 ) s r a some of the many ways of. writing 12x2y as i n d i c a t e d products, S i m i l a r l y , write three p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t e d p r o d u c t s f o r c s c k u f tile f ' < ~ l l o w i n g . 2 2 ( a ) 81be (d) x Y
(b)
(c)

(b)
(c)

7.Y3
1h:1

(e)
(f)

2 6J1ab c?
2c

Which 3f the Yellowing sentences are true ? o r every -:slue of t h e variabl?'! u p l a i n which of t h e properties a i d e d i n y o u r
decision.

(a) m(2 t 5 ) = ( 2 (b) ( m + 1 ) = ( Z ~

(c)
( 2
-

i
-I-

5)m
t 2y

2;lr)
C)

.I

l)rn b = (a - b ) :

(d) (e)

3x + y
(?a +

= y t

3x
=

2a(c

+ d)

(f)
( )
(h)

PC + 6 = 6 + P C .5b(200) - ~ O G ,( ~

b )

( 2 u . i ) = PU(VZ) ~

'1.

2- = x + 3y The s e t A is g i v e n by A
(j) 3x

[ O . 1)

(a) (b)
5.

Is A c l o s e d under a d d i t i o n ? Is A c l o s e d under multiplication?

Is the s e t S of a l l multiples o f 6 closed under addition? (b) Is set S c l o s e d under multiplication? *6. Let us d e f i n e some b l n a r y operations o t h e r t h a n addition and multiplication. W shall use t h e symbol " 0 " each t i m e . e W e might read ''a o b" a s "a o p e r a t i o n h " . S i n c e we a r e g i v i n g t h e symbol various m e a n i n g s , we must d e f i n e Lts meaning each time. For instance, f o r every a and every b, if a b means 2a + b, then 3 5 = 2 ( 3 ) + 5; (a) if a
if a
if a
a
0

a b , then 3 means 7
+

5
0

- -3. + 5'
2

b means ( a - a ) b , t h e n 3 b means a
i-

5
=

( 3 - 3)5;

1I $,

then 3
t

1 3 -t (j) (51;
=

if a

b means ( a
o

l)(b

1). t h e n 3 0 5

(3 t

1( + 1 ) . )5

For e a c h meaning of a
each cf t h e f o l l o w i n g : (a) 2 6
Q

b stated a b o v e , write a n u m e r a l f c r
(c)

6
(3
0

2
2)
0

(b)

($1

(d)

+7.

A r e s u c h b i n a r y operations on numbers as 'chose d e f i n e d in

Problem 6 commutative'! In o t h e r words, is I t t r u e that f o r e v e r y a and every b, a 0 b = b 0 a: L e t us examine some cascs. F o r i n s t a n c e , if a o b means 2a i b, we see that 3 0 4 = 2(3) + 4 0 3 = 2(4) + 3 But " 2 ( 3 ) 4 =. 2(4) + 3'' is a false s e n t e n c e . Hence, we conclude that t h e o p e r a t i o n h e r e i n d i c a t e d by " 0 " i s n o t commutative. In each of t h e following, decllde whether o r n o t t h e o p e r a t i o n d e s c r i b e d is commutative:
(a)
F o r every
a

and e v e r y

b, a

b =

a + b rS C

( b ) For every (c)

(d)

and e v e r y
and every

b, a b, a b, a

a
o

b = (a
b = a

For every
For every

a
a

- a)b + h 3
-t l ) ( b

and every

b = (a

1)

What d o you conclude about whether all binary operations are commutative ?

% 8 . Is the operation associative in each of the above c a s e s ? For Instance, I f , f o r every a and e v e r y b, a b = 2a t b , 1 3 (4 2 ) 0 5 = 4 ( 2 0 5) a t r u e sentence? ( 3 0 2 ) 0 5 = 2(2(4) + 2 + 5 ) = ~ ( 1 0+ 5 )
"0'

while

(2

5)

= 2(4)

(2(2)

+ 5)

= 8 + 9 S i n c e the sentence ~ ( 1 0 ) 5 = 8 + 9 is f a l s e , we conclude + t h a t t h i s o p e r a t i o n is n o t associatlve. T e s t t h e operations described in problem 7 ( a ) - ( d ) f o r the assoclatlve p r o p e r t y .

3-13. The Eistributive Property. 0 ~ work with numbers in Chapter 2 h a s shown us a v a r i e t y of r v e r ~ i o n sof t h e distributive p r o p e r t y . Thus

15(7
and

+ 3) =

15(7)

-t

15(3)

are two true s e n t e n c e s each o f whlch follows one of the patterns which we have recognized. W have seen t h e importance of this e p r o p e r t y in relating indicated sums and indicated products. We may now state the d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y i n the language of a l g e b r a :
For every number a, e v e r y number b, and every number a ( b -t c ) = ab s ac. c,

Does this statement agree with our verbalization in Chapter 2 ? Since we have s t a t e d t h a t "a(b + c ) " and "ab + ac" are numerals
f o r t h e same number, we may equally well mite

For every number

a , every number

b , and every nwnber

ab

ac

a(b - c ) .

We may a l s o a p p l y the commutative p r o p e r t y of muItiplication

t o write:

For c v e r y numbel- a , e v e r y nwnber

and :

b, and e v e r y number

c.

For every nlmber

a, e v e r y nwnber

b , a n d every n w b r = r

c,

Nhich of t h e s e p a t t e r n s does t h e i'irst of G u r a b o ~ eexamples

the s e c o n d ? Any one of t h e f ~ u r sentencee above d e s c r i b e s the distributive property. A l l fornis a r e useful in the study of a l g e b r a , B a m p l e -. >!rite the Indicated p r o d u c t , x ( y + 3 ) a s an indicated I
follow?

x ( -I~ 3 ) = xy
= XY

x(3)

by t h e dlstributfve
property

i3~

Yxamnle

2.

Xrite

?X

-t

5y as an indicated product. 5~ -1 5~ = ?(x + y ) by t h e distributive

Example -. 3 -

property Write the open p h r a s e 3a t- 5a in simpler form

3a

+ 5a

(3

-t

5)a
3y

by the d i s t r i b u t i v e property

= 8a Em.rnple

5.

:{rite the open phrase, 2x

Y0l-m.

-I

+ 4x + 6y in s l m p l e r
4

2x

3 y -t I ! x

by

( ~ + 4x) x

(3y + 6y) by the commutative

= (2 4

4)x +

and associative p r o perlties of a d d i t i o n . ( 3 + 6Iy by t h e distributive property

6x

gy

1.

Problem -S e t 3-13a Write t h e i n d f c a t e d p r o d u c t s as i n d i c a t e d sums. ( a ) 6(r 4- s ) ( d l ( 7 -t x ) x

(b) ( b - +3)a
X(X

(el

6(8+5)

(a + b b Write the indicated sums as indicated p r o d u c t s .

(4
(a)

21

(f)

3x ( b ) am
(c)

+
-t

3y

a m
Hint:

(dl

x + b x 1 1
TX

x = (1)x

2Y
Hlnt:

( e ) Pa
7

=t a

How is a* d e f i n e d ?

3.

(f) x L + x y Use t h e associative, commutative, and distributive p r o p e r t i e s t o m i t e the f o l i o w i n g open phrases In simpler f o r m , if
possible:

( a ) 14x

+
2

3x

3 ( b ) $ +-x x
(c)

2 =+ p

3b

-t

(d)
(e)

7x + 13y + 2x + 3y 4x + 2 y + 2 + 3x

+ + (f) 1 . 3 ~ 3 . 7 ~ 6 . 2 + 7 . 7 ~

The distributive p r o p e r t y stated by t h e sentence

For every number

a, every number

b, and every number a ( b + c ) = ab -I- a c

c,

concerns the t h r e e numbers a, b and c . However, t h e closure p r o p e r t y allows us t o apply the d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y in many c a s e s where an open phrase a p p a r e n t l y c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n three numerals. For example, suppose we wish t o express t h e i n d i c a t e d p r o d u c t 2 r ( s 4- t) as a sum. The open p h r a s e contains the four numerals 3 , r, S, and t. The c l o s u r e property, however, allows

us 50 c o n s i d e r 2r as t h e name of - number so we can t h i n l i in one terms of three n m e r a i s , 2r, s , and t. Thus 2 r ( s -I t ) = (2r)(s s t ) = (2r)s + (2r)t = 2 r s -t '2rt Example 1. l:lrlte 3 u ( v + 3 2 ) a s an i n d i c a t e d sum. By the c l o s w e property we can r e g a r d 3u, 73, and 32 each as t h e name of one number. Then by the distributive p r o p e r t y 3 u ( v + 3 2 ) = ( 3 u ) v + (3u)( 3 z ) = 3uv + 9uz by t k e commutative and a s s o c i z t i v e properties u f multiplicacion Example 2. Firite t h e i n d i c a t e d sum, 2rs + Frt, as an indicated produ? t . We can do t h i s in three ways:

(1) 2rs + 2rt = 2(rs)

=

i2(rt)

(2)

2rs

+
+

2rt

+ rt) r(2s) + r(2t)

2(rs

= 4 2 s

+A-

2t)
(2r)t

( 3 ) 2rs

2 r t = (1) 2's = Pr(s

+ t)

Although all three ways a r e c o r r e c t , t h e t h i r d is usually preferred. F%an!ple .- . &press t h e i n d i c a t e d product, 3 ( x t- ; -I- z), a s an 3 r indicated sum. 3(x -+ y + 2 ) 3x + ?y t 3 2
-7

P r o b l e m Set 3-13b

--

I. slrite each of t h e indicated p r o d u c t s a s a n i n d f c a t e d sum. ( d ) (2x :xy)x (a) m(6 + 3p) ( e l ( e I- f g ) h ( b ) 2k(Ic_ ; 1) -

7q) { I 6 ~ 4- q ) ~ 4 Iihich of t h e following open s e n t e n c e s are t r u e for e v e r y value of every varia5le.

(c)

6 ( > s -I 3r

(a)
(b)

2a(a
Lxy

b ) = 2a
=

+ ab

Y?

(k
[ s e c . 3-13]

70
(c)

{d)

3ab 2a(b
(Ilx

-I-

6bc
c)

= 3b(a
=

2c)
c

2ab
r-

+
1

3.

3 + x (I) ( 2 y i- x y ) (2 ,-1 x ) y Th'rite each of the i n d i c a t e d sums as a n l r i d i c ~ t e dp r o d u c t . (c)

--

3 ) ~ . "x =

(c)

(d)

3~ ;Ic
3jr.

5;: )'
4cd '>

Hint:

t h i n k of 3x as { 3 x ) ( 1 )

Hint:

4cd

(2c)(2d)

(e)

+ 6' x

A n o t h e r important application of the d i s t r i b u t i v e property is

illustrated b ; ~ t h e f o l l o w i n g c x m p l e . Example 1. Writc ( x + 2)(x -1- 3 ) as a n indicated sum without parentheses. If vie w r i t e t h e u i : : t r l b u t i v e property wiLh the rindicated p r c d u c t b e n e a t h it, we c a n see which names w must regard as separate e names of n w , b e r s .

' x
x2

+ 2x + 3x + 6

distributive property
distributive property

(2

i 3 -

)x

+ 6

Could you have ysed a d i f f e r e n t form of th? d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y

to b e g i n y o u r work? Ekamgle -. Lcr:t;e (a 2

d ) as a n indicated sum without pa~cntheses. Supply the reason f o r each s t e p . ( a t b ) ( c t d) = ( a + b ) c + ( a + b ) d = ac + b c -+ ad bd

b)(c
= +

Problem -S e t 3-13c Write the i n d i c a t e d products a s i n d i c a t e d suns without

parentheses. 1 ( X $ L)(x : 2 ) 2
(X

1)(x t

5)
3)

4. (x 5. (m
6.

-t

2)(y

n){m

- 7)
n)

3.

(x

t a ) ( x 3.

( ? ~ + q ) ( ~ + 2 q )

3-14. Summary: Properties - Operations - Nwnbers of ArithmeLic, ~f - on

:Jimbe?s
2.23

be a d d e d and multiplied. Ve

i.!nTie 1 en:?-led

t':rt

numbers and t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s have basic p r o p e r t i e s which we shall l i s t below and always r e f e r to as the p r o p e r t i e s g n ~ m h e r s
1. Closure Property - A d d t t i o n : of number b , a s b Is a number.
2

F o r every number

m every a

C l o s u r e - p e r t y - -. ' ~ 1 t i p l i c a t i o n : F o r every number Pro of M every number b, ab i s a number.

and

3.

Commutative -

P r o p e r t y o f Addition: e v e r y number b, a -t b = b + a .

F o r every number

and

1?.

Commutative P r o p e r t y - Multiplication: of
and every number
b , ab
=

For e-7er-j number

ba

5.

Associative P r o p e r t y - Addition: of e v m g number b and e v e r y number

For every number a and e l ( a -I b ) -I c = .z .+- (b 4-

C )

6, Associative Pr,opex4Ly - b l u l t i p l l c a t i o n : For evep; n m b e r of and every number b and e v e r j number c , ( a b ) c = a(2c.)

7. D i s t r f h u t i v ~ !Froper'iy: -b

For e v e r y n m b c r
a(b
4,

and e v e r y

rlurt~btrr~

and every number

- ,

c,

c ) = ab

+ ac

3.

A d d i t -- m P r o p ~ r t yof 0: ..i

For e v e r y number a , a ~ O = a

7.

Multiplization - p e r t y - 1: For e v e r y number a! Pro of a ( l >= a

[ccc.

2-14]

I ~ l u l t i p l i c a t i o n- p e r t y - -0 : Pro of

For every number a, a ( ~= 0 )

P r o b l e m -S e t 3-14 %y putring one of t h e signs, +, ::, in each of t h e blanks,

-.

a n d i n s e r t i n s parentheses t o indicate g r o u p i n g . f i n d t h e c c m o u name f o r each number which can be o b t a i n e d from

8
As examples,

3
-1-

2) = 3 , and ( b + 3 ) 2 = 22 S f a t e indicated products as i n d i c a t e d sums. and i n d i c a t e d sums as indicated products:

8 - (3

:.

(2)

(b)

F+Ip

(1. + 4 5 3 2

(h) 3ax

= +

2ay

(11
15(11)

(5 +

YIY

+ PY

(c) 33(95)

( j ) (2 -+ a ) b + ( 2 + a ) 3 Hint: (2 -I E ) is a n u m b e r , by c l o s u r e
(1)

(d)

-!

PC +

-I-

3ab

( 4 (V
{f)

$ Y

(1) 2a(a

c)
V)

x(y

! 1) -

(m)

(U

+ 2v)(u +

2 (3) x y + x ( n ) ( a - i - 1) Use t h e p r o p e ~ t f e st o write t h e foilowing in simpler f o r m :

( a ) 17x

(d)

1.6a + .7+ .Ira

.3b

2x + y + 3x + y ( e ) by + 2by 3(x T 1) + 2~ 4- 7 (f) g x 1 3 + x + ? + l l x Here you are going t o see how t o t e s t whether a whole number is exactly d i v i s i b l e by 9. Keep a record, a s you go, of t h e properties of addition and m u l t i p l icatlion v ~ h l c : are u s e d . ~ Try the following:
(b)
(c)

2357

= ~ ( 1 0 0 0 ) 3 ( 1 0 0 ) -t. 5 ( 1 0 ) +
=

=
=

r(1) ~ ( 9 9 9 1 ) + 3 ( 9 9 + 1) -t ~ ( 9 9 3+ 2(1) ) 3(99) + 3 ( 1 ) + 5(:1) 5 ( 1 ) 7(1) ( 2 ( 9 9 9 ) + 3 ( 9 9 ) + 51")) + (~(1) 3 ( 1 ) + 5 ( 1 ) + ~(1))

A

+ 7(1) 5(9 + 1)

= (2(111) = (222

+ 3(11) + i ( 1 ) ) g + @ + 3 + 5 + 7) + 33 -k 5 ) 9 ( 2 3 + 5 + 7)
A 4

Is 235'1 divisible b y 9? Try the same procedure k:irh 358'/a. Can you formulate a g e n e r a l rule t o t e l l when a X h d l e number
3 5 .

is d i v i s i b l e by 9? Look for t h e pattern in t h e following calculation: 19 x 13 = 19(10 + 3 ) (what p r o p e r t y ? ) = 19(10) -t 19(3)

= = =

19(10)
lii(l0)

+
+
-

(10 4 913

(what p r o p e r t y ? ) = (19 t 3 ) 1 0 4 9(5) (;;hat properties ? ) The f i n a l r e s u l t indicates a method for "multiplgin~teens" (whole nwnbers from I1 t h r o u g h 13): Add t o t h e first number t h e units d i g i t o f t h e second, and multiplp by 10; then add t o this t h e p r o d u c t of t h e units d l g i t s of the two numbers Use the method t o find 1 5 s 14, 13 x 17, 11 x 12.

(19(10)

(10(3) 10(3))

i 9(3)) 4

(what property?)

9(3)

Review -l e m 3 Prob 1. ( a ) Write a description of the s e t EI if H = 121, 2 3 , 25, 27, . . ., 491. ( b ) Consider t h e s e t A o f all whole numbers greater than 20. Is H a subset of A ? Is A a s u b s e t of H : ( c ) Classify s e t s H and A ( f i n i t e or infinite). 2. Find the coordinate of a point which lies o n t h e number l i n e J 7 between t h e two p o i n t s w i t h eoordinatzs and ow many p o i n t s arc between these two?

2.

3.

Consider the s e t

b.

6, 9 , 12, . . . I . Ia T c l o s e d under t h e o p e r a t i o n o f addition? u n d e r t h e o p e r a t i o n or' 'kveraging " ? L e t the domain of t h e v a r i a b l e t be t h e s e t R o f a l l numbers between 3 and 5 , inclusive. ( a ) Draw t h e g r a p h of the s e t R. ( b ) Decide whether each of the f o l l o w i n g n m b e r s is an admissible value of t: 3 i ~ , % 2' C
T
=

(0, 3,

q,%,

n.

[ s e c . 3-14]

5. I5

e a c h of t h e follow in^ s e r ~ t e n c e s t r u e ?

I k c i d e \what p a ~ t c r nthese sentences i'ollow and d e s c r i b e tile

pattern In words. Tlen formulate it in the language of a l g e b r a a s an open sentence with two variables. Use the properties of t h e numbers of a r i t h e t l c as we have discovered them to t e s t whether the resultim sentence is true f o r a11

6.

v a l u e s of t h e v a ~ ~ l a b l e s . In which of A, 3, C, D, E does t h e sentence have t h e game truth set as the s e n t e n c e "x 5 5"?

(A) x > 5 o r x = 5
(B) x

< 5
9 5 4 5

and

x = 5

(c)

(D) (E) x #' 5 7. F i n d the truth s e t f o r Each of the following sentences: (a) n - 5 - 7 (d) 4n - 5 = 7 (b) In - 5 = '1 ( e ) Gn - 5 = 7 (f) l 2 n - 5 = 7 ( c ) 3n - 5 = 7 8. If rn is a n u n b e r o f a r i t h m e t i c , find the truth s e t of (a) r n + m = ~ (c) n 2 a l n
( b ) EI r m = ?m ( d ) i -i- 3 < m n kklch of the above s e t s Is a s u b s ~ tof all the others? !Jhich Ls a s u b s e t of none o c h e r t h a n itself? I f the domain of m is t h c s e t of counting n u n b e r s , answer questions ( a ) t h r o u g h ( d ) above. Let T b e the truth s e t of x - : 3 = 5 or x 4 . 1 = 4 . ( a ) Is 3 an elerncnt cf T? ( b ) Is 2 an element of T? ( c ) 1s p a ~ u b s e tof T?

9.

10. If B is t h e truth s e t o f x + 1 < 5 a n d x - 1 2 2 , draw t h e g r a p h of S. 11. Consider t h e open sentence 2x 2 1. What is I t s truth s e t if the domain of x (a) a l l counting numbers? (b ) all whole numbers':' (c) a l l numbers of arithmetic? 1 ( a ) Is the following sentence t r u e ?

is t h e s e t o f

13.

( b ) Do you have to p e r f o r m any multiplicati~nt o answer p a r t ( a ) ? Ehplain. Vhich of t h e following s e n t e n c e s are true? ( a ) 5 ( 4 -I. 2) = (4 + 2 ) 5

(e)

12 x 8

12 x 92 = 1200
=

(f)

(5 r %1 )6

500

14. mplain how t h e p r o p e r t y o f 1 is used i n p e r r o m i n g t h e c a l c u l a Lion

15.

& p l a i n why

3x + y + 2x + 3y = 5x + ' ~ y is true for all values of x and y.

( a ) Write t h e indicated products

(X

(X

+ 1)(x -t + 2)(x +

1) 2)

as indicated sums without parentheses

(b)

U s e t h e p a t t e r n of t h e r e s u l t s of p a r t ( a ) to w r i t e t h e indicated sum

x2 + 6x + 9 as an indicated product.

Chapter 4
OPEN SEPITEXCES AND ENG LEYH . EIITXrZC SS 3

k-1.

? p e n Phl1a?es an,3 English P h r a s e s

E v e r y J a y Ye a r e building - ~ a new language ~f symbols w h i c h J p
'LJe h a v e use2

is t e r ~ x n i n gn6re an3 more a complete language.

!mthei~~tical phrlases, such as 'I% -t- 3y" ; mathematical -:er!r forms, inc1:;- in^ l 1 -" an3I ' ) " ; an3 mathematical sentences, sucrl as ll 7-1 +33 = 53".

recall that a ~ ~ a r i a b l e , such as [In",is the nane of a r?ef inite b x t ur.specif l e d n;imker. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n of " n" i n t c ~ Engl.lsh ill t h e n m a n r e l a t i n g a n u n s p e c i f i e d n u n b e r t n somet!>ir.g of I n t e r e s t ti3 U S , Thus, the numeral "nl' might represent " t h e n u n b e r of p r o b l e m t h a t I w o r k e d " , I t t h e r.lmtjer +f students at t h e rally", "the number of dimes in Sam's p r 3 c ~ e t " , or "the number n f feet i n t h e h e i g h t of t h e s c h o ~ lf 1agp:)le" . '!hat a r e zoae o t h e r p 3 c ; s i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s ? C o n z i d e r t h e phrase " 5 + n " . Can we i ! e ~ arr English phrase n!rt for t h i s 7 Z u p p o ~ ei:!e u s e the t r a n s l a t i o n s suzgesteu a t a v e . If ' I n " is t h e n i l m t e r of' p r o b l e m s I shall be working t o d a y , t h e r . t h e phrase " 5 t- n" represents "the total number 3f p r o t l e ~ si n c l ~ : . , ; l l n g
:!e

t h e f l v e worked last night"; or, if

I h a v e 5 5imes an5 "n" r e p r e -

sents the n u m b e r of d i m e s 1 1 S a m ' s p o c x e t , then " 5 + nl'represent? 1 "the ~ o t a number of dines, Including my five and those in Sam's l p h ! : t ' Notice that the t r a 1 ; s l a t i o n of " 5 + n" d e p e n j s on what: c:.e.' t r a : ~ s l a t i o n we make of "r," '?i:ich of the a p p a r e n t l y limitless number of :pans L a r i o n s 3 0 we pick? le are rerninrlcil that t h e v a r i a b l e a p p e a r i n , i1 the open : ' : phrase, whether "nl'or "x", or "w", or "bl',is the ::ame or' a num':ier. :.'hether t h i s is the number o f d i m e s , t h e nl.l:nrjer of stsdents, t h e number ~ l finches, e t c . , depends: u p c n t h e * l s e we p.Lan "t o K e of t h e t r a n : ; l a t l o n . The context itself :dl11 f r e q u e r i t l x suggest or liait t r k n s l a t ions. Thus it wol~ld not mice sense t o t r a n s l a t e a phrase such as l1;i,5r)CI, + y" In t e r m . ~ t ' 'jF)'j t h e number of zimes i n Sam's p o c ~ e t , h u t it wouid m k e s e n s e to

tnink 3f

"

y"

a s represerltirlg t h e n u m b e r g i T J r i n g the p c p u l a t i o n in-

c r e a s e i n a s t a t e w l i i c h had 2 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 peraorls at t h e time of t h e p r e c e d i n g c e n s u s , or a s t h e n u m b e r of additional miles t r a v e l e d by a s a t e l l i t e which had gone 2,500,000 miles a t t h e t i m e of t h e l a s t report. S i m i l a r l y , t h e v a r l a b l e in t h e p h r a s e l1 .05 + k" would h a r d l y b e translated a s t h e number o f cows o r s t u d e n t s , b u t p o s s i b l y a s t h e number g l v i n g t h e I n c r e a s e in t h e r a t e ef i n t e r e s t which h a d previously been 5 per c e n t . How can w e t r a t l s l a t e the p h r a s e "3x + 2 5 " ? I n t h e a b s e n c e of a n y s p e c i a l reasons f o r plcklng a p r t i c u l a r translation, we might let x be the number o f cents Tom earns i n one h o u r , mowing t h e lawn. Then 3x is t h e number of c e n t s earned in 3 h o u r s . If Tom f i n i s h e d t h e job i n t h r e e h o u r s and was paid a bonus of 25 cents, t h e n t h e phrase " 3 x -+ 25" r e p r e s e n t s the t o t a l number of cents in Torn's possession a f t e r working three h o u r s . How can t h i s p h r a s e be t r a n s l a t e d if we l e t x b e t h e number of students in e a c h algebra class, if a l g e b r a classes are of t h e same s i z e ? Or, if x i s the number o f miles t r a v e l e d by a c.ar in one h o u r at a constant speed? T h e r e a r e many Engllsh translations o f t h e s y m b o l "t", ind i c a t i n g the o p e r a t i o n of addition of t v ~ onumbers. A few or t h e m are: " t h e sum o f " , ''more t h a n " , " i n c r e a s e d t y " , " o l d e r t h a n " , a n d o t h e r s . T h e r e a r e a l s o many English translations of t h e s y m b o l s i n d i c a t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of multiplication a f t w o numbers, I n c l u d i n g : l l t i m e s " , " p r o d u c t o f " , and o t h e r s . !!hat

a r e English translations of t h e s y m b o l

"-"

Problem S e t 4-1

In Problems 1-6, write Engllsh phrases which c o r r e s p o n d t o

the

given open phrases. Try t o v a r y t h e Englfsh p h r a s e s as much a s possible. Tell in e a c h c a s e what t h e v a r i a b l e represents. 1. 7 w ( I f m e bushel of wheat c o s t s w d o l l a r s , t h e p h r a s e is: " t h e number o f d o l l a r s in the c o s t
nf

7 b u s h e l s of w h e a t . " )

In each of Problems 7-17, f i n d arl open phrase whirh is a t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e g i v e n English phrase. In e a c h p r o b l e m , t e l l exp l i c i t ly what the variable represents. 7 . The number of f e e t i n y yards. (If y is the mimber of y a r d s , then 3y is t h e number of f e e t . ) 8. The number of inches in f f e e t . 9 . The number of p i n t s in k quarts. 10. The number of miles In k feet, 11. The successor of a whole number. 2 The r e c i p r o c a l of a number. (Tho numbers a r e reciprocals of
e a c h o t h e r i f t h e i r p r o d u c t is 1.)

13.
14.

The number of ounces in k pounds and t ounces.

The number of c e n t s in d d o l l a r s and k q u a r t e r s . The number of c e n t s in m do1 lars, k q u a r t e r s , m d i m e s and

15.

n nickels. I d . T h e number o f i n c h e s in t h e length o f a r e c t a n g l e which is twice a s Ions a s It Is v r i d e . (Sl.lggestlon: Dra.sr a f i g u r e t o help visualize t h e situation.) 1 . The number o f f e e t in t h e h e i g h t of a t r i a n g l e if its h e i g h t is 6 f e e t g r e a t e r than its base. In P r o b l e m s 1 8 - 2 5 , write English p h r a s e s which a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e g i v e n open p h r a s e s . In each problem i d e n t i f y t h e v a r i a b l e explicitly. la. n + 7 n

19.
20.

(2r

21.
2

3x + (2x + 1) + x 5000 + by
y

5) + 7

.My
4-

*23.

x(x

3)

( ~ i n t : T h i s phrase might be interpreted as t h e expression for t h e number oP square u n i t s in an a r e a . )

'-24.

1 T ~+ ( ~ 5)

~ ( + 3 ) (2vr w

+ 5)

(Hint: T h i s p h r a s e m i g h t
c ~ ~ b u n i t s I n a volume. ) i c

Se i n t e r p r e t e d

a s t h e expression f o r t h e number o f

C n o o s e a v a r i a b l e f o r t h e number of f e e t in t h e length of one

s i d e o f a s g u a r e . Y - y i t e a n open phrase f o r t h e n u m b e r of f e e t in t h e perimeter of t h e square. Chooze a v a r i a b l e f o r the n u m b e r of i n c h e s I n t h e h e i g h t of a m n t s h e a d . Then write an open p h r a s e f o r t h e number of i n c h e s in the man's h e i g h t if i t is known t h a t h i s h e i g h t Is 1 '/ t i n e s t h e h e i g h t of h i s head. -:!rite an open phrase for t h e number of Inches in t h e l e n g t h of a second s i d e of a triangle, if it I s t h r e e Inches l o n g e r t h a n the f i r s t s i d e , One s i d e o r a t r l a n g l e is x i n c h e s long a n d a second i s y I n c h e s long, T h e l e n g t h of the t h i r d s i d e Is one-half t h e sum of t h e l e n g t h s of t h e f i r s t t w o s l d e s .

( a ) ' ! i e an open phrase for t h e number of I n c h e s in t h e :rt p e r i m e t e r of t h e t r i a n g l e . ( b ) !:'rite an open p h r a s e f o r t h e number of inches in t h e length of t h e t h i r d s i d e . In a c e r t a i n community t h e r e a r e s i x - f i f t h s as many g i r l s as bo:]s. >!rite an open phrase f o r t h e number of girls in terms of t h e number of b o y s . The aclrnisslon p r i c e t o a performance of " T h e Mikado" is $2.00 per p e r s o n . Write an open phrase f o r t h e t o t a l number oT d o l l a r s r e c e i v e d in terms of t h e number of p e o p l e who
bought t i c k e t s .

If a man

w r l t e an open phrase fur t h e p a r t of t h e house he can p a i n t in one day. 1 If a p i p e f l l l s - of a swimming p o o l I n one h o u r , w r i t e a n 5 open p h r a s e f o r how much o f t h e p o o l is f i l l e u by t h a t p l p e in x h o u r s .
days,

can p a i n t

a house In d

34.

>/hen a tree grows it i n c r e a s e s its r a d i u s e a c h y e a r by a d d i n g a r i n g of new wood. If a t r e e has r rings now, w r i t e an open phrase f o r the number of growth rings In t h e tree twelve years from now. A p l a n t grows a c e r t a i n number uf inches per week.
20 i n c h e s

*35.

I t is now

* 36.

37.

Write a n open phrase giving t h e number o f i n c h e s in its h e i g h t f i v e weeks from now. Suppose that when a man immerses h i s arms in h o t water, t h e tenperature of h i s f e e t w i l l rise one degree p e r minute, beginning at 10 minutes a f t e r h i s arms a r e p u t in the water. !:'rite an open phrase f o r t h e rise In temperature of t h e l n a n t s feet at any time (more t h a n t e n minutes) a f t e r h i s arms a r e immersed. Three sons s h a r e in an i n h e r i t a n c e . (a) Write a n open p h r a s e f o r t h e number of d o l l a r s of one son's share which is one-hair ~ J Tt h e i n h e r i t a n c e . Y r l t e an open phrase f o r t h e number ar d o l l a r s of t h e s e c o n d e o n ' s s h a r e , whlch i s fifty d o l l a r s more than one-tenth of t h e i n h e r i t a n c e . ( c ) \:rite an open p h r a s e for t h e t h l r d s o n t s s h a r e . ( d ) 'irlte an open phrase f o r t h e sum of the t h r e e s o n s ' shares. Choose a v a r i a b l e f o r t h e number of f e e t in t h e w i d t h o f a rectangle. ( a ) Write an open phrase f o r the length o f t h e rectangle If t h e length is five f e e t l e s s t h a n t w i c e t h e width. Draw and l a b e l a fl g u r e . (b) \>!rite an open phrase f o r the perlrneter of t h e rectangle (b)
d e s c r i b e d in part ( a ) ,

tall.

38.

(c)

>!rite a n open p h r a s e f o r t h e area of t h e r e c t a n g l e d e s c r i b e d in p a r t ( a ) .

English Sentences It i s a n a t u r a l s t e p from translation of phrases t o t r a n s l a tion of sentences. Example : 4 5 + 3x = 108 How s h a l l w e w r i t e an English sentence f o r t h i s open sentence? ?le might say, " A book s a l e s r a n is paid $ 4 5 a week plus $ 3 f o r each s e t o f books he s e l l s . In one week he was paid $108." A n o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n o f this open sentence could be, " A f r e i g h t shipment consisted of a box w e i g h i n g 45 pounds and a number of small c a r t o n s each weighing 3 pounds. The whole shipment weighed 1CS pounds " :!hat English s e n t e n c e s c o u l d - write f o r t h i s same open you sentence?
4
open Sentences

And

Problem S e t 4-2a

--

':!rite your own English s e n t e n c e s f o r the f o l l o w i n g open sentences. 1. n + 7 = 8 2 5. 4n + 7n = 44 2. 2n = 500 7. 4 k + 7 k = 4 7 3. - - 17 8. x + x + x + x = l 0 0 4 . x(w + 4 ) = 480 9. ~ + 5 = 5 f Y 1 p 1 5 . a + ( 2 a + 3a) = (a + 2a) + 3a 10. - + ?b = 6

Mure often we want to t r a n s l a t e E n d i s h s e n t e n c e s into m e n

s e n t e n c e ? . ':'e f i n d s u c h open s e n t e n c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l in word problems srhen t h e English sentewe is a b o u t a guantity which we are i n t e r e s t e d in finding. Exanpie 1. "Carl has a b o a r d 44 inches long. H wishes t o c u t e it i n t o t w o p i e c e s s o t h a t one p i e c e will be three inches l o n g e r

than t h e o t h e r . How l o n g s h o u l d t h e s h o r t e r p i e c e be?" !>#-e may sometimes see more e a s i l y what o u r open s e n t e n c e s h o u l d b e i f we guess a number f o r t h e q u a n t i t y a s k e d for i n
t h e problem.

I f t h e s h o r t e r p i e c e is 18 i n c h e s long, t h e n t h e longer p i e c e is (18 + 3 ) i n c h e s l o n g , Since t h e h h o i e tloard is 44 inches long, we t h e n have t h e sentence

18

(18 + 3 )

= 44.

Although t h i s sentence is not t r u e , it suggests the p a t t e r n w h i c h we need for an open sentence. N o t i c e t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n in t h e

problem has pointed o u t o u r v a r i a b l e . Ide can now say: If t h e s h o r t e r piece is K inches l o n g ,

t h e n t h e l o n g e r piece is ( K + 3 ) inches long, and t h e sentence I s K (K 3 ) = 44. W e say t h a t t h i s s e n t e n c e is f a l s e when K is 18. T h e r e p r o b a b l y IS some v a l u e of K f o r whlch t h e open sentence I s t r u e . If we wanted t o f i n d t h e l e n g t h of t h e s h o r t e r piece, t h i s c o u l d be done by finding t h e t r u t h s e t of t h e above open s e n t e n c e . Perhaps you feel an urge t o f i n d a number w h l c h does nlake tihe above sentence t r u e . If so, go ahead and t r y . For the p r e s e n t , however, o u r o b j e c t i v e is p r a c t i c e in writlng t h e open s e n t e n c e s . Later we s h a l l b e concerned w i t h f i n d i n g t h e t r u t h s e t s of s u c h setltences and thils answering the questions in t h e problems. In t h i s example we t r i e d some p a r t i c u l a r numbers f o r t h e quantities involved t o h e l p see a p a t t e r n f o r t h e apen sentence. You may sometimes see the open sentence irnmedlately w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o try p a r t i c u l a r numbers, Notice t h a t t h e English sentences are o f t e n a b o u t inches o r pounds o r y e a r s or d o l l a r s , b u t t h e open sentences a r e a l w a y s a h o u t numbers only. N o t i c e a l s o t h a t we a r e very c a r e f u l i n describing o u r v a r i a b l e to show what it measures, whether I t is the number of inches, the fiumber o f d o n k e y s , ur t h e number of t o n s . Example 2. "Two cars s t a r t from t h e same p o i n t a t t h e same time and t r a v e l in t h e same d i r e c t i o n a t constant s p e e d s of 34 and 4 5 mlles per hour, r e s p e c t i v e l y . In how many h o u r s w i l l t h e y b e 35 rnlles apart?" If they travel 4 h o u r s , the raster c a r goes i!5(4) m i l e s and

the s l o w e r car goes 3 4 ( 4 ) miles. S i n c e t h e faster c a r s h o u l d [ s e c , 4-21

ther. be 35 miles f a r t h e r from t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t than the slower car, we have t h e sentence 4 5 ( 4 ) - 3 4 ( 4 ) = 35,
which is f a l s e ,

It suggests, h o d e v e r , t h e following:
t l l e y t r a v e l h h s u r s , t h e n the faster

If

Example 3.
as the son.

c a r goes 45h miles and t h e s l o w e r c a r goes 34h miles, a n d 45h - 34h = 35. " A nan l e f t $10,500 f o r hls w j d o w , a son and a d a u g h t e r .

T h e ;didow received $5,000 and t h e d a u g h t e r r e c e i v e d twice a s much

Hw much d i d the s o n receive?" a l f t h e son received n d o l l a r s , then the daughter received 'i ;n d o l l a r s , and n + 2n + 5000 = 10,500.

P r o b l e m Set 4-2b ?!rite open sentences t h a t wn3uld h e l p you s o l v e prcblems 1-13, b e i n g c a r e f u l t o g l v e t h e meaning of the ~ ~ a r i a b l o r each. Your fe wurk rrlay be shown In the form indicated in Example 3 a b o v e . IC is n o t necessary t o f i n d t h e t r u t h s e t s o f t h e open sentences. 1. E e n r y and C h a r l e s wer-e uppuslng c a n a l d a t e s in a c l a s s e l e c t i o n . Henry r e c e i v e d 30 v o t e s more than Charles, and 516 m e m b e r s of the c l a s s ?iroted. How many v o t e s d i d Charles r e c e i v e ? (~int: If C n a r l e s received c v o t e s , write an open phrase f o r

--

2.

3.

the number o V v o t e s Henry r e c e i v e d . Then write y o u r open sentence. ) A r e c t a n g l e is 6 times a s long a s it is wide. I t s p e r i m e t e r is 144 i n c h e s . H0.4 w i d e I s t h e rectangle? ( ?emember to d r a w a f i g w e . ) The largest angle 3 a triangle is 20 more t h a n t w i c e t h e s smallest, and the t h i r d a n g l e is '70~. The sum o f t h e angles of a triangle 1 s 180~. IIOW large i s t h e smallest angle?

A b r i d j i e has t h r e e spans, 3ne cf which is 100 reef longer thar! e a c h of t h e o t h e r t w o , If t h e b r i d g e is 2500 f t . . long, how l a n s 1s e a c h of t h e o h o r t c - spans? A class of 4 3 students w a s separated i n t o t w o c l a s s e s . If t h e y e were 5 more students in Mr. Smith ' 3 class t h a n i : Miss ~ Jones's class, h o ~ a ~ ys t u d e n t s were in each c l a s s ? m Can y u u d o t h i s one in t w o ,days? I there were y students i n f Miss J o n e s 1s class, f i n d two ways t c say how many were in M r . Smith's c l a s s . ) T h e l e n g t h of a rectangle I s 5 i n c h e s more t h a n j . t s w i d t h . What is t h e l e n g t h of t h e rectangle if I t s area Is 594 square inches ? J n h r , i s three tfmes a s old a s Diclc, Three y e a r s ago t h e sum

of t h e i r a g e s was 22 y e a r s . How old is each riuw? ( ~ r l n t : F i n d a p h r a s e for t h e age of each t h r e e years ago in terms n f C S c k l s age now.) John has 1.65 In h i s p o c k e t , all in nickels, dlmes, and q u a r t e r s . H e has one more q u a r t e r than he has d i m e s , and t h e number of n i c k e l s he has I s one more t h a n t w i c e t h e lumber of dlmes. How many dimes has he? ( ~ i n t : If h e has d d i m e s , w r i t e a phrase for the value of all h i s dimes, a phrase f o r t h e v a l u e of all his q u a r t e r s , and a phrase for

LO.

t h e - ~ a l u e a l l h i s nickels; then write your open s e n t e n c e , ) of I bought 2 3 p o s t a g e stamps, some of them a-cent s t a m p s and some 7-cent stamps. If the t o t a l c o a t was 1-19,how atany o f each kind d i d I buy? A passenger t r a i n t r a v e l s 2 0 miles p e r hour f a s t e r t h a n a f r e i g h t t r a l n . A t t h e end of 5 h o u r s t h e passenger t r a i n has t r a v c l e d 100 r i l e s r a r t 9 e r t h a n the f r e i g h t t r a i n . How f a s t 30e3 t h e T r e i g h t t r a i n t r a v e l ? ( ~ l n t : F o r each t r a i n f i n d a pl.lrase f o r the number of r.iles it has t r a v e l e d . ) A s t o r e h a s 39 q u a r t s of m i l k , some i n pint c a r t o n s a n d some in h a l f - p i n t c a r t o n s . There are 6 times as m n y p i n t c a r t o n s as h a l f p i n t cartons. Haw many half-plnt c a r t o n s a?e t h e r e ?

Mr. Ilro~.rnis employed at a n i n i t i a l salary of $3600, w l t h a n annual i n c r e a s e of $390, w h i l e Mr. Wkllte s t a r t s at the same time at an initial salary of $4500, w i t h a n annual i n c r e a s e of $ 2 0 0 . A f t e r how many years w l l l the two men b e e a r n i n g t h e same salary? 13. A t a b l e is t h r e e times a s l o n g as i t is wide. If it were 3 feet s h o r t e r and 3 feet w i d e r , it would be a s q u a r e . How l o n g and how wide is I t ? two p i c t u r e s of the t a b l e t o p , ) 14. ' { ! r i t e y o u r own problem f o r each of the following open sentences. ( a ) 5n + 10(n -I- 2 ) + 50(an) = 450
12.

raw

(b)

a ( 3 a ) = 300

(c)
(d)
(e)

. 6 0 x + 1.10(85 a + ( a + 3 ) -+ ( a
b = 2(1R

- X) = 78.50
+
6)

69

(f)

(PI
If.

$ + T + x = 1

30h+ 1 1

4(5

- h) = 57

b)

T r a n s l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g into an open sentence.

English.

Then t r a n s l a t e b a c k from the open sentence to a d i f f e r e n t problem in

" T h r e e hundred sight-seers went on a trip a r o u n d the

bay In t w o boats. T h e c a p a c i t y of one boat was 80 mare paszengers t h a n t h a t o f t h e o t h e r and b o t h b o a t s were f u l l . How many passengers were in each boat?

Open Sentences Involving Inequalities O u r sentences need n o t a l l be equalities. Problems concerni n g " g ~ e a t e rt h a n " o r " less than" have real meaning. Suppose we say, "Make a problem f o r t h e sentence d + 2 ) 5."
3.

The word praulem could b e , "If I added two d o l l a r s t o what I now h a v e , I w o u l d h a v e more t h a n f i v e d o l l a r s . Row much do 1 have
now?I'

P r o b l e m S e t 4-3a
L.

-5.
,

':'rite ppot; l e n s for Lhe fu l l a w in2 open senten8:es. a

>

2.
u

n + ( 1 ; , i15qi175 4. 5 ( n + 5) < 10Q

3 1

a a
y 1 -k 2
s

+ +
t

ca
la

+
+

,?a> 4,?
3a =
* , ar,d I

5;'
y

*
$I.

< >

<
'i

?,

,5

5. p

10,000

> 160,000

*lo.

2j12- ::)

As -:;ith equations, ;t idill someti!nes help to f i r 1 5 a n open seatence 1rl p r ~ ? ~ l e r n s o u t i n e q u a l l t l e s iT xe t r y a p a r t , i c u l a r ak number ' i r s t , Zxarnple 1. "In s i x months Mr. A d a m s e a r n e d rnljre than $7<:'3'3. How much d i e he e a r n p e r month?" If he e a r n e d $ 1 1 ~ 0p e r month, I n 6 months h e ~ 0 ~ e a 3n 1 r 6 x 1100 dollars, The sentence wi3ald t,hen be 6 x l l o i j > -iOQ{j. T h i u , of course, is not true, but it suggests ?!hat we s h d u l d d o . If r4r. Aaams e a r n e d a g o l i a r s per m o n t h , in b months h e would e a r n 5a d c l l a r s . T n e n ha > 7000. Example 2 . "The d i s t a n c e a n o t J e c t f a l l s d u r i n g tne f i r s t second is 32 feet l e s s t h a n t h e distance it falls during the s e c o n d second. D u r i n g the t w o seconds i t falls 48 feet or l e s s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e air r e s i s t a n c e . How far d o e s it fall d u r i n g t h e 9 e c o n 3
second?

If t h e o b j e c t f a i l s 42 feet d u r i n g the second second, t h e n it f a l l s (42 - 3 2 ) r e e t during t h e f i r s t s e c o n j . S l n a e t h e t o t a l distance f a l l e n is l e s s t h a n o r equal t o 48 feet., o u r sentence i s (42 - 3 2 ) + 42 I 48. T h i s s u g g e s t s how to w r i t e t h e cpen sentence. If t h e o b j e c t f a l l s d f e e t d u r i n g t h e second s e c o n d , t h e n it f a l l s ( d - 3 2 ) f e e t d u r i n g t h e ffrst second, and ( d - 32) + d 4e.

[ s e c . 4-31

Exar-iple 3 .
irlrhea.

"T.:.<j s i d e s of a t r i a ~ g l ehave lecgths r?f

ir-ches ar.,!

Is t h e length of' t h e t h i r d s i d e 9 " Y o 2 :my ha7e d r a w n m n y triangles in t h e past a n d h a v e b e cc:ne a-..rare o ' t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f len,:r.h of any s i d e l ~ fa t r i a n g l e aust t e l e z s than t h e ?urn of t h e lengths of t h e ~ t h e r cwo s l d e s . Tnus I f t h e thlr3 s i d e of this t r l a 1 2 ~ l e n is
'::hat

inches long,
n <

54- 6.

A t t h e same time t h e s i x I n c h s i d e must be less in l e n g t h t h a n

t h e sum of the l e ~ g t h sof t h e o t h e r two; thus d < n + 5. S i n c e b o t h of t h e s e conditions m u s t h o l d , the open s e n t e n c e f o r o u r problem i s n < ? + b a n 3 5<n4-5.
P r o b l e m S e t 4-3b

---

Write open s e n t e n c e s f o r p r o t l e m s 1-13, b e i n g c a r e f u l to g i v e t h e meaning of t h e v a r i a b l e f o r e a c h .

1.

2.
3.

h.

5.

One t h i r d of a number added t o t h r e e - f o u r t h s of t h e same numb e r is e q u a l t o or g r e a t e r t h a n 29. What Is t h e nutnber? B i l l i s 5 y e a r s o l d e r t h a n Norman, a n d the sxin oi' their ages is l e s s than 2 3 . How o l d is Norman? A square a n d an e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e have e q u a l perimeters. A s i d e of t h e t r v i a n g l e is r i v e irlches l r ~ n g e rt h a n a s i d e of t h e square. )!hat is t h e l e n g t ! ~of t h e s i d e of t h e s q u a r e ? D r l w a figure. A b o a t , t r a v e l i n g downstream, goes 12 miles per h o u r f a s t . e r than the r a t e of the c u r r e n t . I t s v e l o s i t y uuwnstream i s l e s s t h a n 30 m l l e s per k~c;ur. What Is t h e r a t e of the c u r r e n t ? Joh:-~ s a i d , "It .dill t a k e me more t h a n 2 h o u r s t o mow t h e lawn and I must n c t s p e n d more t h a n 4 h o u r s on t h e j o b or I w o n 4 t b e able t c g o swimming." Yow much time can h e expect t o

spend on t h e job?

TV show t h e a d v e r t i s e r i n s i s t s there m u s t be at l e a s t t h r e e minutes f o r commercials and the n e t w o r k Lns i s t s there must be l e s s t h a n 12 minutes for commercials. Express t h i a in a mathematical sentence. How much time m u s t t h e program d i r e c t o r p r o v i d e f o r material G t h e r t h a n a 3 v e r t i s ing? 7 . A t e a c h e r says, "If I had 3 times as many s t u d e n t s in my c l a s s a s I d o have, I would h a v e at Least 26 more t h a n T now h a v e . ' I How many s t u r l e n t s d o e s he han/e i n h i s c l a s s ? 8. T h e amount of $205 is t o be d i v i d e d among Tom, Dick and H a r r y . D i c ~ t o have $15 more t h a n H a r r y a n d Tcm is t o is have twice as much a s D i c k . How must the money b e d i v i d e d ? 9. An amount between $205 a n d $ 2 2 5 , inclusive, is t o be d i v i d e d among t h r e e b r o t h e r s , Tom, C i c k a n d H a r r y . D i c k is to have $15 m a r e t h a n H a r r y , and Tom is t.o h a v e twice a s much as ' Dick. H o w much money can H a r r y e x p e c t ? * 1 0 . A s t u d e n t h a s t e s t grades of 75 and 8 2 . What m u s t he s c o r e on a t h i r d t e s t t o h a v e a n average o f 88 o r h i g h e r ? If 150 is t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e possible on t h e t h i r d t e s t , how h i g h a n average can h e achieve? What is the lowest average he can a c h i e v e ? 11. Using t w o v a r i a b l e s , w r i t e an open sentence f o r e a c h o f t h e following E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s . ( a ) The enrollment I n S c o t t S c h o o l i s g r e a t e r than t h e enrollment in Morris S c h o o l . (b) T h e enrollment i n S c o t t School is 500 g r e a t e r t h a n t h e enrollment in Morris S c h o o l .
OR a h a l f - h o u r

6.

R -.e v i e h P r o b l e m s 1.

W r l t e E r i q l l s h phraoes
the f o l l o w i n g open
(a)

are r e a l i s t i c translaciuns o f phrases. In eack problem be c a r e f u l t o

whj ch

i d e n t i f y t h e variable explizitly.

)
(c)
(d)

613 - lot 9 ( l g r - t - 251

ib(3k

+ 15 3p + 3 ( p

1)

(e)

4)

In p r o b l e m s 2 ,

3 , 4,

5, write open phrases

which are translations

l n eactl p r o j l e r n be c a r e f u l t o indicate what the v a r l a b l e r e p r e s e n t s , If it is n o t a l r e a d y g i v e n . In c e r t a i n problems you ray use more t h a n one v a r i a b l e ,
o f t h e word p h r a s e s .
2.

(a)

A number dirnlnished by 3 .

(b)

(4
(dl

Sam's age selerl y e a r s from now. Mary ' s a g e t e n years ago.

Temperature 2 0 degrees h i f i h e r t h a n the present

tempera tJu re.

(@I
3.

(a)

at 5 cents each The amount of money : my pocket : n and 6 pennies.

Cost of n p e n c i l s

x dimes, y n l c k e l z ,

A number increased by t i ~ i c et h e n u m t e r . A number Increased by t d l c e anothe? number.

(f
'1.

The nunber of d a y s i n w weclcs. une mllZlvn more t h a n twice t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a c i t y In .?knsaz. Annual s a l a r y equivalent t o x d o l l a r s p e r month.
One d c l l a r n o r e thar t w i c e B e t t y Is allowanze.
The d l s t a n c e t r a v e l e d

(a,

(b)

:n h h ~ r a t s

a constant speed

o f 40 m.p. h, The r e a l e s t a t e tax on property h a v l n g a v a l u a t i o n of y d o l ; a r s , t h e t a x r a t e being $ 2 5 . 0 0 p e r $1000 va;ua:lon.

F o r t y pounds rnore than E a r l I s r ~ e i g h t ,

(e)

5.

6.

Catherine 1s earnings f o r z h o u r s at 7 5 cents an h o u r . ( c ) C c s t of' g gallons of g a s o l i n e at 3 3 . 2 c e n t s a g a l l o n , C o s t of purchases: x melons at 2 9 cents e a c h a n d y (d) pounds of hamburger at 59 c e n t s a pound. ( e ) A t v l o - d i g i t number whose te11s' d i g i t is t and whose u n i t s ' d i g i t is a. !#!rite E n g l i s h sentences w h i c h are t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e o p e n sentences.
(a)
(b)

(a) ( b)

Area of a r e c t a n g l e h a v i n g one s i d e 3 i n c h e s longer than another, C o s t of x pounds of s t e a k a t $ l . 5 ~ per pound. ,

?r<,Y$O
y = 3609

z > 10C,000,000 ( d ) u + v + w = 180 ( e ) z(z + 18) = 363 In problems 7 , 8, 9, w r i t e open s e n t e n c e s corresponding to t h e word sentences, u s i n g one v a r i a b l e in e a c h . In each p r o b l e m b e c a r e f u l t o s t a t e i f h a t t h e v a r i a k l e represents, if this is n o t already ind i c a t e d 7. ( a ) Mary, who is 16 and has two b r o t h e r s , i s 4 y e a r s o l d e r than her s f s t e r , ( b ) B i l l bought b bananas a t g c c n t s each arid p a i d 54 c e n t z . (c) If a number is a d d e d t o t w i c e the number, t h e sum i s l e s s t h a n 39. 3) Arthurts allowance is one dollar more t h a n t w i c e B e t t y I s , b u t Is two d o l l a r s l e s s t h a n 3 times B e t t y t 5 . ( e ) T h e distance f r o m Dodge C i t y to Oklahoma City, 26;) miles, was t r a 7 j e l e d i n t h o u r s a t a n average spee.1 o f 43 miles an h o u r . (f) The a g t o trip from St. L t ~ u i st o Memphis, 333 miles, wae n u d e in t hours at a maximum s p e e e of 55 mile: an hour. 8. ( a ) P i k e ' s Peak is more t h a n 14,N10 f e e t a w v e sea level. ( b ) A book, 1.4 incb.es t h i c k , ha? n sheets; e a c n s h e e t is
(c)

(c)
(d)

0.003 inc:hes t h l c k , al?d each c o v e r is 10 i n c h e s t h l c k a n 3 is ' c l u e . Tdo r n i l l i v n I s m o r e ti-an t w i c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n ST any

c l t y in Colorado,

A square of s i d e x has a Lhrger a r e a t h a n has k r e c t a n g l e of s i d e s ( x - 1) and [ x + I ) . (e) The tax on r e a l e s t a t e is c a l c u l a t e d a t $24.00 per

9.

$1000 v a l u a t i o n . The tax assessment on pr3pert;l valuea a t g d o l l a r s is $346.00. ( f ) IT E a r l added 4 3 pounds t o his w e i g h t , he ;dould s t i l l r.3t vlelgh m r e t h a n 152 p u u n d s . ( a ) T h e s u m of a w h o l e number and i t s s u c c e s s o r i s 515. ( b The s L n or a wklule number and it^ S u c c e s ~ o rIS 576. ( c ) T h e sLm of two n u m b e r s , t h e s e c a n d g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f i r s t b y 1, is 57G. !d) k board 16 f e e t long i s c u ~ two p l e c e s s u c h t h a t In u t l e p'ece 1 3 one foot l o n g e r t h a n t w i c e tk.e o t h e r , [ e ) Catherine e a r n s $ ' 2 . 2 5 baby-sitting f o r 3 h o u r s a t
c c n t ~an h o u r .

10.

11.

1 .

A two-digit n u m b e r is 7 more t h a n 3 ~irnest h e sum of t h e digits. R e s t a t e t h i s by an open s e n t e n c e . (Hint:: Express t h e nmber uy means of twc v a r i a b l e s , a s in P r o b l e m 5 ( e ) , ) The sum of t w n numbers is 42. If the f i r s t r~umber 2s represente'j by n , w r i t e ar, expression f o r the second number u s i n g t , h e v a r i a b l e n. ( a ) A number i s i n c r e a s e c by 17 a n d t h e sum Is multiplle3 by 3. ldrl5.e a n open sentence s t a t i n g t h a c t h e resulting product e q , ~ a l s192. ( b If 1 i s a3ded y o a number and t h e sum I s multiplied 7 by 3 , t h e resu1;ing p r o d u c t is l e s s t h a n 192. Restate
t h i s a s an open sentence.

13.

One number is 5 tfmes a n o c h e r . T h e sum o f t h e two n u m b e r s is 15 more t h a n 4 t i n e s t h e s m a l l e r . Express t h f s by a n open s e n t e n c e .

Sue has 16 more books t h a n S a l l y . Write an open sentence showing t h a t t o g e t h e r they have more t h a n 26 books. 15. (a) A farmer can plow a field in 7 h o u r s w i t h one of his t r a c t o r s . How much of t h e f i e l d can he plow in one hour with that t r a c t o r ? ( b ) W i t h h i s o t h e r t r a c t o r he can plow t h e f i e l d in 5 h o u r s . If he had b o t h t r a c t o r s going f o r 2 h o u r s , how much of t h e f i e l d would be plowed? ( c ) How much of the field would t h e n be left u n p l o w e d ? (d) Write an open sentence which i n d i c a t e s t h a t , If b o t h t r a c t o r s are u s e d f o r x h o u r s , t h e f i e l d w i l l be completely plowed. +16. If you fly f r o m New York t o Los Angeles, you g a i n t h r e e h o u r s . If t h e flying time is h hours, when do you h a v e t o leave New York in o r d e r t o a r r i v e in Los Angeles b e f o r e noon? Write an open sentence f o r t h i s p r o b l e m . 17. Mr. Brown l a reducing. During each month ror t h e past FJ months he has l o s t 5 pounds. H i s weight is now 175 pounds. Wt was his w e i g h t m months ago if rn < 8? Vrite an open sentence stating that rn months ago his w e i g h t was 200 pounds. Write open sentences for problems 18 to 2 3 . T e l l c l e a r l y what t h e v a r l a b l e r e p r e s e n t s , but do n o t find t h e t m t h s e t of the open sentence. 18. ( a ) The sum of a whole number and i t s successor I s 45. What a r e the numbers? (b) The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 76. What are the n-umbers? 13. Mr. Barton p a i d $176 f o r a f r e e z e r which w a s s o l d at a discount of 12% o f t h e m r k e d p r i c e . What was t h e marked price? A manfs pay check f o r a week of 48 h o u r s was $166.40. He 20. is paid at the r a t e o f I1 times h i s normal r a t e f o r a l l 2 h o u r s worked in excess of 4 0 h o u r s , What is h i s h o u r l y
pay rate?

14.

A Inan
it

Two s e c o n d s a f t e r he fllres ha hears the saurid of' the b u l l e t striking t h e t a r g e t . If

r'lres a r i f l e a t a t a r g e t ,

the speed cf s o u n d J s 1100 f c e t p e r seccrid and t h e s p e e d of t n e bullet i s 1700 feet per sezond, how f a r away i 3 t h e
2 .

target? The ztudents a c t e n d i n g Linc3ln High S c h o o l nave a h a k i t of c u t t i n g a c r o s s a vacant l v t near t h e s c h o o l i n s t e a d of

f o l l o w i n g the side-walk around the corner. Tkie l o t ; 1s a rectangular l o t 200 f e e t by 300 f e e t , a n d the s h o r t - c u t f c l l o w s a straight l i n e from oce corner of t h e l o t to t h e o ~ p o ~ i tcorner. How l o n g 4 s t h e s h o r t - c u t ? e (Hlnt: Use

23.

24.

t h e P y t h a g o r e a n Theorem. ) Dne end of a 5C-fo3t w i r e is a t t a c h e d t o t h e t o p of a v e r t i c a l telephone pole. The wire is pulled t a ~ and t h e t l o ~ e l e n d is a t t a c h e d t o a c o n c r e t e b l o c k on t h e ground. T h l s h l a c k is 3,'3 f e e t f r v m the base of the t e l e 7 h o n e pole, o n le,;el ground. ;:hat 3s the h e i g h t cf t h e p o l e ? ( a ) A t an a ~ t o parkir,g l o t , the charge Is 35 c e n t s f o r t h e f i r s t h o u r , o r f r a c c i o n of an h o u r , and 20 c e n t s f o r each succeedlcg (whole o r p a r t i a l ) one-hour p e r i o d . If t i s the number of one-huur p e r i o d s p a r k e d a f t e r :he i n i t i a l h o w , write an o p e n phrase for t h e p a r k l n g f e e . (b) ' J i t h the same charge f o r parking as in t h e preceding prublem, if h is ;he t o t a l number o f one-hour p e r i o d s , parked, w r i t e an open phrase f ' g r t h e p a r k i n g f e e . Two q u a r t s of alcnhnl are addcd to the water I n t h e r a d i a t o r , and t h e mixture then cantains 2C per c e n t a l c u i i ~ l ; t h a f is, 20 p e r cent of the mixture is pure a l c o h o l . {trite an o g e r ~sentence rar t P . l s English s e ~ ~ t e n c e .[ ~ l n t : '?!rite an opeL phrase f o r the riurr~bber o ' q u a r t s of a l c o h o l In terrns f o f the number of q u a r t s of waser o r i g i n a l l y I n t h e r a d i a t o r . ) ( a ) Two water-p:pes a r e bringing water i n t o a r e s e r v o i r . One p i p e bas a capaci;y of' 1 0 gallons p e r minute, and 0 t h s se(;wnd 110 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e , I f water flows f r o m t h e f i r s t pipe f o r x n i n ~ t e za n 3 the s e c ~ n 3 for

y minutes,

write an open phrase f o r t h e t o t a l f l o w In

(b)

gallons. In t h e p r e c e d i n g problem, if t h e flow f r o m t h e f i r s t p i p e is stopped a t t h e end of two h o u r s , w r i t e t h e expression f o r the t o t a l flow i n gallons in y minutes,

27.

29. 3G.

where y is greater than 120. ( c ) 3 1 t h t h e d a t a in part ( a ) , write an open sentence s t a t i n g that t h e t o t a l flow is 20,000 gallons. ( a ) P l a n t A grows two inches e a c h week, and I t is now 2 0 i n c h e s t a l l , +!rite an open phrase f o r the number of i n c h e s in i t s h e i g h t w weeks from now. (b) P l a n t E grows three i n c h e s e a c h week, and it is now 12 i n c h e s t a l l , Write a n open phrase f o r t h e number of i n c h e s in its h e i g h t w weeks f r o m now. ( c ) I n t h e c o u r s e of some weeks, t h e p l a n t s w l l l be equally t a l l . E x p r e s s t h i s by means of an open sentence. A man b r e a t h e s 20 tiraes per m i n u t e at sea l e v e l and takes one e x t r a breath per minuke f o r e a c h 1500 f e e t o f ascent. ( a ) 'Write an open phrase f o r the number o f b r e a t h s h e takes each minute h f e e t above sea l e v e l . ( h ) A t y f e e t above sea l e v e l a man b r e a t h e s 24 times p e r minute. W i t h the i n f o r m a t i o n obtained in (a), w r l t e a n open sentence stating this f a c t . Use e a c h of t h e verb symbols =, f, <; d , ), $, I, 2, in x -2 and g r a p h e a c h of t h e open sentences which you g e t . ' F i n d open sentences whose graphs are t h e following:

(a,

I 1

31.

Graph the following open sentences:

x = 2 (b) x = 2
(a)

or
and

x > 5
x > 5

(4
(d)

x > 2

or

"32.

x < 2 and F i n d an open s e n t e n c e whose graph w i l l be:

x < 5 x < 5

33.

*34,

You w i l l prcbably need $ 0 make a compound sentence u s l n g " a n d " a n d " o r " , as well a3 inequalities. A man, w i t h f i v e d o l l a r s in h i s pocket, s t o p s at a candy s t o r e on n l s way home wlth t h e intention o f t a k i n g h i s wife t w o pounds 0 ' candy. 1 H f i n d s candy by the pound box selling e I f he leaves t h e store f ' o r $ 1 . 6 9 , $1.95,$ 2 . 6 5 , a n d $ 3 . 1 5 . x i t h t w one-pound boxes of candy, ~ ( a ) m a t is the smallest amount of change h e c o u l d hat:e? (b) \&!hat I s t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f change he could h a v e ? ( r ) What s e t s of two boxes can he n o t afford? At t h e e n , j o f Chapter 3 (~xercises3-14, P r o b l e m 5 ) you ? l s r , n 7 ~ e r e d "mile for m d t i p l y l n g t e e n s t 1 . Using a and b, a r e s p e c t i ~ r e l y , to s t a n d f o r t h e units d i g i t s o f t h e t w o n ; ~ m b e r s , you s h o u l d now be able to write an open s e n t e n c e w h i c h expresses t h e p r o d u c t p in terms o f a and h. erhen you h a * ~ e r i t t e n y o u r sentence, use t h e distributive p r o p e r t y to w v e r i f y t h e correctness of your c h o i c e .

Chapter

TKE REAL liUMBERS

5-1 . & T

Peal Iiurnber Line

As you w o r ~ e dwlth t h e number l i n e , you n12y have ' o ~ e n c u r i o u s about s e v e r a l things. For one t h i n g , a iine e x t e n d s witklout end t o the left as wcll as Lo t h e rlgnt. We h a v e , how-

ever, labeled only those p o l n t s on t h e r i g h t of 0 . T h i s r a i s e s a question which we shall answer in this s e c t i o n : How shall we l a b e l the points on the l e f t ' ? In C h a p t e r 1 you were t o l d t h a t t h e r e are r a t i o n a l numbers t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w l t h p o l n t s on the l e f t h a l f of the number l i n e , b u t meanwhllc you have dealt only v ; i t h rational numbers on t h e
right h a l f .

.For a n o t h e r thing, you were t o l d t h a t some p o l n t s

Thiz r a i s s s a second question: Where a r e some of t h e s e points on t h e n u m b e r l i n e w h l c h do not correspond t o rational n u m b e r s , and what new nunzhers a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them? L e t us r e t u r n t o t h e f i r s t of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s : How s h a l l we l a b e l t h e p o i n t s on the l e f t of O? T h e r e is no d o u b t t h a t the l l n e contains i n f i n i t e l y many p o i n t s t o the l e f t o f 0. It is an e a s y matter t o l a b e l such p o i n t s i f w e follow t h e p a t t e r n we used t o t h e r i g h t o f 0 . As b e f o r e , w e u s e t h e i n t e r v a l from 0 to 1 as t h e u n i t of' measure, and locate points equally spaced a l v n g the l i n e to the l e f t . The f i r s t of t h e s e we l a b e l

on t h e number l i n e do n o t correspond to rational numbers.

---

where t h e symbol "-1" is r e a d " n e g a t i v e 1 , is r e a d ''negative 2 " , e t c . What is t h e c o o r d i n a t e of' t h e point which is 7 units t o the l e f t o f O? P r o c e e d i n g as b e f o r e , w e can find additional p o i n t s to t h e left of 0 and l a b s 1 them with symbols similar to t h o s e u s e d f o r numbers to t h e rlght, with an upper d a s h co indicate t h a t t h e number is to t h e left of 0 . Thus, for example, is t h e same d i s t a n c e from 0 an the l e f t as I s on t h e r i g h t , e t c .
-1, t h e second

-2

-2 ,

etc.,

-$

The s e t o f - numbers a s s o c i a t e d with p o i n t s on t h e n u m b e r all line is c a l l e d t h e s e t of real numbers. The n u m b e r s t o the l e f t of z e r o a r e c a l l e d t h e negative r e a l numbers and those to t h e
right a r e c a l l e d the positive r e a l numbers.
I n t h i s language,

the n m b e r s of arithmetic are t h e non-negative real n u m b e r s .

The s e t of all whole numbers {o, 1, 2, 3 , . . . I combined with - the s e t [-1, 2 , 3 , . . . I is c a l l e d t h e s e t o f i n t e g e r s [ ..., - 3 , 2 , -1, 0 , 1, 2, 3 , 1. The s e t of a l l rational nlmbers o' arithmetic combined with t h e n e g a t i v e rational f n m b e r s i s c a l l e d t h e s e t of rational numbers. (Certainly, a l l rational numbers are real numbers.) Hemember t h a t each r a t i o n a l number I s now assigned t o a p o l n t of the number l i n e , but t h e r e remain many points to whlch rational numbers cannot be assigned. The numbers a s s o c i a t e d

...

with t h e s e points are called t h e irrational numbers. (Thus, a l l irrational numbers a r e a l s o r e a l numbers.) Hence, we can regard
t h e s e t of r e a l numbers as t h e combined s e t

of rational and

irrational numbers.

F o r example, ell i r ~ t e g e r s ,s u c h a s 4, 0 , 2 , a r e rational numbers; f i n d examples of r a t i o n a l num-nerz- w h i c h are n o t i n t e g e r s . FurLhernore, a l l rational numbers s u c h a s f, 0 , 6 , a r e real

i
/ /

numt;cr;.

Thi' second questlon remains:

Imert- al'c some of t h e p o : n t s

I
1

on t n e n u r n k r l i n e w h i c h do n o t c o r r e z p o n d t o rational numkers?

I t wili b e p r o v e d I n a later chapter t h a t , f o r example, t h e n u r n h e ~ f i i i an i r r a t i o r l a l n u m b e r . L e t u s l o c a t e s h e points with c o o r d i n a t e s

fi

and

"&, respectively .

First of a l l , we r e c a l l c h a t is a number w h ~ s es q u a r e is 2 . YOU may have l e a r n e d t h a t the l e n g t h of a d i a g o n a l of o s q u a r e , whose s i d e s h a v e l e n g t h 1, is a n u m b e r whose s q u a r e is 2. ( D O you know any f a c t s about, r i g h t triangles which will help you v e r i f y t h i s : ) ) In o r d e r to l o c a t e a p o i u t on t h e number line for a l l we have to do is c o n s t r u c t a square with side o r l e n g t h 1 and t r a n s f ' e r the l e n g t h of o n e of' its d i a g o n a l s t o o u r n u m i ~ e r l i n e . T h i s we can d o , as in t h e f i g u r e , b y d r a w i n g

a,

on the number line and vyhose radius is t h e same length a s t h e d i a g o n a l o f t h e square. T h i s c l r c l e c u t s t h e number l l n e i n t w o p o i n t s , whose coordinates a r c the real numbers and -&, r e s p e c t l v e 1 : r . L a t e r you wlll p r o v e t h a t the number x 2 is not 3 r a t i o n a l number. Maybe you b e l i e v e t h a t f i i s 1 . 4 . Test f o r yourself whether t h i s is traile b y squaring 1.4. Is ( 1 . 4 1 ~ t h e same number a s 2: In t h e same way, test whether f i is 1 . i l l ; 1.4111. The square ~f e a c h of t h e s e decimals is closer t o 2 than the p r e ceding, L u t there seems to be no r a t i o n a l number whose s q u a r e i s
0

a c i r c l e whose c e n t e r is at t h e p o i n t

2.
[sec.

5-11

T h e r e a r c many more polnts on t n e ro,l'L n u m b e r l i n e which

h a v e coordin?tes whlch are n o t r a t l o n a l n ~ i n b e r s . Do you think

i s such a p o i n t ?

hky?

Problem SEL 5-1

? .

Draw t h e graphs o f the -1

following s e t s :

(4 {o,

3 * -5,

TI

Of t h e two points whose coordinates a r e given, which is to t h e

right of t h e o y h e r ?
(3)

3, -4

(4
(f)

5.
3

(h) -4,

&
1

(b)
(c)

5 , -4
-2,

-5, 2
0,

-10

-q

-16 -21 7,
(j)
-1

-4

(d)

-A-, 1

(d

7, 2

The number T is t h e r a t i o of t h e clrcurnference o f a c i r c l e to its di3meter. Thus, a c i r c l e whose diameter is of l e n g t h 1 hac a circumference cf l e n g t h ;7 Imagine such a c i r c l e r e s t i n g on the number l i n e at t h e poFnt 0 . If t h e c i r c l e I s rolled on t h e line, w i t h o u t s l i p p i n g , one complete r e v o l u t i o n 50 the right, It will s t o p on a p o i n t . What i s t h e coordinate of t h i s p a l n t ? Tf r o l l e d t o the l e f t one revolution it ~ 1 1 1 s t o p on what p o i n t ? Can you l o c a t e t h e s e p o i n t s approximately

on t h e real number l i n e ? n o t a r a t i o n a l nunber. )

he real number
A integer? n

i~

like

a, is

4.

Is - 2 a whole number?
A real number?

A rational n-amber?

(b)

Is

10 -a 3

whole number? An i n t e g e r ?

A r a t i o n a l number?

A real number?

(c)

Is -fi a whole n u n b e r ?
A real number?

An I n t e g e r ?

A rational number?

j. 'ihich o f i h e following s e t s a r e the sane?

is Lhe set of whole n u ~ b e r s , 3 i s the s e t of positlve i n z e g e r s , C is the set of non-negacive integers, I is cne set of I n t e g e r s , Pi is t h e s e t of counting nuntors.

5 -

3rder on t h ---- e

Z e a l N u ~ b e rL i n e

3ow d j . d w d e s c r f b e o ~ d e rf o r the positive reel nunbers? c S i n c e , f o r e x m ~ p l e , "j is 5 0 the lef'l; of 6'' or, t h e rumue? line, ant s i n c e " G I s l e s s than 6", we agreed t h a t t h e s e t w o s e n t e n c e s ,

say <he same t h i n g a b o ~ t5 and 6 , sefit cnc e

We w r o t e this as the rrue

5 r 6. T h u s , f o r a p a i r of positive real numbers, "is to the left of" on Lne n c ~ S e rline and "is less than" describe the same order. \;l-2; s h a l l we mean by "is l e s s than" f o r ar-y ~ , w oreal n ~ n b e r s ,w h e t h e r they a r e positive, negative, o r O? O r answer u is simply: "is to the l e f t of" on the real n m b e r l l n c . L e t us l o o k f o r a j u s t l f i c a t i o n in common e x p e r l ence . 411 o f ..is a y e : m i l i a r with thermometers a n d a r e aiqare t n n t scaies on t h e ~ . o x e : e r s z s e nuncers above C and numbers b e l ~ v i 0 , as w e l l as 2 i:seli,. We know tk,zt the c o o l e r t h e w e e , ~ h e r :fhe iower on tfie s c a l e we read t h e temperature. If K e p l a c e a t h e m o r n e k e r in L horLzontai position, we s e e t h a z It resembles p a r t of o u r real n m s e r l i n e . h k e n we say 1 1 is less thant' ("I,s a lower tem-

pt'r'a+cure t h a r , " ) , t!c Jean " i s t o t h r :eft, o f 1 ' o n t h e t,herrnr;lmeter s c a l e . On t h i s s c a l r , , +dkljch num:ser 1s t h e lesser, 5 or lo? TIXIS l/!e extens o x l ' c r n e r meaning o f ' ' i s l e s s t h a n " t o t h e 1::hole zct of r e a l n m s e r s . We agree that :

less than1' f o r real n m h e r a means " i s to the l e f r ; of"' on t h e rcal n . m b e r line . I a and b ! ' ?-re real n - m b e r s , " 3 i.5 less t1:an D " is wrir~cn a < L. ( : w and in ' h ,I:'utur4c a variable rLs understood to have as !g ;c i t s dolrxin t h e set hi. real numbers, unless ~5herwises t a t ~ d . ) Can you give a mean in;^, for "is grc:iccr 5han1' f o r PC-al nurncers? A s k e l ' o r e , use t h e symbol ">" f o r "is greater t - h a n " . In t h e s m c :<>::, exslain the N I P ~ ? ~ I ~ Yof~ S -" , ")","g"', "$" for ~ "< real n w f b c l - s .

11

.. Is

1.

90r e z c n cf zhc f o l . i o v ; i n ~ s e n t e t - d c s ,

determine which qre t r u e

and wh:sh

false.

(f')
(R)
(c)
-4

-4

# 3.5

-6 > 3
7.5
-3 -

5.5

(11)

(i)

< -I: < 2.8

7~ { - 2 . 8

2.

C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i r , g p a i r s of real numbers and tiell which of che s e n t e n c e s below each p a i r a r e t r u e and which a r e

false.

For example, f o r he pair 2 and

22-2: 2
2

-2
-2

<

true;
is f a l s e ;

-2

>
(b)

is f a l s e .
2 and

(a)

-3.14 and

-3:

2:

(c)

A.

2 i ~ r l d 2 ~ 2 :

'

(d)

O.OC1

and

b~?.v:the p a p h of the t r u t h s e t o f c a c h of the f a l l o w i n g

sentences

F o r exarnpl? :

>

1,

4 - 3 - 2 7 0

(f) c ( 2 a n d c
(g)

(h)
(i)

> -2 a . r 3 and a 2 7 d < -1 o r d > ? a (6 a n d a < -2

F o p e a c h or' t h e f ' o l 1 o ~ ; i n gs e t s . w r i t e an opEn s e n t e n c e

i n v o l v i n g t h e varLable
'IruLh seL:

w h i c h has t h e g i v e n s e L as its

(a)
(b)

is t h e s e t o f a l l real numbers n o t e q u a l t o 3 . Is t h e s e t of all r e a l numbers i e s s than or e q u a l t o

i s t h e s e t of 311 r e a l numbers n o t i e s s than
p : chco'e

(c)
;

5,
-

::fioose afiy p o s i t i v e r e a l nurn3er

zr-j n c g a t i v e ~ e z l

numter

Y:.

h h i c h , i' !

a n y , of' t h e ? o i l o w l r . g zer,te!lces aril

Let t h e dotnain of' t h e varlable

T h e n f i n d t n e r r u t h s e t oi

be she s e t oi' i n t e g e r s

(a)
(b)
(c)

2 < p a n d p < 3 .

p ( - 2 and - $

<

p.

p = 2 o r p = - 5 .
During a c o l d Cay the LemperaLure r l s e s 10 degrees from

i.

(a)
it)

(c)

is the final t e m p e r a t u r e ? On a n o t h e r day t h e temperature r i s e s 5 d e g r e e s f r o m - l o 0 . How hi@ does it g o ? During a January thaw t h e Cemperature r l s e s f r o n 1' 5 to 35U. How much d l d it r i s e ?
-5'.
Whht
)

6.

I n t h e slanks Gelow u s e one of =, <, t e n c e , if p o s s i b l e , In e a c h c a s e .

(d)

to m a k c a t r u c ::en-

-9
-

-=
29

(i.)

2. 5

There a r e c e r t a i n simple b u t h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t s about LF.e o r d e r of the real n u m b e r s on t h e r e a l number l n . 'e If we c h o o s e ar.y t w o cif f'erent r e a l n u m b e r s , we are s u r e c h a t t h e firs; 1s l e s s t h a n t h e s e c o n d or t h e second is l e s s than t h e first, b u t n o t both, S t a t e d in tP.e language of a l g e b r ~ ,t h i s p r o p e r t y of o r d e r for r e a l numDers becomes t h e comparison p r o p e r t y :
If'

i s a r e a l number and

is a real number, t h e n e x a c t l y

o n e o f the f o l l o s i n g is t r u e :

Problem S e t 3 - 2 b

1.

F o r each of' t h e f'ollowing p a i r s of numbers v e r i f y t h a t t h e c c r n p r l s o n p r o p e r t y 1s Lrue by d e b e r m i n l n g whlch one of Che t h r e e possibilities a c t u a l l y h o l d s between the numbers: ( a ) -2 and -1.6 (d) 11, and (b) O and 2 ( e ) 12 and ( 5 i 2 ( x )3 (c1 5 4, (f) ?and 2
Malie up t r u e s e n t e n c e s , usLng

y)

2.

<, involving

t h e followi3g

pairs :

(i)

-&,
&+

-1 .5
7 ,

(j)

1.5 + 3

3.

Tilt:

ccmparison p r o p e r t y s t a t e d in t h e t e x t is a statement
Trjr t o formulaLe t h e c o p r e s p o n d i n g p r o p e r t y

involving "<".
involving

">",

and t e s t it with t h e p a i r s o f nwnters in

Tr.g to s t a t e a comparison p r o p e r t y involving

">" . -

'dhich is l p s s t h a n t h e o c h e r ,
;I 11 6 24 --=--xr=-and

4 5

OF

g?
9

YOU can f i n d o u by ~

a p p l y i n g the nultiplicacion p r o p e r t y o f 1 to each number to ge:

2 = b> k5 o 5

30'

Then 4

< i;, 5

because

the l e P t o' 25 or) Lhe n u n - ~ e r i n e i 1 30 You s h o u l d nov~ u e a b l e to compare any two r a t i o n a l numoers.
lim: would

- is k ;

to

11; the p r o c e s s ; do not a c t u a l l y c a r r y it o u t . )

i e r i l ~ g sY O U notlced, in c o m p a r i n g

yo^:

decide which i s t h e l e s s e r ,

I -

55

(DBSCPIDB

i . ,

<

167 and j < - ( i - e m ,

167 @ and 2 5'

th3t

<

113

55

113 55 f r a c t i o n s with the s m , e denominator? How c o u l d you find o u ~ si~nlls~iy whicn i s l e s s e r , - or 'O Or suppose that x and y 27 2 - 1 a n d - -1 < Y. Again using t h e are r e a l numuel-s and t h a t x < number line, what c ? n you s a y a t o u c t h e o r d e r of x and y? The p r o p e r t y of' ~ r d e r used in t h e s e 'ast t h r e e examples we
* c a l l the transj.tive property:

d e c l d e about; t h e o r d e r of

57 } Could :TOU 167 and - w i t h o u t writing them as

If a , t, c a r e r e a l numbers and il' a r b and i~ ( c , then a < c .

Problem -S e t 5-2c 1.

In eacn of t h e foilowing g r o u p s of t h r e e r e a l numters, d e t , e r n i n e t n e ir order:

F~~ example, -I -=

$,

2, -5
3

h a v e the o r d e r :

- g C

$,

$ ( $,

-<
7

f.

.-:cotnoto
d

k'ron: tiie L a t i . r l , t r a n s l r e , t o go a c r o s s .
[SPC.

5-21

(b)

TT,

V , and

-&,

(i)

1 + F,

14-

{+12,

1 2 (1 + F)

2
3.

transitive property f o r ">", and illustrate this p r o p e r t y in t w o of' the e x e r c i s e s in Problem 1.

State a

A r t and Bob a r e s e a t e d on opposite ends of a see-saw (teeter-

t o t t e r ) , and Artts end o f the see-saw comes slow12 t o the

g r o u n d . Cal g e t s on and Art g e t s o f f , a f t e r which Bubls end o f the see-saw comes to t h e g r o u n d . W o is h e a v i e r , h A r t o r Cal? 4.

Is t h e r e a t r a n s i t i v e p r o p e r t y for the relation g i v e an example.

S t a t e a transitive p r o p e r t y f o r The s e t of numbers greater t h a n

"="?

If so,

5.
6.

">", 0

and g i v e an example.
we have c a l l e d t h e

p o s i t l v e r e a l numbers, and t h e s e t of numbers l e s s t h a n the negative real numbers. Describe t h e ( a ) n o n - p o s i t i v e r e a l numbers, ( b ) non-negative r e a l numbers.

7.

F i n d the o r d e r of' each o f t h e following p a i r s of numbers:

(a)

-d

g-

(c)

%and

-104

5-3.

Opposites
0

Itken we labeled p o i n t s to the l e f t of

on Lhe real r:~cn;bc~

line, we began b y m a r k i n g off successive unit l e n g t h s t g the l e f t of 0 . We c a n a l s o t h i n k , however, of p a i r i n g off p g i n k s at e q u a l d i s t a n c e s from 0 a n d on o p p o s i t e s l d e s o f 0 . Thus, 2 I s at t h e s a n e distance from 0 as 2 . What nurnber is at t h e 7 If you choose any p o i r ~ con t h e c w l ? dlstance f r o m 0 as -? r ? nwnber l l n e , c a n you find a p o i n t at t h e same distance rrom 0 and o n t h e opposite s i d e ? Lhat about t h e p o i n t 0 i t s e l f ' ?

S l n c e t h e t w o n u m b e r s In such a p a i r a r e on opposite s i d e s o f 0 , it is n a t u r a l to c a l l them opposites, The opposite of a non-zero real number is t h e o t h e r . real number which i c a t a n equal

dlstance from

on he real number line.

ifhat is

the o p p o s i t e

of'

O?

Let u s c c n c i d e r some t y p i c a l r e a l numbers. Write them In a c o l u m r ~ . Then write t h e i r opposites in a n o t h e r column; then study t h e a d j a c e n t s t a t e m e n t s .

-2

is t h e opposite of
t h e opposite o f

1 . - 1s 2
0,
0; 0

2,

1 -' 2
0.

is the opposlte of

The ststements themselves a r e c m b e r s o m e t o w r T t e , and x e need

a r;ymool meaning " t h e o p p o s i t e 3f1'. L e t u s u s e t h e l o s e r ~-irlsh to msan "the opposite o f " . With t h i s E ~ I ~ G ? ;he thllee s t a x . ments become t h e 'crce s e n t e n c e s :
11

11

0 = -0.

( ~ e a dt h e s ~ e n t e n c e s s E ; I P ~ ~ ~ L I )~ ~ z ' .
FLr:;t.
i-*

W c a n l e ? r n t ~ t h l ~ g sfrom t h e s e s c n t c n c e s . e 3

a p g o a r s th-L " - 2 " a n i " - 2 " a r e e i i ' f e r e n t n m e s i'or Lhc 3smc n u m t e r . Tnat - s , "n:gative 2" a r ~ d "the oppasitc of 2" r e ~ r e s e i - , t
t h e same number.
Hence, i t makes no d i f i ' e r e n c e at ?:hat he' &';

: e d a s h is d r a m , s i n c e t h e rneanlng is t h e same f o r i k e u p p e r h an5 lovrer c!ash, TRls b e i n g the c a s e , we do not; n e e d bc,th symLoJ s V.?iicl~ s i ~ a l l T ye t a i n ' ? The u p p e r d a s h ref'ers o r l l y tu n c g a ve t i v ? numbers, whereas the l o w r d a s h may a p p l y L O an;r ~ c a l hot;^ t h a t the oppositc of' the p ~ s l t i v e:lumber 2 is- t h e nunaer.
neg2tive nunoer

-2 ,

and t h e opposlte cf' t h e negative r l u m b c r

; ;
!c

1 is :he pos:tive ncmber - . ) Hence It is natural to r e t a i n 2 the " o p p o s i t e cf" symbol to mean either "ne&ative" or "apposite o f " when the numPer in quest-Ion is p o s i , t l v e . Now t h e s m t c n c e s may b e w r i t t e n
-2 = - 2 ,

( r e a c " n e g a t i v e 2 is the o p ~ o s i t e f 2 " ) o

1 -= - 2

1 )

(read

1 is t h e opposite of n e g a t i v e 9)

The s e c o n d of' t n e s e sentences can be road a l s o a s :

S ~ c o n d ,we o b s e r v e in g e r ~ e r a ltha', t h e opp~slte01' t h ~

o ~ y c s i t ; eof a n m b e r is t h e n u m b e r itself;

--

--

in z y m b o l s :

For e v e r y real number

y,

-(-Y)

Y.

m a t is the o p r o s i t e of' the opposlte o f Lhe opposite of a number? Wnat; is ttie qpposite 01' the o p p o s i t e of a n e g a t i v e nuntbell? 11 bherl we a t t a c h t h e dash - to a variable x we a r e performi n g on x the u p z ~ ~ a t i oof "deccrmining the opposite of x". n Do no1 c o n f u s e t h i s wiih t h e b i n a r ~ operation of subtraction, rqhictl is perl'ormed on L W O numbers, s u c h as 3 - x, rneaning "x subcracteu :'rom j. I T I',?lat k i n d of number is -x i f x is a positive number? 1 ' x is a negative nunber: 1 If x 1s O? W s h a i l r z a d " -xf' as t h e " c p p o s i t e of x" . Thus, if x c is a n u n b e r to the right of' 0 (positive), t h e n - x is to t h e l e f t : (negative); if x 1 s L O the Icr't of 0 (negative), t h e n - x i a c o Lhe r j & t ( p o s i t i v e ) .
11

Problem S e t

- S-3a
-(-2.3)

1.

Form the o p p o s i t e of e s c h of the f o l l o w i n g numbers:

(a) 2 . 3
(b)
2.
\illat

(c)

( e ) -(a2 x O )

-2

- )

(d)

- ( 3 . 6 - 2.4)
is positive?

(r)
if

- 0 ~ 2t- O )

kind of nulnter is if

-x if x
if
-x

is

negative?

I s ~ero?

Khat kind

-x

of number i s x is a negative number?

is a positive n u m b e r ?

if

if

-x

is

O?

4. (a) Is e v e r y r e a l n 7 m b e r t h e opposite o f some real number? ( b ) Is the s e t of a l l o p p o s i t e s oT r e a l numbers t h e same as

the s e t of a11 r e a l n u m b e r s ? Is t h e s e t of a l l n e g a t i v e numbers a subseL of t h e set (c) of a l l opposites of r e a l n u m b e r s ? (d) Is t h e set o f a l l opposites of real numbers a s u b s e t of the e c t of a l l negative numbers? ( e ) Is e v e r y opposite of a number a n e g a t i v e n u m b e r ?

The crdering o f numbers o n t h e r,?al nurnker l i n e n p e c i i ' i e s 1 1 hat is less ~ h a n 2 . Is t h e opposite n f - - l e s s t h m t r l e 2 2 o p p a s i t e of 2? Piake up o t h e ? similar exarn?les 01' pairs 31'

numbers.
i'iiicl

A f t e r y ~ have d e t e n m i n~i.l:hc u

orciering o l ' s pair, then

t h ~ orderi.ng ai" ",heir opposites.

You w i l l s e e that

here

I s a gencral p-operty

f o r opposites:

F o r r e a l r.umLc:Ys

Lf

L , then

a n i L, - b ( -a.
a

Problem - 5-3b Set

1

For each of the following p a i r s , determine whlch is t h e g r e a t e r

number :

(a)
(b)

2 . 9 7 , -2.47
-12, 2

(4
)

-1, 1
- 0 ,

( I
2
(i)

0 , -0

( h ) -0.1, -0.01
0.1, 0.01

(c)
2.

-355, -762

(f)

0 . 2 , 0 . 4

Write t r u e s e n t e n c e s f o r the following n-mbers zrtd thelr o p p u u l t e s , u s i n g zhe r e l a t i o n s < I I or ' I > " , Exampl?: F o r the nuxbers 2 and 7 , 2 ( 7 an6 -2 > - 7 .
I1

(a)
(b)

2 7.

1 -6
-77

(d)

4 3(7

21,

3 ( 2 ~ +

8)

,
7 7 ,

(4
(i)

8+6

-2
0 )

(4
3.

22 7

(3 + 7

(5 (

013)

of t h e following open ~entences: ( H i n t : In p a A s ( c ) and ( d ) use o r d e r p m p e r t y of o p p o s i t e s b e f o r e graphing. )

Graph the t r u x h se",

(a)
(b)

>

( 3 )

-x> 3
-X

>

-3

(d)

>

-3

D e s c r i b e t h e t r u t h s e t of e a c h open s e n t e n c e :
(a)
- i :

# 3

-x+-3

(c) x < 0 ( d ) -x < 0

(e)

-x
-X

>
2

o
0

(11

5.

P o r t h e following s e c s , g i v e two open sentences e a c h o f

whose t r u ~ h e t s is the g i v e n set ( u s e opposites when s convenient):

(a)
(b)

(c
(d) (e)
G.

a l l non-negative r e a l n u m t c r s . 3 is t h e s e t of a l l r e a l numbers n o t equal to - 2 . C is t h e set o f a l l real numbers n o t greater ~ h a n 3 . 6. E 1,s the s e t of a l l r e a l numbers.
A is t h e s e t of

Wr5.te an open sentence f o r each cf the fallowing g r a p h s :

7. F o r e a c h ol
(a) (b)

t h e following numbers w r l t e I t s o p p o s i t e , and

t h e n c 5 o o s e the g r e a t e r of t h e number and its opposite:

3
0

(f)
(g)

-0.01
-(-2)

(d)
(E)

-7.2

-&
"
+I1

*6.

L e t i s write

f o r the phrase on the r e a l n>mber l i n e . Does I '

is further from O than1' >I1 h a v e the comparis~n

(I

p r o p e r t y en-joyed by " > " , t h a t I s , if r e a l nurfbers, is it t r u e t h a t a S b

a a n d c are d i f : e r e n t o r rJ h a but not b o t h ? Does " b l ' have a transitive property? For w h l c h S U E s e z of T h e s e t of real numbers u o " + " and ">" nave the same meaning?

9. Trans1 a t e the following English senyences into open s c t ~ t e n c e, s

describing t h e variable u s e d :

(a) John's score I s g r e a t e r t h a n n~gativeI C O . 'dhar. is h i s score? L ) I know c h a t I d o n t t have any money, b u t I am no m o w t h a n $200 In debt.. What: is m y f l n a n c - i a l condition? ( c ) P a u l has p a i d $10 o f his bill, b u t s t i l l owes more than $25. What was t h e arr,ount of' Faults kill'?
10. Change t h e numerals " Corms tu.itJh t h e same l2 denominators. ( ~ i n : F i r s t do Lhis for t arrd q . l,llhat l5 ) 15 is the o r d e r oi' and - q. ( ~ i n t : Knowine t;he order
and
l1

- ~ 9 't c l

;.5+,

of

and

5,

what i s t h e order o f t h e i ~ oppos: t r ? ? ) Nov;

s t a t e a g e n e r a l r u l e f o r d e t e ~ r n i n l n ~the o r d ~ r y of t

w ~

n e g a t i v e ratlonal n u m b e r s ,

Absolute Value

We now want t o dei'ine a new a n d v e r y u s e f ' u i operation on a single real n ~ u n b e ~ ' : t h e operation o: t a k l n ~its a b s o l u t e va.il:e.
The a b s o l u t e v a l u e of a n o n - z e r o

r e a l number iz t h e g r e a t e r of' t h a t number and Its opposite. The a b s o l u t e v a l u e of C is 0.

The absolute v a l u e o f 4 is 4 , because the g y e a t e r of 5 and -11 is 4 . Tne a o s o l u t r v a l u e of 2 is ( x h y ? ) lmat is 2

$.

the a b s o l u t e v a l u e of -17? WhJ.ch is always t h e grent;er of a n o n - z e r o number and its o p p o s i t e : t h e posi:.ive or t h e rleaativr number? E x p l a i n why t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e of' m y rc.zl n u m b e r is a p o s i t i v e number o r 0 .

As u s u a l , we agree on a symtsol to i n d i c a t e the o p e r a t i o n .

hie write

In1
LC

mean t h e 3 b s o l u t e v a l u e ~ . t h e number f

n.

For example,
1121 = ? 2 .

4
Idfil,~:
thqt.

4,

1-31

&,

e a c h el' these Is n o n - n e g a t i v e .

If' you look a t these numbers and ; h e i r absolute t a l u e s on

t h ~ nwnser l ' n e , what can you c o n c l u d e a b o u t L l l e distance b e t w e e n a ? ~ u ~ b e and O? You n o t i c e t h a t the d i s t a n c e between 4 and 3 r= is 9 : tetucen and 0 is , s t c . N o t i c e tnaL ttie d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n any two p o i n t s of t h e number line is a nonnegative r e a l n m t e r .

The distance between a r e a l n u m b e r and 0 O n the Y e k l

numb3r l i n e is the ~ b s o 1 c ; t e v a l u e of thaL number.

I.

F i n d the a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of t t e f o l l o w i i ~ gnurr~sers:
3 )

-7

(4
(d)

(6-4)

( e ) -(14

(b)

2.

(a)

14 x 0 (f) 4 What k i n d of number is -; what k i n d o f number is 3 (Pion-nsgative o r negat l ve? ) If x is a no^-negative re31 number, what k i c d of number is 1x12

-MI

-(-(-m

-t

0)

(b)

mat kind of number is

T;

1- $1
If
(c)

on-negative or n e g a t i v e ? )
n e g a t i v e r e a l number, v r h a L k i n d of' number

what kind of n u m b e r is

x is a is J x \?
1

11 x

a nun-negative number f o r e v e r y

x?

Explain.

3.

i J o r a r d e g a t i v e number

x,

which is g r e a t e r ,

cr

Ixl?

4.

(-1, - 2 , 1, 2 c l o s e d u n d e r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f 1 t a k i n g aasolute v a l u e s of I c s e l e n e n t s ?
seL

Is t h e

W n o t c t h a t i ' o r a non-negacive number, e h e greater oi' the e number and i t s opposite is the number I t s e l f . T h a t is:
For every real number

which is

or positive,
X.

11 = x

h a t can be sald of' a negative number a.nd i t s a t . s o l u t e v a l u e ? 't!rit;e corm,on numerals f o r the f o l l o w i r ~ p a i r s Yor yourself. ~;

(&t !a

kind e l numbers are

-5,

1 F,

- 3 . 1 , -467?) You found t h a t 1-34

=

-(-3.1)~

1-

-(- 1

/-'t67( = - ( - h t 5 ~ ) ,

Is it now clear t h a t we may say,

h he a b s o l u t e v a l u e of' a negative
That is:

number is t h e o p p o s i t e of t h e n e g a t l v e number":'

For every negative r e a l number 1x1 = -X.

x,

i.

Wnick of' :he

f o l l o w i n g sentences are ; r u e ?

(a)
(b)

1-71

=I 1-21 2 1-31
< :

(a)

(c)

]!+I

<

11 1

(el )

1-31 1-51 { 14 -7 4 1 7

(g)

1-51
1-41

[ti) (i)

I51 > d7
1-212= 4

X h s t is Lr,e t r u c k : s e t o f each open ser,tcncc?

(2)

Ix, - 1,

(b)

1x1 =

5,

(c)

1 1 + I = 4, x

(a) 5

,xl

= 2.

?.;hLch c ' Ci;h i'olloving open senLerlces a r e tru? f a r a l l r e a l i

nunbers

x?

(Finz: G I x a p o s i t i v e v a l u e ; t h c n glve v a l u e . Kow come L o a decis~on.)

a ne~ative

5. U e s c r l l e the
centenzc:
r
0 .

v a r i a ' r l l ~ 2used and ';ranslate ^into a ? open :

2nd - h u e l e ~ s

J o n n kcs l e s s money t h a n ; ,
Hob: rnucn none;:

does 20hn h a v e ?

Graph t h e t r u t h s e t s of t h e following s e n t e n c e s :

(a)
(b)

11 < 2 x x > - 2 and x < 2

1x1
;

I.)
(d)

<

>z
-2

or

>

Compzre ;he graphs of t h e s e n t e n c e s in p r c b i c n s 6 ( n ) and ( ~ 1 . 1~ 6 ( c ) 2nd ( c i ) .

iz, a negative r e a l n u r b e r , $hen x L s the oppozite o f t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e 01' x; t h a t is, f :
S:?o\i t h a t : S

0, then

- 1x1

(Hint:

i k n t is t h e a p p o s i t e of' the

op~ositeof a n u m b e r ? ) Graph t h e set of l n t e g e r s l e s s than 5 whose a b s o l c t e v a l u e s a r e g r e a t e r than 2 . Is -5 an clement of this s e t ? Is 0 an element cf' t h i s s e t ? Is -10 an element of this s e t ?

If R

is the s e t of 311 r e a l numbers,

positive real numbers, and I write chree numbers: (a) in P t u b not in I, (b) In R b u t not in F, ( c ) i n R b u t n o t in P nor in ( 6 ) in P b u t not i n R .
T r a n s l a t e i n t o an ogen s e n s e n c e : remailled w i t h i n

P t h e s e t o f all t h e s e t of a l l i n t e g e r s ,

I,

Tie t e ~ n p e r a u r etoday

5 degrees o f

0.

Compare t h e truth s e t s o f t h e two eentences

5-5. Summary
1. Poi~tsto t h e left of 0 on t h e number l i n e are l a x l e d with n e g a t i v e numbers; the s e t of real number:: c o n s i s t s of' a l l numbers o? arithmetic and t h e i r o p p o s l w s .

2.

Many p o i n t s on the nmber l i n e a r c n c t a s s i g n e d r a t i ~ n a l

n w b e r coordinates.

numbers. and irrational numbers.

These p o i n t s a r e l a b e l e d with irrational Tne s e t of real numbers consists o f all r a t i o n a l

3.

"Is loss than" f o r r e a l numbers means "to t h e l e f L o f " on c h c number l i n e .

Cornparlson P r o p e r t y . If a Is a real nunbet> and b is a real n m b e r , then exactly one of the following I s t r u e : a<b, a = b , b < a .
F r o p e r t x . If a, t , c and o ( c, then a ( c .
0

' -.

5. Transitive
a
(

are r e a l numbe-rs and if

6.

The opgosite o f
0

is

and the o p p o s i t e of any o t h e r real

n m b e r is the o t h e r number which is at an e q u a l distance frcm

on the r e a l number l i n e .
0

7.

The a b s o l u t e value of

any o t h e r real number o p p o s i t e of n .

is 0 , and t h e absolute v a l u e of is the g r e a t e r o r n and t h e is a n e g a t i v e n u r n b ~ r . -x is a positive nuntber.

n

8. If x is a positive number, then -x

If x
9.
is a negative n u n b e r , t h e n

is a e n o t e d b y In] . A l s o , In1 is a non-negative number w h i c h 1 s t h e d i s t a n c e between 0 and n on t h e number line.

The a b s o l u t e v a l u e of t h e r e a l number

10. I ' n f
If

> - 0,
(

then In1 = n; 0 , then (nl = -n.

' t h l c h of tihe Yollowir;~: s e n t u r x e s are t r u e ? (a)

(b)

-2

< -5

(dl -

1
/

2
i

-(

6 + 1

I.:+

-(5 - 7) = - ( 2 )

( e ) -2
(t7)

,-;I] 7
,:-3i

(c)
2.

45

3)

< -1-4
- 2 ) + 6

1-21

Which o f t h e f o l l o - d i n g s e n t e n c e s are i ' l 1 . s ~ :

(a)

-+ 5>

(d)

7 .C 1

and

- 4 < -5 ? 6

3. Draw

t h e graph of each of' the followinc s e n t e n c e z :

(a) v 2 l
(lj)

a113 v
2

c 3

(s) x r
(d)

4 or x >

IF!

Jx[ = x

4.

Describe the t r u t h s e t of' each s e n t e n c e .

(a) Y ( 3
(b)

and

>

(d)

1x1 = -x

- Ju[c 2

(c)

-3 < x

<

3.

Considcr the open s e n t e n c e : r u t h s e t if the domaln of (a) (b) ~ e a numbers l integers

" 11 c: x
x
(c) (d)

3 " . D r a w t h e g r a p h of i t s is the set of:

n o r . - n e g a t i v e r e a l numbers

negative integers

6.

D e s c r i b e t h e v a r f a b l c s used ar.d t r a r - ~ s ? a t c a c h of t h e f'o1Lov:e i n g into &n open sentence:

(a) Or, T h u r s d a y t h e average t.emperature was h0 loncr chan o n 0 Friday, and on Friday it was !;elow -10 . What was tne sverage temperature on Thursday? r3 (b) On Sunday t h e average temperature r e m a i n e d within 6
of

-50 .

7. If R

is t h e s e t of a l l real numbers, P the s e t o f a11 posiLive r e a l numbers, F t h e s e t of a l l rational numbers., I t h e s e t o f a l l i n t e g e r s , which of the following a r e t r u e statements? (a)
(c)

FS

(L) Every
Them
Every

(a)
(e)

mere

a ~ubsetof R . elenent o f I is a n element of F. are elements of I w h i c h a r e not. elements of clernenb o f I is an element of P . are elcrnents o f R which are n o t elements of

X. F.

8. D r z w t h e graph o f the s e t of i n t e g e r s l e s s t h a n 6 whose absolutc v a l u e s a r e g r e a t e r t h a n 3 . Is -8 an element of

this set?

9.

When a c e r t a i n i n t e g e r and its s u c c e s s o r a r e added, t h e r e s u l t is the s u c c e s s o r Itself.

(a) Write an open s e n t e n c e translating the E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e

above.

(b) 10.

Find t h e t r u t h set of t h l s sentence.

The p e r i m e t e r of a square is l e s s than 10 i n c h e s .

(a) \ h a t side (b) mat area do you know about t h e number of units, of' this s q u a r e . Graph t h i s s e t . do you know a b o u t t h e number o f unlts, of this s q u a r e . Graph t h i s set.
s,

in t h e

A,

in t h e

Chapter 6 PROPERTIES OF ADDITION

6-1. Addltion - -Real Nunbers - of . E v e r s i n c e first grade you have been adding numbers, t h e nonnegative numbers o f arithmetic. Now w a r e d e a l i n g with a l a r g e r e s e t of numbers, t h e r e a l numbers. Our l o n g experience with adding non-negative numbers, b o t h in arithmetic a n d on t h e nunber

l i n e , should q u i c k l y give us a c l u e as t o how we add real numbers. L e t us c o n s l d e r t h e profits and l o s s e s o f an imaginary i c e cream v e n d a r durlng h i s 10 days in business. We u s e p o s i t i v e numbers to r e p y e s e n t p r o f i t s and n e g a t i v e numbers for l o s s e s . L e t us d e s c r i b e his business a c t i v i t y , and then m a l i e two columns. one f o r t h e a r t t h e t i c of computing h i s net income o v e r two-day p e r i o d s , and the other for picturing the same on t h e number l i n e .
Etrsiness
Mon.:

Arithmetic

I l u ~ b e rLine . -

Profit o r $7 7 + 5 = 12, T u e . : Profit o f $5 n e t income

b!ed. : P r o f i t of

I
- -0I -

7-q-5-+

7
- 4 -

12

$6
6 + (-4) = 2 , n e t income
+

mu.: Lozs of $ 4
(Tire t r o u b l e )
R , : Loss of $7 i (another t i r e )
Sat. : P r o S i t o f $4

p-+
1

L -

(-7)

!I

= -3

-7

-3

Sun.: Pay of r e s t Mon. : Loss of $3

0

( c o l d day)

i-

(-3)

-3

-3

Tue. : Loss of $4 (colder) Wed. ; Loss of $b

+ I (-4) i- - 6 ) = -10 - I 0 (

-----?7
I I

(gave U P )

-4

These ~ c c o u n t sIllustrate almust evcry possible sum o f yea1 numbers: z p c a i c i v e p l u s a p o s i t i v e , a p o s i t i v e p l u s a negative, a n e ~ a t i v e ~ U Ea positive, 0 plus a n e g a t i v e , a n d a negative P p l u s a negative. One of t h e purposes of this s e c t i o x l wLll be t o l e a r r : how t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o the l a n g - ~ a g cof algebra o p e r a t i o n s w : h we f i r s t hc describe ~;ometr5cally. Addition on t,he number line is such an o p e r a t i o n ; we s h ~ l l try to define it in t h e langusg? of algebra. If we take 7 i . 5 and p i c t u r e t h i s additior, on t h e number I l n e , bi,e f i r z t go from CI to 7, a n d thcn from 7 \?re move 5 more units tu the r i g h t . If w e c o n s i d e r (-7) 4, we f i r s t go f r o r . + 0 to {-7), and then frcm ( - 7 ) move h i t s to t h e r i g h t . These ~ x a m p l e sremind ~s of something we d r e a d 7 know: To add a positive num5er, WE mcve t o :e r i g h t 3n $he nurr:bei~ l i n c . It should now h be c l e a r fron: ow. 0:her examples a b o v e what; h3ppens on t h e nunber l i n e wher we add a negative mmber. hhen we a d d e d ( - a ) , we moved 4 units t o th? l e f t ; when we added (-61,we moved 6 units to the l e ? t ; . W have one more case t o cor.sider: If we add 0 , e what motign, if any, r e s u l t s ? W h a v e now d e s c r i b ~ dt h e m ~ t i o ni n all cases; l e t us see e if WF! can learn to say - g e b r a i c a l a how f a r w e move. F o r ~ e t alf o r tke moment t h e direction; we .just wan: t o know -- we now f a r g o when rie go from a t o a + b. kU~t.11 o ' 1 3 p c s i t i v e i.le g o to the r'ght. Y e s , 'out h o w f a r Y ~ @ J u s t b ur.its. go the-n b is n e g a t i v e , we g o to the I 2 f t . How f a r ? be go ( - b ) units. l (Remember ( - b ) is p o s l t l v e if b i s n e g a t i v e . ) I b is 0, we f d o n ' t g o a t all. f i a t symbol do we kr,ow whll:ti near,s ''b if b I s p o a i t l v e , -b if b is n e g a t l v c , and 0 I f b is CI"? "1bj1', of courae. And s o we have learned t h a t to f i n d a + b on the number I i n ~ , start from a and move t h e d i s t a n c e Ib ( we t o t 5 e r i g h t , if b is positive; t o t h e l e f t , i f b is n e g a t i v e ,

1.

Problem -S e t 6-1 Do the following problems, using p o s i t i v e and negative numbers: ( a ) A f o o t b a l l t e a m l o s t 6 yards on t h e first p l a y and gained 8 yards the second play. ?,bat was t h e n e t yai-dage on the two p l a y s ? ( b ) John p a l d J i m t h e 60jf he owed, but John c o l l e c t e d the 5% A 1 owed him. lrlhat is t h e n e t r e s u l t of J o h n 1 s zwo transacti o n s ? f ( c ) I a thermometer registers -15 degrees and t h e ternperature r i s e s 10 degrees, what does the thermometer t h e n register? What if t h e temperature had r i s e n 3 0 d e g r e e s
instead?

2.

Miss Jones l o s t 6 pounds d ~ r i n g h e f i r s t week of her t d i e t i n g , lost 3 pounds t h e second week, gained 11 pounds the t h i r d week, gained 5 pounds t h e last week. '&at was her net g a i n or loss? Perform t h e i n d i c a t e d operhatlons on real numbers, u s i n g the number l i n e t o a i d you:
(d)

(a)

(4 +
4 +

(-6))

(-4)

(e)

(0

(-2))

3.

( ( - 3 1 + 0 ) + (-2.51 (4 - + (-6)) ( 4 ( d 1-21 + ( - 2 ) (dl 3 + ( ( - 2 ) + 2) (h) ( - 3 ) + ( 1 - 3 1 + 5) T e l l in your own words what you do to t h e t w o g i v e n numbers t o f i n d t h e i r sum:
(b)

((-6) + ( - 4 ) )

(f)

( a ) 7 + 10 ( b ) 7 + (-10) (c>
(dl

(f)
(g)

(-7) + ( - 1 0 )

10 + ( - 7 ) (-10) + (-7)
10 -t

(h)

(i)

(-7) + l o (-10)+ 7 (-10) + o

(4
4.

(j) 0 + 7

5.

Ln whlch -parts of Problem 3 d i d you do t h e addition j u s t as you added numbers in arithmetic? W a c o u l d you always say about t h e sum when b o t h nwnbers ht were n e g a t i v e ?

Definition - f l d d i t i o ~ . of b l ~not; ~ r a n tkt.o use v r i ? a t rr:c haire ;usC. I v a r n e d a b o u t a d d i t i o n on t h e n w n b ~ rl i n c to sa-5 f i r z t in F , y . l l s h and t'ner~ Ir. the l a r ~ g uage of algebra, rhat i!e mean by a - b Tor all r e a l nmbers 3 a n d h. The a c c o u n t c of f h e i c e cream vendor ha-J-ei n t r c > d u c e d
2

e x p e r 4 e n c e how add a and b i f b o ~ h r e non-negative ~ ~ w b e r s a So let us conside:. arlo:..tler ~ x m p l c ,n,Unely, s r . c ~ a t i r r ep l ~ s a necati3re. :.kzf:, I s

(-9) d ( - 6 , ) ~
Is'c h a v e f c u r l d , on t h e number 1 Snc, t h a t

(-q
Our presen; j o b iz t o t h i n k
wc rAeached (-13).

-r

(-6) .. (-I@).
b i t more c a , r e f u l l y about .just hcw
(') -I.

W begin b y moving from 0 k o

Where

is (-:+) on the nurrher linc? It i3 t o t.t-ir: lqft of' O. 30w :3rCL "Distance between a nwrtber and 0" w a s one o f t h e mcanirzn of t h e absolute velue o f a. nunbe-. Thus t h e d i s t a r . c e betvreer. 0 and (-:c) i ! ( O f course wc r e a l i z e tt~at;it is e a s i e r ta rmite i L t h a n 1 -!I I , but the express5on ! -i: 1 remFnds us t h a t t.rr l.&rc;.e t h i n k i n g of "disLance from 3 " , and t h i s 1s worth remembering at p r e ~ e n t), ( - 4 ) I thus 1 - 4 ] t u the left oY 0 . \ h e n we now c o n s i t e r E (-4) + (-6), we move another 1-61 t3 tke l e f t . iphere are w nows A t e
- ( 1-111 Thus our t h i n k i n g about d i s t a n c e ,In t h e n m b c r line h a s l e d us t o (-4) + ( - b ) =
.:-

1-61).

Cram 0 and a b o u t d l s t a n c t . moved

r e c o g n t z e >hat - ( 1-1: 1 + 1-61

is a true s e n t e n c e . You can r e a 3 o n a b l y a s k at this p o i n t what w have accomplished e by a12 t h i s , W have taken a simple expression like (-!-) + (-61, e and mad2 jt l o o k more complicated! Y e s , but :he cxpresaion - ( ) - , $ I .' 1-61), complicated as It l o o k s , nas o n e g r ~ a tadvantag?. It we -hos t o - Prom . - c o n t a i n s only op"ations which - &:now - - do -p r e v i o d s experience? B o t h I - > 1 and 1 6 a r c posltive numbers, you s c e , -1 and xe know how to add p o s i t i v ~ numbers; and - ( 1-21 1-61 i s t h e ~ p p o s i t eof a number, ~ n we know how t o flnc that. Thus d

we haye succeeded in expressing t h e sum of two n e s a t i v e numbers f o r vihich sum w p r e v i o u s l y had j u s t a picture on t h e number e l i n e , in t e r n s of the l a n g u a ~ eof algebra a s we have built it up thus f a r . T h i n k through ( - 2 ) + ( - 3 ) for y o u r s e l f , and see t h a t by t h e same reasoiling you arrive a t the true sentence ( - 2 ) +- ( - 3 ) = - ( l - z l 3- 1-31]. $?om these examples we see that the following d e f i n e s the sum of t w c l n e g a t i v e numbers in terns of operations i.rhich we already know how to do: In English: Tha sum of t w o n e x a t i v e numbers is negative; t h e a b r o l u t e value of t h i s sum is t h e sum of t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of t h e numbers. In the language of a l g e b r a :

If a

and

a r e b o t h negative numbers, t h e n a t b = - ( l a ! ; Iu I )

Problem Set : -')a

1.

Use t h e definition above to find a corrmon name f o r e a c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g indicated sums, and t h e n check by u s i n g i n t u i t i o n concerning g a i n s and l o s s e s , o r by usfng the number l i n e .
Bample:

by definition
(-2)

-+

(-3)

-(1-21

-t

1-31]

= - ( 2 -1- 3 ) =

-5

Checlc:

A i03s of $2 followed by a l o s s of $3 i s a net loss

of $5.
(a)
(-2) +

(-7)
2

(dl

(-25) +

(-73)

(4
2.

1 (-33-1

-k

F i n d a common name for each of t h e f ~ l l o w i n gby any method

you choose:
(a) (b)

(-6)-t ( - 7 )
(-7)
4-

(c)

- ( 1-71 + 1-61]

(-6)

(a)

-t

(-4)

126
(e)

(-4) I 6
-

( h ) - ( 1-31 - 101)

(f) I 6 1 id 0 1
3.
(3)

I-JI

(I) 3

i ((-2) -

C)

(-3)

F i n d t h e truth s e t of e a c h of t h e following zente!lces:

(-5)

(x) = - 0 - 5 1

+ 1-31]

Ib)
(2)

(-5)

- ( I - 5 1 t- 1-31)
= - I -:- 1-51] ( 4

(-5)

(XI

(a)
.
5.
+6.

x -: (-5) = -41-31 + 1-51)

mink a ~ a 4 i 1 ol Problem 3 i n Problem S e t (5-1. hhen one umber is positive and o n e is negative, how f a r Is thulr sum f r o m O? When one number i s posicive a n d t h e other is negative, how do you know whether t h e sum is p o s i t i v ~ or n e q a t i - ~ e ' : Is t h e I"ol1owlng a t r u e sentence for all non-negative values or x?
(-1)

+ {-x) =

-(l-ll

1-XI).

sum of t w o n o n - n e g a t i v e numb e r s , and t h e sm of t w o n e g a t i v e n ~ u n b e r s . Next we c o n s i d e r t h e sun of tv:o numbers, of which one L s p o s i t i v- and t h e o t h e r is e
So f a r , we have considered t h e

negatii7e.
L e t us l o o k a g a i n a t a f e w examples of g a i n s and l o s s e s : T r o f i t of $7 a n d l o s s o f $3; 7 t- (-3) = 4; 1'7 1 - 1-3 1 = i % \

Profit of $3 and loss of' $7; 3 + ( - 7 ) = - - ; 1-71 - 131 = 1-111

LOSS

~r $7 and p r o f i t of $3;

- 7 )- 2 = .
(-3)

1-71 - 131

= = =

1-41
1'1

L o s s of $3 a n d profit of $7;

+ 7
4-

= 2.

17 1 -

1-3

Lo35 of $3 and P r o f i t of $3;

(-3)

3 = 0;

1 3 1 - 1-31

lo]

Conslder t h e s e examples on the nmber l i n e , and a l s o thlinic again about the q u e s t i o n s in P r o b l e m s 4 and 5 in Problem S e t 6-2a. From these it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e sum 0 , two numbers, of which one 1 is p o s i t i v e (or 0 ) and t h e o t h e r is negative, is o b t a i n e d a s follows:
[ s e c . 6-21

The absolute value of t h e sum I s t h e d i f f e r e n c e

of t h e z b s o l u t e v a l u e s of the numbers. The s m is positive if t h e p o s i t i v e number has u the g r e a t e r absolute v a l u e . The s m is negati-.re ir the n e g a t i v e number has u the greater a b s o l u t e ualue. The sm Is 0 if the positive and n e g a t i v e numbers have t h e s,me a b s o l u t e value.

T i ' a - @ and b >

<
b
=

0, then:

a
and

+
b
=

la1 - Ib(, if la1

lbl

-( (bl -

Ia l ) ,

if ( b l .> l a / .

If b >
and

0 and a

<

0, t h e n :

a + b = l b l - l a l , if lbi

]a]
lhl.

a + b

-(I31 -

l b l ) , ~f

la] >

1.

Problem -S e t 6-2b I n each of t h e following, find t h e sum, first a c c o r d i x t o t h e definition, and t h e n by any o t h e r method you f i n d convenient,.
(a) (b)
(c)

- 3 (-11) -:. (-5)

(-5)

(e)

18 -I- (-14) (f) 12-7.;:

(9)

( -8) T
2
A

(-$

i-5

(d)

(-2)

(h) (-35) + (-65)

2.

Is t h e s e t o f all r e a l numbers closed under t.he o p e r a t i o n

of addition?

3.

4.

of a l l n e g a t i v e r e a l numbers c l o s e d u n d e r a d d i tion,,?Justify your answer. In the course u f a week the ~Yariationsin mean temperature from the seasonal normal of 71 werq - 7 , 2 , -3, 0 , 9, 12, -6. mat were the mean temperatures each day? h h a t is rhe sum of the v a r i a t i o n s ?
set [see.

Is the

6-21

5.

F o r e a c h of the following open sentences, f i n d a real number which will make the sentence t r u e : (a) ~ + 2 = 7 (f) c

(-3)
2 j

-7

(b) 3
(c)

y = -7

(9)

Y + 5 = - 6 5
$ X

a + 5 = o

(h)

+ (-4) = 6
-1

6.

( 3 + ~ +) ( - 3 ) Which of the f o l l o w i n g sentences are true? (a) ( - 4 ) i o = 4

(e)

5 + (-6) x

"6

(J)

(b)
(c)

-(I-1.51

101)

-1.5 4

( - 3 ) + 5 = 5 + (-3)

((d)

(4 + (-6)) + 6

7.

Translate the following English sentences I n t o open sentences. For example: Bill s p e n t 60# on Tuesday and earned 4% on Wednesday. He couldn't remember what happened on Monday, b u t he had 30# left on Wednesday n i g h t . What amount d i d he have on Monday?
If Bill had

cents on Monday, then x + ( - 6 0 ) + 40 = 3 0 .

This can be written

( - 2 0 ) = 30,

( a ) If you d r i v e 40 m i l e s north and then d r i v e 55 miles s o u t h , how f a r a r e you from your starting p o i n t ? ( b ) The sum of ( - 9 ) , 28, and a third number is ( - 5 2 ) . What is the t h i r d number? ( c ) A t 8 A . M . t h e temperature was - 2 ' . Between 8 A . M . and

129

(d)

noon the t e m p e r ~ t u r ei n c r e a s e d 1' 5. Between noon and 4 P.M. t h e temperature i n c r e a s e d 6 ' . A% 8 P . M . the :That was the temperature change temperature was - 9 O . between 4 P . M . and 8 P.M.? I ' a 200-pound man lost 4 pounds one weelc, lost b f pounds che second week, and at t h e e n d of the third week weighed 195 pounds, how much d i d he gain in the
t h i r d week?

(e)

A stocl; which was listed at 8 3 a t closing tlme Monday d r o p p e d 5 p o i n t s on Tuesday. Thursday m o r n l r q it was listed at 86. :&at was thc change on Wednesday?

6 3

P r o p e r t i e s of' Addition --

W were c a r e f ' u l to describe and l i s t the properties of a d d i 'e t i o n when we d e a l t w i t h t h e rmtnbers of arithmetic, Noh; that itrC h a v e decided h o w t o a d d real numbers, we want to v e r i f y t h a t these p r r ~ p e r t l e so f a d d i t l o n h o l d true f o r the r e a l numbers generally. We l z n ~ ! . ~ that our definition of a d d i t i o n includez the u s u a l a d d i t i o n of numbera of arithmetic, b u t we a l s o want t o be a b l e t o add a s s i m p l y a z xe could b e f o r e . Can F s t i l l add r e a l I . : numbers in any order and g r o u p them in any way to sult o u r convenience? In o t h e r words, d o t h e co~mutativeand a s s o c i a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s of addition s t l l l hold t r u e ? If we a r e akle to satisfy ourselves t h a t these p r o p e r t i e s - c a r r y o v e r : t h e r e a l do o numbers, then we a r e assured t h a t t h e structure of n m b e r s i s m a i n t a i n e d a s we movc from the numbers cf a r i t h m e t i c to t h e r e a l n m b e r s . Similar questions a b o u t multiplica~ion will come up later. Consider the following questlons: Are ': -1 ( - 3 ) a n d ( - 3 ) + names for t h e same number? Check t h i s G n the number l i r r e . Do s i m i l a r l y f o r ( - 1 ) -1- 5 and 5 + (-1); a n d i'or ( - 2 ) + (-6)and (-6) -t (-2). Do t h e a b o v e s e n t e n c e s cover c v c r y p o s s i b l c Ease of addition of real numbers? I f n o t , s u p p l y examples of t h e missing case:.

':

130

It a p p e a r s khat t h e sum of any t w o real n m b e r s i s t h e same f u r ' either order of n d d i t i o n . TIlis is the

Commutative Property - A d d i t i o n : or real numbers a and b,

For any two

Next, compute t h e following pairs of sums:

(7
(8
(

+ (-9)

+ 3,

and 7 + ( ( - 9 ) +

3);
.

+ ( - 5 ) ) + 2, + 5) + - 6 ,

and 8

i -

( ( - 5 ) +- 2) ;

and 4 +

(5

(-6))

Wa d o y ~ u h: observe about t h e results? We could l l s t many more examples. Do you t h i n k the same r e s u l t s would always hold? We have the
Associative

numbers

a,

b , and

of Ad : dn c,
c =

For any real

( a + b) +

(b

c).

Of course, if the associative and commutative properties h o l d true in several instances it is not a p r o o f t h a t they will hold t r u e in every 'nstance. A complete proof o ' the > r o p e r t i e s can f
be g i v e n by applylng t h e precise definition of addition o f r e a l

nurr.bers t o every p o a s l b l e case of t h e properties. They are long p r c o f o , e a p c c i a l l y of the associative p r o p e r t y , because t h e r e are many cases. W s h a l l not take t h e time t o g i v e the p r o o f s , e but perhaps you may want to try t h e p m o f f o r t h e commutati~re p r o p e r t y in some o f t h e cases. The associative property a s s u r e s us t h a t in a sum o f t h r e e r e a l numbers it doesn't matter which adJacerit p a l r we add f i r s t ; it is customary to d r o p t h e parentheses and,leave such s u m s in an unspecified form, such as 4 + (-1) + 3. Another property of addition, which is new f o r r e a l numbers and one t h a t w shall find u s e f u l , is obtained from the d e f i n i e t i o n of addition. For example, t h e definition t e l l s us that 4 + (-4) = 0 ; t h a t ( - 4 ) + ( ( 4 ) = 0. In g e n e r a l , t h e sum of --)
a number and j t a o p p o s i t e is 0.
rsec.

We state t h i s as the
6-21

A d d i t i o n Property of Opposites :

PGT every

real number

a,
t-

( - a ) = 0.

One more p r o p e r t y t h a t stems d i r e c t l y from f h e d e f i n i t i o n

is t h e
A d-d i t i o n

Prope-ty of -0: -

For every real num-

b e ~ ? a,
a t O = a .

Make ~p several examples t o illustrate t h l s and the p r e c e d i x property.

1.

Problem -S e t 6-3 Show how t h e properties of addition can b e used t o e x p l a i n why each of t h e following sentences is true:

The l e f t nmeral is

(3

+ (-5)) +-

a s ~ o c i a t i v eand
commutative p r c p e r t i e s of addition.

= 3 + 0 Tne right nqmeral is

addition property of o p p o s i t e s . conmutzt ive property of addltlon.

3

0.

(e)

(-2)

(3

-1

(-4))

= ((-2)

+ 3 )

+ (-Q)

2.

Consider various ways t o do the following computation5 mentally, and f i n d t h e one t h a t seems easiest ( i f t h e r e is one). Then perform t h e a d d i t i o n s in t h e easiest way.
(a)
5

+ 28 +

(-=I5

(f) 253

+ ( - 6 7 ) + (-82)4.

(-133)

2) -t ( - X I -I ( - 3 ) (i) w -t ( w + 2 ) I- (-w) 4- 1 + ( - 3 ) 3. Using the associative and commutative p r o p e r t i e s of addition, write a simpler name f o r one p h r a s e of each of t h e following s e n t e n c e s , and f i n d the t r u t h s e t of each: (a) x = x + ((-X) + 3 ) (b) s + (7 + (-m)) = r n ( c ) n t ( n + 2) -t ( - n ) t 1 + ( - 3 ) = 0 ( d ) ( y + 4 ) -4 (-4) = g + (-4)
(h)
(x
-1

Use the d 2 f i n i t i o n of a d d i t i o n f o r n e g a t i v e n m b e r s to show t h a t If a < 0 and b < 0 , t h e n a + b = b + a . +5. Use t h e definition of addition to show t h a t a + O = a for a l l real numbers a. (-a) = C f o r + 6 . U s e t h e definition uf a d d i t i o n t o show that a all real numbers a . ( H i n t : Separate out the c a s e s a = 0 and a # G . If a # 0, one o f a and -a is positive, the o t h e r negative (Why 3 ) .
4 .

6 - -The Addition - p e r t y - Equality. Pro af

Tlyere
is

a 1 1 7 t ~ e r = r t e b 7 u t r d d i :I -,n " .
ic'e
l i 1 7 0 ~that

$7

:J,~L, I :.,e mu?{; rL e

attentLon.
Elis mean:

(-5) = (-1).
(-1) are two names f o r one number.

that 4

-, (-5)and

L - e t U S a d d 3 to t h a t number.

are a g a i n

5iro

Ther ( + (-5)) 4 n a u e s Lr~rene number. Thus

3 and (-i)

-1

Alsc, f o r e x a . m p l ~ ,

S i m i l a r l y , Since

7
This ovggcsta t:?e

-7 + ( - 7 ) =

15 + (-81, (15 + (-8)) + (-7)

A d d i t i o n Property - Equality: cf

FGr

any real

numbers

a,

b,

c,

if a = b , t h e n a d c = b + c
are two names f o r one nwnber, t h e n a 1 3 and b + c are t w o names f o r one nwnber. L e t us use the previously s t a t e d p r o p e r t i e s of addition, and ;he above p r o p e r t y of equality i n some examples. b a m p l e 1. Determine the t r u t h s e t of t h e open sentence

In w o r d s , if a

and

3 + - = -2. 5
If you

Can you guess numbers which make tY.is s e n t e n c e t r c e ?

don't see it e a s i l y , could you use p r o p e r t i e s o f addition to h e l p ? Let us s e e . W do n o t r e a l l y know whether there g any e number making t h i s s e n t e n c e true. If, however, there is such a nwnber x which ~ a k e st h e s e n t e n c e t r u e ( t h a t is, if t h e t r u t h 3 s e t is not empty) , then x + 7 a n d -2 a r e t h e same number. 3 Let us add -- t o this number; then by t h e a d d i t i o n p r o p e r t y 5 of equality we have
3 3 (x + -) I ( - 31 (-2) + 5 5 3 F;hy did we add --'? Because in 5hIs case we wish t o chafige 5 the left numeral so it will c o n t a i n the numeral "x" a l o n e . iqatch t h i s happening in the next few l i n e s .
Con t i n u i n g , we have

(-9.

Rlus,

!:re a r r i v e

at t h e acw CF?n senter:r:e

1;; ---.
!I

I ' 2 number i

x rn;ikes thc o r i g i r l a l ser?tqnce t r u e , i t 2 l s c rna,:es this nev, ser?tcnce true-. 0 ' tni3 we s r e d e 1 3 t a i n br.r,ausc :.ie a p p l i e d p r a 1 p e r t i e s which hgl5 sruc for 311 r e a i :lwnbers. This t e l i r i u s i2 t h a r -Ix t h c o n l y -b l e truth v a l u e 01, t h e original senpbszi J C ;cnce. -, -. Bu5 T , daez n o t g u a r c n t e ? that it is n ruth : ~ a l u c . ! -

&I-e we h a v e d i ~ , - o v e r ? da v e r y Important i d e a about scntenc~s

nal,:ing t h r ~ r i g i r i a lscnkencc true, then the o n l y number which

can b e TLZ -7. The nlruute wc check and flnd t h a t -- 5 -does make Lhe serk?.ence t r u e , l o ! have t ' ~ u n dthe one an3 o n l y number ~ t i i c hbeLur.gs t;? Sne ruth set. The scnt.encc i n thc- p r e v i ~ u sexample is an equation. il!c shall often call t h e t r u t h s e t a f an cquation i t s solutiorl. -- e t , s and i t s members :;elutions, rind we s h a l l w r i t e f ' s o l v c - " i n s t e a d of "determine t h e t r d t h s e t of'" Exmiple -, 7 o l v c t h e equaxion

12

1J

1 ?

II '
tnen

5 T - --

L'

(-A)
2

Is t r u e for some
1
c

x,
x;

(5

3 -)

4-

: -

is t r u e f o r t h e sane

? + 2 = x . i - O

7 = x

is t r u e f o r t h e same is t r u e l ' o r t h e same

x; x.

the right s i d e is:

7+

+j

1 7 = -4 , 1 2 2 , bF)

Heme t h e t r u t h

SPY.

1s

[7j

EL-oklern - Set 6-4 -

S o l v e e a c h of LA^ followjng e q u a t i o n s . t h e form shov~nffor 3 a m p l ~ a b o ~ r e , 2

1,
2.

I+lhltl?

y o u r worlc in

x - 5 = 13

{--GI 7
(-1) -!-

3.
4.

= (-3) 2 :- ( - 3 ) ,

7
,

LL

+ (-5)

(x

-1-

2)
-4

x
i

5.

(-2)

= ( - 3 ) -1 x (-3) = x + ( 5 ! I

- 5 . The A d d i t i v e Inverse Two n u m b e r s whose sm 1s

way.

0 a r e r e l a t e d in a v e r y s p c ial ~

Fcr exam2le: what number when aaded t~ 3 y i e l d s the sum Cis mat nun;her vrfien added to - h y i e l d s C T In general if x a n d y are r e a l n ~ u l b e r s such that x -4- y - 0, we say t n l t y is an a d d i t ' , v e -. invers;. o:' Y,, Under t h i : d c f ' i n i C o n , i s x tk.sn als2 an a d d l t i v e In-.lerse ,f y ' JJow i e t u~ L h l n ~abouc any number z wkich is ari a d d i t i v e
i n v e r s e of, S R ~ , 3 . C f course we LrLC:;r one such number, r . m e l y - 3 : fcir by the sc'di_tio;l property af n p p o s ' t e z . 3 + (-3) O. (:an

t h e r e be

any o t h e r number

such t h a t
3 + Z = O ?

A l l of our experience with nuqbers tclle us "No, t h e r e is no

other s u c h number". Put how can we be absolutely s u r e ? We can s e t t l e t h i s question with t h e use of o u r p r o p e r t i e s of a d d i t i o n , j u s t as we d i d in &ample 1 Ir, t h e preceding s e c t i o n . If, f o r some fiumber z ,
3 4 - z = O

is a true s e n t e n c e , t h e n (-3) + ( 3 + 2) = ( - 5 ) T Q i. a l s o a +:?-de sentence, by t h e addition p r v p e r t y of cquallty. :, did we add -3 ? ) Then, however, ( ( - 3 ) - 3) - z = - 3
(:ii-l:;

t r u e f o r t h e same z by t h e associative p r ~ p e r t yof addition 2nd the C property oS addition. This f l n a l i y tells us t h a t 2 = -3 mist a l s c be true; we h a v e , f o r this l a s t z t e p , used t h e addition p r o p e r t y of opposi.'scs. :;Rat have -de done here? ',Je started o u t by ck,ooslng z as number which is an additive i n v e r s e of 3: we found out t h a t z had t o equal - 3 ; that i s , that -3 is n o t jusc additive i n - ~ e r s e 3 , b u t also : h only additive i n v e r s e of 3 . of .e Is t h e r e anything s p e c i a l about 37 Do you t h i n k 5 h a s m o r e ti-ia.~ one addir,iire Z n v c r x e ? How about (-6.3)$ We c e r t a i n l y au:;Sz :i.t., 2nd we can show thac they do not by t h e same l i n e o f r e ~ s z n i n g 2s t h e above. Can :.re, however. check - numbers ', ihhat we necd ali i.s a r e s u l t f'or any r e a l n m b e r >r, a ~ e s u l tiv~hich is supposed GO tc11 u s something l i k e t h e f o l l o w l r i g : ille Imow t h a t I - x ) is onc s - a d d l t i ~ ~i n v e r s e of x; ~2 d o u b t if t.here is any other, a n d '-.i;is is h ~ l r ;we p r o v e t h e r e is n o n e . Let us parallel t h e reasonini.: ::e c;:;eci in t h e s p e c l a 1 yase in vihich x = 3 , a n d s e e I ' vie ; a f :n sr-~.~.:? t h e c o r r e s p o n d l i ~ g conclusion. at SL~-ppose z is any additive invcrse of .x. t h a t Is, any . .1-:j*?!i;.ey s3jl:h that X -! z = C. .,?:zf, corresponas to t h e f i r s t s;ep in our p r e v 5 O u S s p e c t a l case'
i . :

an

Isec . 6-51

'dc u s e 5 2 1 ~ d d i s i s n p r o u y r y y c f equa;ity t c wrlte a

(-A)
' e t h e n have that J

(X

Z)

(-XI
C

0.

(
'vhas arc
t . 1 ~ two

-1-

X )

-x.
123t

r e a ~ o n swe !la-&,e s e d i n a r r i v i n g at This u

smzsnce.:
7'11
Pn
[)

z
- -

-x
-X.

(n ., ;;

7 $)

3rd f i n a l l y

have Z U C C C P ~ P ~ I J ~ x = 3 b u t l o r m y x. F.ach numbcr x h a s a tu~Lque ( m s a r i l ~ g li . j u s t o n e " ) additive inverse, namely - x . You p r o b a b l y have all kinds of q~;~lrrts and questions a t t h i s pain:, a d t h e s e sxae to b e expected s i n ~ e this is t h e ;'ir~tproo: k;.h.le!l ycu have se?n :r t n i s c o u r o r l . 3- at we have d3ne is ' o i use < a c t s :-..?ich t:e ha-a? p r e > a i o u > l yIcnot.m abont. a l l ?pal numbel-s ir! o r d e r to argue o u t 2 fiel:~ fa^; about; ali r c a l numbers, a new f a c t w n i c h :rou ~ e r - t a l n l y expected trl, bc t r u e , but. ~ h i R C V C P ~ h t n e l e s s t o o k t h i s 2,inrl of' checlri.ng. s l l a l l do a nunker . f ; p-oofs in t n i s c o u r s e , and yqu xi11 bemme nc3re and marc s c c u s torned Yo t h l s k l n d of reasonin? as you prucress I r the meantime, l e t uc ma!cc u ~ l cmoFe cc~mmcr?tabout t h e prcof j u s r c z m p l 3 c d . Tne S U C . ? , P S S ~ ~ : ~ t ~ ~ : ; e_>o:,;x c r e of ~ o t i r s ecnclsen qul'ce d e l l h e r 3 iire aT.ely j.n order to make the proof' su:ceed. m i s might give y o u cr.e impression ;hat t h p-GO? ?:as ''zig~ed~', a t it c o u i d n T ~ th t, ccmc o u t ar-ty o c ; l c r way+ Is 'chis f a i r " Y e s , it; is. 2nd in f a c t e,,.jery p r c o 3 5 '"r:yEed" in t k c o,?nse <fiat w e t a k e on1.y s t e p s t ~ 3 nelp us toliar3s o u r $ o a l , a ~ r do not Cake s t e p s v!hich f z i l \ ( J l do 11s any ~ , o o r.i !Thib~-npie 2 t a r t c d f'rorn 3 {, z = 3 ,
'aj~.
n ? i !

(-,thy ) c a r r y i n g a t o u r prc-gran, n o t j u s t xhen

4 ,

we chcsc Lo u s e K I P addition 3 r o p o r t y of equality to a d d ( - 3 ) ;

we z o u l d ..lave added any otl-ler punrber i n s t ~ > d b u t ,
j.t

wouldnt t

have n e l p e d us.
added - 3 .

And s o

we didnlt add a d i f f e r e n t number, bu:

Statements o f new f a c t s or properties, which can be shown t o f o l l o w f r o m previously e s t a b l i s h e d properties, are frequently ( b u t n o t a l w a y s ! ) c a l l e d "theorems". Thus the p r o p e r t y a b o u t addltive i n v e r s e s o b t a i n e d a b o v e can be stated as a theorem:
Theorem o-5a. A y real number x n one additive i n v e r s e , namely -x.
has exactly

A argument by which a theorem is shown t o be a consequence of n o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s is called a proof of the theorem.

1.

Problem -S e t 6-5a For each s e n t e n c e , f i n d its t r u t h s e t . (a) 3 + x = O (b)

(c) (d)
(e)

(-2)

+
5

a =

(9)

(-(2

+ +))

-I

1-

y = 0
= 0
-E

(h) 2 (i)
3

1 x + (--) 2

+ x + (-5) + (-x) = 0

= 0

1-41

-I

(-4)

c = 0

2.

Were you a b l e t o u s e Theorem 6-5a to save work in s o l v i n g these equations?

L e t us look at another example f o r t h i s technique of showi n g a g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y of numbers. Of course we cannot p r o v e

a g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y of numbers u n t i l we suspect one; let us find one t o s u s p e c t . Recall t h e picture of addition on the number

l i n e , or the d e f i n i t i o n of addition if you p r e f e r , to s e e t h a t ( - 3 ) 4" (-5) = - ( 3 + 51, Another way of writing t h a t ( - 3 ) + ( - 5 ) and - ( 3 -t 5) a r e names f o r the same number i s that
-(3

+ 5)

= (-3)

+ (-5).

T h i s might l e a d us to suspect that t h e opposite of' t h e sum o f two numbers Is the sum of t h e opposites. Of c o u r s e we have
checked t h i s o n l y f o r the numbers 3 and 5 , a n d it is wlse t o

! check a f e w

more cases.

Is
-(2

+ 9)
(-2))

(-2)

(-g)?

IS

-(4
(idhat is another

= (-4)
?)

(-(-2))?

name f o r (-(-2))

Is
to true, ll a m p l e s we I have Ouri ehunchLseems now,be instead at l e a s t i n aany t h e e x examples tr d. e t us of checking more
by arithmetic, s t a t e t h e general property which we hope to prove
as a theorem.

Theorem 6-5b.

-(a
Proof.

I-

b)

For any real numbers ( - a ) -t (-b).

and

Ide need to prove t h a t ( - a )

( - b ) names the same

number as -(a c b). Let us check t h a t ( - a ) + ( - b ) acts l i k e t h e opposite of ( a + b). We look at (a 4- b) + ((-a) + (b) -),

f o r If t h i s expression
of ( a +

I s 0,

(-a)
= =

+
a

(-b) w i l l be t h e o p p o s i t e

s).
(a

b)

((-a)

(-b))

(-a)
i

(-b)

(a +

(-a))

(b +
and

(-b))

(ihy?)

And s o we find that f o r a l l real numbers

b,

(-a) + ( - b ) is an additive inverse of (a -t b ) , and, s i n c e t h e r e is only one

additive i n v e r s e , that
-(a

b ) and ( - a ) t ( - b )

name the same number.

1.

Problem -Set 6-5b Which of the f o l l o w i n g sentences a r e t r u e f o r a l l r e a l nwnbers? Hint: Remember that t h e o p p o s i t e of the sum of two nwflbers is the sum of t h e i r opposites.

2.

In t.ilc following ? o : s u p p l y t k e r e a s o n for e a c h s t e p : ro' For a l l rllmbers I, y a n a z, :

(-x)
Proof.
(-x)
-1

+ (y (;y
-1

(-z)) - y + ( ( -x
-

-L

z) . j

c-zg

= (-XI =
=

- ((-z) +
i

:{)
y

i-rj) -

f ( x ; z)) + y

IS - ( 3

' y -

(-3)

- .I).
-I
.;

(-6) -1-

(-5)?

>ghat:do

you t h i n k is true f'or the o p p o s i t e of' t h e sum C' more t i ~ a n I

tkl0 I ~ U I I ~ L ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ :

T e l l w h i c h of tae f o l l o ? ~ i n gsentences are true.

(a) -(2 (-)

-1

(-5))

(-6) L 5
4-

(L?)a
(c)

(-b) + (-29

3a -- b

2
i b i

(--b) (-5c) 4 .7d) = (-a) +

i

5c + (-.7d)
-:

(d)
c:; '

- ( 3 ~ Zy +

(-Pa)

(-3bO

(-2~) + 2y
d

(-:'a)

(-3b)

Gii;e an e r g u n e n t I'or t h e :vnclusion you made f o r the second

question In Vroblern 3 . ~ 5 . Fruw tile f o l l o w i ~ r o p e r t y cf additrion: p~ For any real nurnber a and any r e a l number and any r e a l rlumber i3. if a + c = b + c , then a = b .

6-6. Summary
We have defined additLon of real numbers as f o l l o w s : The sum of two p o s f t i v e (or 0 ) n<mberhs familiar is from aritk~etic The sm of two n e g a t i v e numbers is n e g a t i v e ; t h e absolute value of this sum i s the swn o f t h e absolute val.ues of t h e numbers. The swn of two numbers, of which one is p o s i t i v e ( o r U) and the other is negative, is obtained a s follows: The absolute value of the sum is t h e difference of t h e a b s o l u t e values of t h e numbers. The sum is p o s i t i v e if t h e p o s i t i v e nw;l.ber h a s t h e greater absolute value. The sum is n e g a t i v e if t h e negative number has the g r e a t e r a b s o l u t e value.

The sw, is 0 if the p o s i t l v e and n e g a t i v e numbers

value. We h a v e satisfied ourselves t h a t the following properties hold for addition of real numbers: Commutative P r o p e r t y - Addition: For any two r e a l numbers of
haire the same a b s o l u t e

and

b:

a + b = b t - a .

Associat:ve b, and c,
Addikion

Property - of Addition: -

For any r e a l numbere

a,

+ c = a -t ( b + c ) . Property - 01' Opposites: For every real number (a

t b)

(-a) 0. Addition P r o p e r t y - - For cvery real number of 0 : a 1- O = a. Addicion P r o p e r t y o f Equality: -

a,

a,
a,

For any real numbers

b, and

c,

if a

b , then a

+-

c = b

+ c,

We h q - - e used t h e addition p r o p e r t y o f equallty to determine the t r u t h sets of open sentences. !$e have p r o v e d that t h e a d d i t i v e i n v e r s e i s m i q u e - t h a t i s , that each n m b e r has e x a c t l y one a d d i t i v e i n v e r s e , v;hich we e a l i its o p p o s i t e .
[sec.

6-61

V have d i s c o - ~ e r e d e : and p r o v e d the fact that t h e o p p o s i t e of

the swc of twu r l ~ ~ n b e ris the same as the Fum toi' their ~ 1 ~ p ~ s i t e z

Fe',; lev^ P r o b l e m s

1, Find a comnon n m L e for eech of the foilowin?: 3 ( 2 ) 3(8 I - (-6)) ( a ) a ) -1 5 u

(b)

(-2)

-i- 3
. !

"

2 A 7

(-11: 1

1-61, 131 (-3) (f) G ( I -I I - A ! ]

(e)

) f i l c h oi" 5l7c z ' o l l ~ : . i is~ n t e n c e s ape t?U?:' e

(a)

-1

(-8)= (-8) 3 -

(b)

1-81-I-(-8)=O

3. ShO>i :?.2:s ',he pi70ker',ies of addlt:orr

,:an

be u;3ad ;u

csplaln

;ah-$ e a ~ h of t h e f o i l ~ : 4 i n g s z n t e n c e s Is true:

I .

Fir-1- t h e

tr~tki set 09 each

01'

t h e fol;oxin~.:

6. Two nwnbe~sa r e

7.

8.

9.

What do you know about t h e s e ~liunbers if ( a ) t h e i r sum Is n e g a t i v e ? (b) t h e i r s m is O? u ( c ) t h e i r sum is positive? A salesman earned a basic salary of $80 a week. In addition he r e c e t v e d a commission of 3 % of h i s f o t a l s a l e s . During one week he earned $116. \ h a t was the amolult of h i s sales for the neek? Write an open s e n t e n c e f o r t h i s prabl~m. A f i g u r e has f o u r s i d e s . Three of them are S f e c t , LO feet, and 5 f e e t , respectively. How l o n g is the f o u r t h side? ( a ) Write a compound open sentence f o r this problem. (b) Graph the t r u t h s e t o r the open s e n t e n c e . If a , b, and c are numbers o f arfthmetic, w r i t e each 01' the indicated sums as an indicated p r o d u c t , and e a c h of the i n d i c a t e d p r o d u c t s as an indicated sum: ( a ) (2b + c ) a ( e ) x 2y + zj. ( b ) Fa(b + c ) (f) 6a2b i2ab2
added.
(c)

3a

I-

3b

(
(h)

ab ( a c
3a(a

3b)

(d)

5x

I-

loax

2b

-1

3c)

3 Given t h e s e t {-5, 0 , T , -.75,5 ) ( a ) Is this s e t c l o s e d under the o p e r a t i o n of taking the opposite of each element of t h e s e t ? ( b ) Is this s e t c l o s e d under the operation of t a k i n g t h e absolute v a l u e o f each element? If a set is c l o s e d under the operation of taking t h e (c) opposite, is it c l o s e d under the o p ~ r a t i o nof t a k l n g t h e a b s o l u t e value? $hy? 3 Given the s e t {-5, 0 , f , 5,. 7 ) (a) Is this s e t c l o s e d under t h e o p e r a t i o n of t a k i n g t h e a b s o l u t e value of each element of t h e s e t ? (b) Is t h i s s e t c l o s e d u n d e r t h e operation o f t a k l n g the opposite of each element: ( c ) If a s e t is c l o s e d under the o p e r a t i o n of t a k i r g t h e a b s o l u t e value, is it closed under the operatlon of taking t h e opposite ' Ihy? .

1 2

Two automobiles start from t h e same city travelling in the same direction. Iv'rite an open phrase for t h e t i m e it L a k e s t h e faster c a r to g e t rn miles ahead o f t h e slower c a r , If t h e rates of the c a r s are 3 0 m.p.h. and 2 0 m . p . h .

Chapter 7
PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION

7-1.

1 ~ l u l t i p l i c a t ; i o nof - Heal. Nuntbers

N o w lt us d e c i d e how we s h o u l d multlply tKo r e a l n~~rnl:c-.s : to obt,a:n noth her real nwrbber. A l l t h a t we c a n say a t p r e s e n t . 'is t h a t

we know how t o multiply two n m - n e g a t i v e n u m b e r s . Of primary ilnpuratsrlce here, as In t h e definition 3f a d c ? l t i o n , I s t h a t we r n ? i n t . ~ L n the "str~~zture" the number s y s t e t n . of b!e know t h a t if a , b , c are 2.n:~ n.mbers - a r i t h m ~ t . l c , then of
ab
=

ba,

( a ~ ) c= a(bc),

a 4 1 = a,
a.0
=

0,

a ( b - c ) = ab

ac.

(ma: namez dd-id we g i v e to t h e s e p r c p e r t i e s of' ~ n u l t i p l i c a t i c n ? j W h a t ~ t v c rr n e a n i ~ gw e give to the p r o d u c t u f two real numbex, w e must se s u r e t h ~ it a g r e e s w i t l ' ~ t h e pl-oduc ts which we h l r v e a d y have t f o r n o n - n e g a t i v e r e a l numbers and that the abov? - p e r t Yes pro of multlplicatlon ----- e a l n-m5ers. still h o l d f o r a l l r
C o n s i d e r s o n ? possible p r o d u c t s :
( 2 } ( 2 ) , ( 3 } ( 0 ) . (L):(O),
(DO

{ - 3 } ( ~ )( , ) ( - F ) , 3

(-2}(-?8).

these i n c l l l d i ; examples of e ~ e r y a E c of mult:pl.ica t i o n of ? o s i 2 t i v e ar.lri n e g a t i v e number's and z e r o ? ) Notice that t h e f t r s t t h r e e

p r o d ~ c t : : i n ~ o i v eo n l y ncn-n~gativer l - n h k r s and a r e t h e r e f o r e

already determined :

Now l e t us :ry to scc w h a t the reniairllrlg t L r e e p r o d u c t s will h a v e t o b e in o r d e r to p r e s e r v e t h e L a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of m u 1 t l p l l c a t l ' ~ n l i s t e d a b o v s . 1:1 the f i r s t p l a c e , if w e want t h e r n ~ , l t i p l i r : . : t ! : ~ n

p r o p e r t y of 0 t o hold for a l l real numbers, then we must have ( - 3 ) ( 0 ) = 0 . The o t h e r two products can be o b t a i n e d as follows: 3
=

(3)Io)

0 = (3)(2

(-20,

by writing 0 = 2 + ( - 2 ) ; (~otice how t h i s introduces a negative number i n t o t h e discussion.)

0 = ( 3 m ) + (3)(-~),

6 s

(3)(-2),

if t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y 1s t o h o l d for r e a l n m b e r s ; since ( 3 ) ( 2 ) = 6.

W know from uriqueneas of the additive i n v e r s e t h a t t h e only real e number whlch y i e l d s 0 when added t o 6 is the number - 6 . T h e r e f o r e , if the p r o p e r t i e s of numbers are expected to hold, the only possible v a l u e f o r (3)(-2) which we can accept is - 6 .

Next, w e t a k e a similar course to answer the second question.

0
= (-2)(0)

0 = (-2)(3 0 =

(-3b,

(-2) 3 ) + (

( - i )- 3 ) , (

if the multiplication property of is to h o l d f o r real-numbers; by writing 0 = 3 + ( - 3 ) ; if the distributive p r o p e r t y is t o h o l d f o r real numbers ;

0

fi = ( 3 ) ( - 2 ) 4- ( - 2 ) ( - 3 ) ,
0 = (-6)
+

(-2)(-3)9

if the commutative p r o p e r t y is to hold f o r r e a l numbers; by the previous r e s u l t , which was

(3)(-2)
=

-6.

R O W we h a v e t o come t o a point where ( - 2 ) ( - 3 ) must be t h e o p p o s i t e of - u ; hence, if we want t h e p r o p e r t i e s of multiplication to hold for r e a l numbers, t h e n ( - 2 ) ( - 3 ) must be 6.
L e t us think o f t h e s e examples now in terms of absolute v a l u e . R e c a l l t h a t t h e p r o d u c t of t w o p o s i t i v e numbers is a p o s i t i v e n w b e r . Then w h a t a r e t h e v a l u e s o f 1 3 ) ( 2 1 and 1 - 2 1 1 - 3 1 ? How d o t h e s e compare, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h ( 3 )( 2 ) and ( - 2 ) ( - 3 ) ? Compare ( - 3 ) ( l l ) and - ( 1-31 141); (-5)(-3) and 1-51 1-31; ( a ) ( - 2 ) and 10) 1-21

Thls is the hint we needed. If we want the s t r u c t u r e of the n ~ m j e rsystem t o be t h e Eame f o r real numbers as it was f o r the

nurnbers o f arithnetic, we m u s t d e f i n e t h e p r o d u c t r,f t w c r e a l numbers a and kl as, follows:

a and b a r e b o t h n e g a t i v e or b o t h non-negative, then 3,'o = 131 1 b l .

If

numbers a and b < s non-negative 2nd t h e other is negative,

then a b
=

If

one o r t h e

-( la[ ( b ( ) .

and ( b l m e numbers of srittmetlc f'or any r e a l numbers a and b ; and we alre-djr know the p r o d u c t lallbl. (why?) Thus, th? product lallbl is a postt i v e n v n b e r , a n d we obtain the p r o d u c t ab as either la / 1 b ( or iTs opposite. Agaln we have used o n l y the o p ~ r a t i o n swith whlch w are already familiar: r n u l t i p i y i n g p o s i t i v e num'rlers or 0 , and e t a k i n g o p p o s i t e s . It w i l l h e l p you to remember t h o definition by completing the santences: (Supply the words "positive","negative1', o r "zeroT') .
The p r o d u c t of two positive n u m b e r s is 2 n : n e rv. ~b The p r o d u c t of t w o n e g ~ t i v enumhcrs is a numb2r. The p r o d u c t of a n e g a t i v e and a p o s i t i v e n a n ~ e ris a n ~ m b e. r T h e p r o d u c t of a r e a l number and 0 is
S i n c e the p r o d u c t ab is e i t h e r l a ] l b ( cr its oppos:te and since (a1lbl is non-negative, we c a n s t a t e the following p r o p e r t y

It is i m p o r t a n t t~ recognlzc that

la1

of multiplicstion:
F o r any r e a l numbers a , b ,

lab1

la1 l b ( .

Problem S e t 7-1
I.

Use t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f multiplication t o c a l c u l a t e t h e following.

Examples: ( a ) (5)(-3) (b)I-5)(-3)

(c)

= = =

-(1511-31) (1-511-31)

= =
=

(-5)(3)

-t

1-51 131)

-15 15 -15

(c)

1(-3)(211(-21

(fl
(f)

l-21(-3)

I-~D

2.

Calculate t h e following: 1 (a) ( - $ ( - 4 1

(-3)(-4) + 7

Find t h e values of the following f o r x (a) P x + 7 y

(b)
31 -x) +

- 2 , y = 3, a =

-4:

0 - 4 ) + 7(-a)) ~
2

(c)
(dl

x2 + 2(xa) + a 2
( x + a)

x2

(&I

+ (-4)~ y i )

(f)
4.
(a)

Ix + 21 +

(-5) I ( - 3 ) + a l
12,

Which o f t h e following sentences a r e true?

2x

(b)

P ( - ~ )+

(r)

[I+

31

f o r x = -10 = 28, f o r y = -10 + 8 # 20, f o r x = 2 + 30) < 0 , f o r b = 2 (-2)(1x+ (-4)]) 2 1 , f a r x = 2

th?:

r graphs .
Find the t r u t h s e t of' ( 3 ) { - 3 ) - c
=

Exarnple:

3(-11).

I1 '
then

(3114)

+ -9 +

:1

= =

3(-4)
-12
-t $

c = -12

is true f o r some c , is t r u e f o r t h e s a m e c ;

(-5 +
If'

c)

+ 9

is t r u e f o r the saxe c ;

c = -' 2 3

t h e n the l e f t member is and the r i g h t member is Eer-ce. the t r ~ t h e t is s

(3)(-3)

(-3)

-12,

3(-4)
I-33.

-12.

(a) x 6 ( - 3 ) (-4) = 8 (b) 2(-2) + y = ?,(-?I (c) x + 2 = 3(-6) + ( - I l ) ( - 8 ) ( d ) x + (-5)(-6) = ( - ? ) ( 2 ) (e) x (-5)(-6) \ - 2 ) ( 3 ) + ( f ) x > ( - q ( - 2 ) + (-5)(7)

(a)
6.

lx l

(- -) J

'2

( ' T I + ( - 1 1 (-51

G l v e n t h e s e t S = [ I , -2, -3, f i n d the s e t F of all p r o d u c t s o f p a i r s of elements 03 b t a i n e d by multiplying o each element o f S by each element c f $ .
Given the s e t 3 of all r k a l n u r n b e r s , f i n d t h s e t Q of 211 ~ p r o d . ~ c t so f p a i r s of elements of R. Is Q t h e sane s e t 2s A? Can ycu conzlude t h a t R is c l o s e d under multlpllcatinn?

7.

8.

Given the s e t N of a l l n e g a t i v e r e a l numbers, f i n d the s e t T or' all. p r o d u c t s of p a i r s n f elements of N. I s t h e sei; of negative r e a l numbers c l o s e d unCer multiplication?
- {I, - 2 , -3, 4 1 , flnd Lhe s e t K o f all posj Live numbers o t t s i n e d as prcduc t s of peirs o f elements
Glven t n e s e t
Y.
V

9.

nf

70.

P r o v e t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e value of t h e p r o d u c t
product
lalwlbl

ab

is the

o r t h e a b s o l u t s v a l u e s ; t h a t is,

11.

MiaL

tail

y o u szy about t w o rcal n u m b e r s

and

In each

of the following cases?

(a)
(b)

ai, is p o s : ~ t i v e .
ab

is n e g a t i v e , ( c ) ah is positive and (d) a h is positive and ( e ) ab i s n e g a t i v e and ( 1 a b is n e g a t i v e and

a
a

a
a

is p o s i t i v e . i s negative. Is p o s i t i v e . is n e g a t i v e .

12.

f o r esch numbered s t e p in t h e p r o o f o f t h e following theorem.

G l v e the reason

Theorem.

If
ab

a and b are numbers such t h a t b o ~ h a a r e p o s i t i v e , then b i s a l s o positive.

and

Proof.

W e assunie t h a t 0

<

and

<

ab.

Then:

1.

Exactly one of t h e foll~wingis t r u e

b < G , b F O , O < b .

2. I f ' b = 0 , t h e n ab = 0 . T h e r e f o r e , I t b = 0" is f a l s e , s i n c e ab = 0 and 0 are contradictory.

3.
4.

<

a5

If b
If b
O

<
<

0 , t h e n ab

-(la]lbl>.

0 , t h e n ab is n e g a t i v e .
(

heref fore, "b

0" is f a l s e , s i n c e ab is negative and

ab are contradictory. Therefore, 0 < b; t h a t Ls, G is positive, nincc this is t h e o n l y remaining possibility.

<

7- 2 .

P r o p e r t i e s - Multiplication cf The d e f i n i t i o n of multiplication f o r r e a l numbers g i v e n I n t h e

preceding section was suggested % the s t r u c t u r e properties which we wish t o p r e s e r v e f o r all numbers. On the o t h e r h a n d , we have not actua1;y aaourned these properties, s i n c e t h e d e f i n i t i o n c o u l d
have b e e n g i v e n at t h e o c t s e t w i t h o u t any r e f e r e n c e to the p r o p e r ties.

H o w e v e r , now that we have stated a d e f i n i t i o n f o r

multiplication, it becomes i m p o r t a n t to s a t is f y ourselves that this d e f i n i t L o n r e a ? l y l e a d s tu the d e s i r e d p r o p e r t i e s . In o t h e r wcrds, we nead t3 - b v e that m u l t Y P i i c a t i 3 n s o d e f i n e d do5s nave the p rprcpertle;. S i n c e the definLtlon is s t a t e d i r r t e r m ~of operations on p o s i t i v e numbers and 0 arld 9f t a k l n q opposites, these clperations a r e the o n l y ones avaFlable t n us In the p r o o f s .
% o - . i u l t l p l i c a t l o n p r o p e r t y -f-1: . -

Far any re21 n:: L ? r a, n

a.1

If

Proaf: If a is p o s i t i ~ ~ e 0 , w e know t h a t a ( 1 ) = a. GI? a 1 negative, our d e f i n i t i o n of ! ~ i ~ l t i p l i c a t i o na t e s that : st

Try LC z x p l a i n t h e r e a s G n why eacn s t ? p In t h e a b o v e p r o o f is

true. W - . ~ l t i p l i c a t : o n - 2 r t y of p r op 0: F 3 r any real n w a e r a, 3.0 = 0.

Write o - ~ t h e ? r o o f of t h i s p r o p e r t y f o r y o u r s e l f .
Col:uiil~ta i s r e t

pr3perty

- m~ltiplication: qf
a5
= ba.

F o r any r e a l numbers

and

b,

P r o f If one o r Loth t h e numbers s , b are zero, t h e n ab= ba. (hhy?) If a and b are b o t h p o s i t i . v e or b o t h n e g a t i v e , then
a b = l a [ l b ] , and
03 =

]b[(al

Since

Ib]

a r e numoers sf arithnetlc,
la1

IL)

l b l 121.

Her.cr-,
ab = ba

fmlr h e s e t

~ W GC Z E ~ S

If one of a negative, then

and

is p o s i t i v e or
-(

and t h e o t h e r Is

ab = - (

la1 lbl)
la1 l b l

and ba

It1 l a l ) .

Since
=

Ibl lal

and s i n c e i f numbers a r e equal t h e i r opposites a r e equal,

-(
lienee,

1.1

lbl)

-r

lbl

lal).

for this c a s e a l s o . Here we have g i v e n a complete proof o f t h e commutative prop e r t y f o r all r e a l numbers. We have based this proof on t h e precise d e f i n i t i o n o f multlpllcat?on of real numbers.

Problem -Set 7-Pa

I.
Apply t h e p r o p e r t i e s proved so f a r t o compute the fcllowing:
,

Illustrate the proof of the commutative p r o p e r t y by replacing a and b as follows:

RsscrLative p r o p e r t y of - . - mu:tiplication:
a , b, and c ,

Pclr any r e a l n.mbers

Proof': The p r o p e r t y must b e shown t o be t r u e f o r one negative, twc n e g a t i v e s , o r t h r e e n e g a t i v e s . T h i s i s l e n g t h y , b u t we shall be able to s i m p l i f y it by observing that

and

Thus

I(ab)cl

la(bc)l

f o r all r e a l n u m b c r s a , b , c .

This reduces t h e proof of the a s s o c i a t i v e p r o - p e r t y of n ~ u l t i p l i c a t i o ~to t h e problem of showing t h a t ( a b ) c and a(bc) a r e ~ e i t h e r both p o s i t i v e , b o t h z e r o , or b o t h n e g 2 t i v e . For example, if both ( a b ) e and a ( b c ) a.re n e g a t i v e , then Thus -(a(bo)) = - ((able) I(ab)c] - ( a ( b o ) ) and ( a ( b c ) i = - ((ab)c) and hence a ( b c ) (ab)c. If one o f 2 , b , c is zero, t h e n ( z b ) c 0 snd a ( b c ) = b. (why?) Hence, f o r t h i s c a s e ( a b ) c = a(bc) . I f a, b , and c a r e a l l d i f f e r e n L from z e r o . we need to c o n sider e i g h t d i f f e r e n t cases, depending on which ilunbers are p o s i t i v e and which are n e g a t i v e , as shown in t h e t a b l e b e l o w .

One colwnn has b e e n f i l l e d

In for p a s i t i v e a, and negatiT\leb

Hence
Therefore ( a b l e = a ( b c )

and c .

In t h i s

case, ab is negatille and b c is p o s i t i v e .

(ab)c is p o s i t i v e and a ( b c ) is p o s i t i v e .

in this c a s e . The a s s o c i a t i v e pmpertg s t a t e s t h a t , in m u l t i p l y l r l g t h r e e numbers, w e may f i r s t form t h e p r o d u c t of any ad jac-.nt p z L r . The e f f e c t of a s s o c i a t i v i t y alGng w l t h c o n u n ~ t a t i v l t yis to allow u a t o w r i t e products of n m b e r s without g r c u p i n g symbols and t o p e r form the i r ~ u l t l p l i : a t l o r , in a n y groups ar.d any 01-ders .

Problem -S y t 7-2b
1.
Copy t h e t a b l e g i v e n a b o ~ e ,a r d complete it.

llse it to check

t h e remaining eases and f i n i s h the p r o o f .

2.

In each of t h e roliowirlg v e r i f y t h a t t h e two n u m e r a l s name t h e same number.

(f

3. l

and

( 3 ) ((-2) ( 0 ) )

3.

E x p l a i n how the associative and connrutatLtre p m p e r t i e s call be used to perform the following r n u l t i p l l c a t i o n s in t h e e a s i e s t manner.

(a) ( - 5 1 (17) (-20)(3)

155

A n o t h e r p r o p e r t y is one w h i c h ties t o g e t h e r t h e o p e r a t i o n s o!' a d d i t i o n and r n u l t i p l i c a t i a n .

Distributive p r o p e r t y .
a(b

F o r any r e a l numbers, a , b, and c ,

c ) = ab

ac.

W e

shall consider o n l y a few examples:

(-3)
= ? = ?

+ (-3)
( - 5 2 )

( - 3

= ?

and and and

(5)(2)+(5)(-3)=?
(5)(-2)+(5)(-3)=?
(-5)(-2)

+ (-5)(-3)=

The distributive p r o p e r t y does hold f o r a l l r e a l numbers. It c ~ u l dbe proved by applying the definitions of multiplication and addition to a l l p o s s i b l e cases, but t h i s is even more t e d i o u s than t h e proof of associativity.

F
I

Problem - Set 7-2c

:
j

Use the distributive p r o p e r t y , if necessary, t o perform t h e indicated o p e r a t i o n s w i t h t h e minimum amount of work:

1.
2.

(-9)(-92) +
( .03)

(-9H-8)

Q.

( - 7 ) ( - T ) -+
(-

(-7)(i)

(6) + (-1- 6 3 ) ( 6 )

5.
6-

6-93) + (-79
2
2

(-7)(3) (-5)(5) +

I
,

We can use t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y t o p r o v e another u s e f u l property o f multiplication.

Theorem 7-2a.

For every r e a l number a,

i
I

of

To prove t h i s theorem, we must show t h a t ( - 1 ) a is the opposite a, t h a t is, that

a

( - l ) a = 0.

[ s e c . 7-23

Here we 5a:re shown that (-l)a is an addit:~ v en v e r s e of a i since -,.> a l s ~ n o w t h a t -a is an a d d i t i v e I n v e r s e of a 2nd ,hL k
t h a t t h o additive i n v e r s e is

unique, w e have p r o v e d t h a t

P r o b l e m -S e t 7-2d
Use Theorem 7-Pa t o prove the following:

1.
2.

For any r e a l ncnbers

For any r e a l numbers

a a

and and

b, ( - a ) ( b )

= =

-(ah).

b, (-a)(-b)

ab.

3.

Write t h e common names f o r t h e p r o d u c t s :

(a)
(b)

(-5)(a~)
(-24 (-54

(4
(el
(f)

(-ic)($)
( 4 c ) ( -ha)

(4

(3x1 ( - 7 ~ )

(-0.5d)( 1 . 2 ~ )

7 I

- 2

Use oi' t h e Multiplication P r c p e r t l e s --I:Tp h a . : ~ s e e n in the ,?'x?ve problems t h a t w e rr.a;r

now

write

In fact,
-ab
=

- ( a h ) = (-a) (b) =

( 2 ) (-b)

N ; t k a t we can rr.ultiply r e a l numbers and have at our d i s p o s a l o( the p r o 3 e r t i e s o f m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of r e a l n m b e r e , we have a s t r o n g b a s i s f o r dealing with a v a r i e t y uf sltuatioas In a l g e b r a .

P r o b l e m S e t 7-3a

--

1. Use the dlstrikutive p r o p e r t y to u r i t e t h e f3llowing as i n d i -

2,

In d o i n g Problem
r e a l numbers
a

1,

you probably used t h e p r o p e r t y :

k

F o r any

and

( - a ) ( - b ) = ab.
F i n d the p a r t s o f t h e problem i n whlch you used it.

3.

!Jse t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y t o w r i t e t h e Sollowing p h r a s e s

as indicated p r o d u c t s :

(c)
id)

12

+ 18
i 33' -

3~
icm

32

(e)

+ kp
+

(h) ( & ) a 2 + (-6)b 2 i ca+cb+-c (j) 2a + ( - 2 8 )

2 ) x = 5x
(g)

4.

Apply t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e and other p r o p e r t i e s t u t h e following:

Example: 3x + 2x = ( 3 (a) 1 2 t + 7 t (b) 4% + (-15a)

(c)

(1.6)b

(2.4)b

(h) ( - 5 ) x + 2x

+ Ilx
~ r e I) - ~ l f

(d)
(e)

(-5)~ 1 4 ~ + 122 -t z (Hint: z (-3m) + I-6m)

1

1.2)

(1.1 3 a + 7 ~ (~ ( 3 ) 4p + 3 p t 9p ( k ) 8r + (-14r) + b r (1) 6a + (-ha) + 53 c

14b

158
a phrase which has tk? f n r m o f an irzdlcat;ed swn A + E, 1 and R a r e c a l l e d term c f t h e 3hrese; in a phrzse of t h e form . A B c C, A, B, and C a r e c a l l e d terms, e t c . The d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y is v e r y h e l p f u l in simpllfylng a phrasc. Fhus we fo:lnd
hi

that
ga

+ 8a

- (5 + 8 ) a
5x

-.3a
However, i n

is a p o s s i b l e a ~ d d ~ s i r 2 b l e i m p 1 i f i c a t : o n . a s

by

no suzh simplification is p o s s i b l e . Why? We may s o ~ ~ e t i n e s a b l e to a p p l y t h e d i s t r i b u t L v e p r o p e r t y be t o some, b u t not a l l , terms of an exprescion. llhlls

6x

+ ( - 9 ) x2 +

11x2

+ 5 j r

bx

+ ( (-9) +

1)' 1~

+ 3y

bx

t 2x

5y.

We s h a l l h a > ~ f r e q u e n t e

occasion t o do t h i s kind of s l r . p l i f i c a t i o n . For conveni~ncewe shall c a l l . it c 3 l l e c t i n g terns o r c o m b i r l l : 1 ~ t e r m s . We s h a l l u s u a l l y do t h e mlddle s t e p mentally. T h u s

1 5 + ( - 3 ) ~ Gw. ~ =

P r a b l e m -Set 7-30 - -

I. Collect t e r n in the f o l l o w i n g p h r a s e s :
(a)

3x

10x

(h)
(1)

&+&
5p

(b) (c) (d)

(e) (f)

k 9 b + (-44 Ilk + ( - 2 ) k (-27b) + 30b 17n (-16)n

J

+ 4p + ap
t

(j)
(k)

7x
6a

(-lox)
I

3x

12a + 5c
4

{-2c)

3c2

(
=

45 + c

8x

(~fnt: x
+ a

lx)

(m)
(2)

(d
2.

(-152)

QP 4x

bq 4- ( - 3 ) ~ 79 + (-21x2 + (-5x) + 5x2+1

W k t other properties o f r e a l nuvbers b e s i d e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e

p r o p e r t y d i d you use in Problem 1, parts (f), ( g ) , ( k ) , and

(m)?

3.

F i n d t h e t r u t h s e t of e a c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g open Eentences.

(mere p o s s i b l e , c o l l e c t terms in e a c h p h r a s e . )
(a)
(b)
(c>
(d)

Gx+yx=30
( - 3 a ) + I - ~ a ) 40 = x c 3x = 3 + 6 x
3y

(f) ( - 3 a ) +- 3a t 5 = 5 ( g ) x c 2x + Sx 42
:

(h)
(j)

-t-

.>
~

20

8y -t 9 = -90 (e) l4x + (-14)x = 15

(1) ~
12

= y + 4y t 2y

7-11

. ----- o f F u r t h e r Use

the Mul t ~ p l ~ c a t i o n o p e r t i e s Pr

We have s e e n how t h e distributive p r o p e r t y allows u s to c o l l e c t terms of a p h r ~ s e . The p r o p e r t i e s o f m111 t . l p l i c a t i o n a r e h e l ~ f u la l s o in c e r t a i n t e c h n i q l ~ ~ s a l g e b r a r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t s of involving ?hrases.

Example 1.

"(3x 2y)(7ax)I1 can be more simply w r i t t e n as "2lax 3 y . "

G i v e the reasons f o r each of the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s w h i c l i show t h i s is true. (3x2y)(7ax) = 3 . x a x . y . 7 * a . x = 3.7 .a.x.x.x.y

=

(3.7)a(~-x-x)~

( ~ o t i c et h z t we write x.xSx as xs.)

While i n p r a z t i c e we do n o t w r i t e d o w ~a l l t h e s e s t e p s , we must contilrue to b e awa?e of h o w t h i s simplification depends 3n our b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of mu1 t i p l i c a t i o n , and w e s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o e x p l a i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g c, t e p s at any t i m e .

[sea.

7-41

P r o b l e m S e t 7-4a

--

S i r . p l i P y f h e following expressions and, i n Problem 11, w r i t e the

s t e p s w h i c h e x p l a i n t h e simplification.

We can combine t h e method o f t h e preceding exercises w i t h the

d i s t r i G u t L v e property t o perform multiplications such as the

following:
(-3a) (2a

+ 3b +

(-519

(-ha0)

+ (-gab)

15ac.

Furthermore, s i n c e we have shown in S e c t i o n 7-2 t h a t

we may a g a i n w i t h the help of the distributive property simplify expressions such as

- (+

- 7 ) - (-6

= (-1)(x2
=

+ (-7x) + (-6))

2 (-x )

+ 7x + 6.

Problem -S e t 7-4b

' Write in t h e form i n d l e a t e d in the examples above:

As you will remember from some of the work

we did in C h a p t e r 3,

sometimes t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y is used s e v e r a l times in one examp 1e

I
/
!
i

Example 1.

(X

3)(x

2) =

( x + 3)x + ( X + 3 ) ~ = x 2 + 3 x + 2 x + 6

Example 2 .

!
i
1

( + ( - 7 ) ) ( a + 3 ) = ( + ( - 7 ) ) a + (a + ( - i ) ) 3 a a = a2 + ( - 7 ) a + 3a + (-21) = a* + ((-7) 3 ) a + ( - 2 1 ) + = a2 + (-4)a + (-21)

(X t y

z)(b

+ 5)

=
=

(x bx

+ +

y f z)b t

(x

f y

+Z)F

by

bz

+ 5x +

5y

52.

Problem -S e t 7-4c
1.
P e r f o r m the following m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s

(a)

(x

+ 6 ) (x +
+

2)

(d)

(4
(c,

(7 + (-3))

[ga

(Y + (-50 ( - 5 l ) ( a + (-2))

+ 2)(a + 2) ( e ) ( x + 6)(x + (f) (Y + 3 ) ( + Y

(a

2. Show t h a t f o r real numbera a, b, c, d,

(a

b)(c

d)

ac

(be

ad)

bd.

(~otice that ac is the product of the first terms, bd l a the product of the second t e r n , and (bc + ad) is the sum of the remaining products .
3.
Multiply the following:

(a) (a + 3Ha + 11 (2x + 3)(3x +. 4) ( 4 (a + c)(b + dl

(b)
4,

(m + 3 ) ( m + 3) (f) (2 + 4 ( 7 + 2 )
(e)

Multiply the following:

(a)
(b) (c)

(3a+2)(a+l)
(x

(d)

(2pq

+ (-8))( 3 ~ q 7 ) +

+ 5)(4x + 3)

(el
(f)

(8 + ( - 3 ~ )+ (-y2))(2 +

(-11)

tl+n)(8+5n)

( 5 ~ ( - 2 x ) ) ( 3 ~ + (-4) +

Multiplicative Inverse. We found in section 6-4 that every real number has an a d d i t i v e inverse. In o t h e r words, for every real number there I s another real number such t h a t the sum of the two numbers fe 0. Since a given real number remaim unchanged when 0 ie added to it (why?), for the number 0 is c a l l e d the identity element - addition. Is there a corresponding n o t i o n of multiplicative Inverse f o r real numbers? Flrst, we must have an identity element f o r rnultlp l i c a t i o n . Since a given real number remains unchanged when it is multiplied by 1 (why?), the number 1 is called the identity element f o r multiplication. For a given real nwnber l a there another real number auch that the product of the two numbers is l? Consider, f o r example, the number 6. Is them a real number whose product with 6 is l? By experiment or from rour knowledge 1 of arithmetic, you will probably say that 5 is such a number,

7-5.

because 6 - t= 1. F i n d a number whose p r o d u c t with - 2 i s 1. Do 1 3 t h e same f o r 7 and f o r q. B e f o r e going any f u r t h e r , l e t us write down a p r e c i s e definition of multiplicative i n v e r s e .

If

and

a r e real numbers such that

then

is c a l l e d a multiplicative i n v e r s e of

c.

is a multiplicative inverse of c, then is c a multip l i c a t i v e i n v e r s e of d? Why? Does every real number h a v e a m u l t i p l i c a t i v e i n v e r s e ? What is a multiplicative inverse of O? W can observe s o m e t h i n g of the way these i n v e r s e s behave by e l o o k i n g at them on t h e number l i n e . On the diagram below, some numbers and their i n v e r s e s under multiplication are joined by double arrows. How can you t e s t to see t h a t these p a i r s of numbers r e a l l y are multiplicative inverses? Can you v i s u a l i z e the p a t t e r n of t h e double arrows t f a g r e a t many more pairs of t h e s e i n v e r s e s If
d

were s i m i l a r l y marked?

How about t h e number O ? With what number can 0 be p a i r e d ? Is there a number b such that 0.b = l? What can you conclude a b o u t a multiplicative i n v e r s e of O?
As you l o o k a t t h e double arrows in t h e above d l a g r a m , you

may g e t t h e impression t h a t the r e c i p r o c a l of a number must be i n a form o b t a i n e d by Interchanging numerator and denominator. What

c~ertainl~, A ) . ~5 = +( J~.J;;) i . 5 1, s o t n a t = 5 are reciprocals. The property toward which we have been working c a n now be s tsted. It really is a n e w property o f t h e real nurnbel-s , s i n c e It c a r m o t be d e r i v e d as a consequence of t h e p r o p e r t i e s which we have s t a t e d up t o t h i s point.
about 1 JS a n d 7

A?

(4

Existence - - u l t l plieative i n v e r s e s : F o r of m every real number c d i f f e r e n t frorn 0, t h e r e e x i s t s a real numter d such t h a t c d = 1.

T h a t t h e real rlumbers actually have t h i s p r o p e r t y , if it i s

n u t already obvious t o you, will become c l e a r e r as we do more problems. It is also o b v i o u s f r o m e x p e r i e n c e t h a t each non-zero numbzr h a s exactly - m u l t i p l i c a t i v e i n v e r s e ; t h a t is, t h e multione p1ical;ive i n v e r s e of a number is u r ~ i q u e . W s h a l l assume u n i q u e e ness, a l t h o u g h it could L c p r o v e d from th2 other properties, j u s t as we did f o r t h e additive i n v e r s e . ( s e e Problem S e t 7 - 6 3 . )

Problem - S e t 7-5
1. Plnd the irlverses under multiplication of the following numbers:

2. D r a w a number l i n e and mark off w i t h d o u b l e arrows t h e n u m b e r s 1 1 3 3 , 7, - 3 , - T , T , 7 , and t h e i r multiplicative i n v e r s e s .

3.
D r a w a number l i n e and mark off w i t h d c u b l e a r r o w s the numbers

3 , T, -3, F' TJ 7 , and t h e i r additive i n v e r s e s . How does t h e pattern cf double a r r o w s d i f f e r f r o m t h e p a t t e r n in Problem 27

J

4.

If b Is s multiplicative i n v e r s e of a, what v a l u e s for b do we o b t a i n if a is l a r g e r than l? What v a l u e s of b do we o b t a i n if a is between 0 and l? What is a t n u l t i p l l c a t i v e i n v e r s e of l?

[ s e e . 7-51

i!

165

5.

If b

is a multiplicative inverse of

a, what v a l u e s f o r

do we g e t i f a is l e s s t h a n -l? If a What is a multiplicative i n v e r s e of -l?

<

and

>

-I?

[ 6. F o r I n v e r s e s 'under n l u l t i p l i c a t i o n , what values o f t h e I n v e r s e

b

i
7-6.

do you o b t a i n if

is positive?

If

is negative?

I I I
Ft

P r o p e r t y - Equality of In t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , we s t a t e d t h e a d d i t j - o n p r o p e r t y of e q u a l i t y . Can we f i n d a corresponding multiplication p r o p e r t y ? Consider t h e following ststements :

- ltipllcatlon Mu

since
since

(-2)(3) =

-6,

then
then

((-2) ( 3 ) ) ( - 4 ) = (-6) ( - 4 )

( - 5 ) ( - 3 ) = 15,

((-5)(-3))

(3)

(15)(i1'

are different names f o r t h e same number, and when we multiply ( - 4 ) by t h i s number we o b t a i n (-4) as d i f f e r e n t narlies f o r a new number. l1 2 ( 3 ) ) ( - 4 and " (-6) In general, we have the
N o t i c e that 1 ' ( - 2 ) ( 3 ) ' t and "-6"

Multiplication proper4y - e q u a- For any real of -ity. l numbers a , b , and c , if a = b, t h e n ac = bc.

P r o b l e m Set 7-6 --

1.
2,

Explain the statement, "Since ( - 5 ) ( - 3 ) = 15, then

( ( - 5 , ~ - 3 d ~ f 1 = ( 1 5 , ~ + , 1 l 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
hihich of the following statements a r e t n l e ?
(a)

rf
If

2x = 6 ,
=
= =

then then

2x($)
$(3) I

= =

6. ( ; )
9(3).
1

i
1 5 t
1
'*

(b)

1 If p

9,

(c)
(d)
(e)

1 p

12, t h e n

p ( 4 ) = 12{~).
= =

rf If

16, then $($) 3 3 24 -+-I,then 24( ) 5 3

16(~). 3 3 5tr1(~).

3.

Find the t r u t h s e t

of each of the following sentences.

Example:

Determine t h e t r u t h set of

$ = 60.
is t&e

If
then

-& = 60
2, 245
=

f o r some x,

60($)

is true f o r the same x; (Why did we m u l t l p l y by

9)

(@$$
I' f
60.

x = 24

is true for the same x;

x = 24,

then the l e f t member is ~ ( P V = 60, )

Sa ' $ { 2 4 )
=

and the right member I s

60" is n truc sentence, and the t r u t h set is (241.

(d)

(a)

12x = 6

15

5y

(b)
(3)

7x

= 6

(e)

5=5Y
2 =

3=1 (h) ;z 5
(9)
=

6x=6

(f)

5~

2 (0 y

3 H

4. Determine the truth sets of the following open sentences:

(a) (b)

7a
-X

35

1 (4 5 = p
(f)
3 3 + x = - - 5

I 7

5.

f ( a ) In the formula V = i ~ h , i n d the v a l u e of B if you know t h a t V is 84 and h I s 7 . ( b ) If P = 5, V = 260, and v = 100, use the formula PV = pv to f i n d t h e value of p .

7-7. Sol~tions- E q u a t i o ~ i s of
In

the p a s t , you fowld possible elements of t r u t h sets of

c e r t a l r : s e n t e n c e s , such as the eqvntion

Prow we a r e p r e p a r e d to s o l i T e s:;ch equations b y 2 a o r e g e n e r a l p r o c e d ~ z e . (To " s o l v e " aeans to find t h e t r u t h s 2 t . ) F i r s t , we know t h a t any vall.le o f x f o r which

and ther. checked ttiese possibilities .

Is

true is 3 l s o a \ d u e of x
(3x

f o r which
=

+ 7) +

+ -7)

(x + 15) + (( -x)

-I

(-7))
/

is t r u ? by t h e a d d i t l o n p r o p e r t y of e q u a l i t y . The n m e r a l s in each member ~f t h i s s c n t e n c e can be simplified t o ~ + . v e

(x 3

+ (-x)) + (7 + ( - 7 ) )
PX

= =

(x + (-x)) + (15 + (-70, /

6.

Here we added the r e a l n m b e r ((-s)+ ( - 7 ) ) to each 7,ember o r t h e s e n t e n c e and o b t a i n e d the new sentence " x = 8.t i T h a s , each nwnbcr of t h e t r u t h s e t of "3x + 7 = x + 15" is a number o f the truth s e t of "2x = 8," because the addition p r o p e r t y uf equality h o l d s f o r a l l reel numbers. Lext, we a p p l y the multiplication p r o 3 e r t y of equality to
0bt31:1

(2x1

(8)
9

Thus, each nunber of t h e truth s e t a f "2x

8 ' is a '

nlxnber of t h e

t r u t h s e t ~f

'.I;

4."

We can now deduce that eirery s o l i l t l u ~of "3x + 7 = s + j-5" ~ is & solution of "x = 4." The solution o f the l a t t e r e q u a t i o n is o b v i o u s l y 9. B u t sre we s u r e that is a solution of

"3x -I- 7

+ 15"?

W could e a s i l y check that it e

is, but let us is a s o l u t i o n

u s e t h i s example to s u g g e s t a g e n e r a l procedure.

The problem is this :

We showed t h a t ,

if

of
3x+7=x+15,
then
x

is a solution of

'What we must now show is t h a t , if x

is a solution o f

then

i3 n solution o f

3 e s e two statements a r e usually written t o g e t h e r as

x is a solution of ' I & + if x i s a s o l a t i o n of

7
"

= x i 15" -

One

if and --

only

= 4."

the second of these statements is true is to reirerse thc a t c p o In the proof' of l;he first. T h u s , if x = 4, we multiply by 2 t o obtain

way

t o show t h a t

( ~ o t i c e h a t 2 is the reciprocal o f t cb ta in

1 1. )

Then we add (x + 7 ) t o

of ((-x) every s o l u t i o n of "x= 4" is a solution of "3x is, the one and only s o l u t l o r ~is 4 .
I s the o p p o s i t e

( ~ o t i c e hat (x t

+ 7)

( - 7 ) ) . Hence, 7 = x + 15." mat

We say that "x = 4" and "3x + 7 = x + 15" a1.e equivalent; sentences in the sense that h e i r t r u t h s e t s are the same.
What have we l e a r n e d ? If t o b o t h rnernbers oi' an eql;atior, we add a real nurnber or nultiply b y a n o n - z e r o r e a l n;int,er. t h i~r w i sentence o b t a l n e d i s - equivalent to t h e o r i p , i t - ~ a l scnt;er,.:c. This is t r u e b e c a u s e t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s are Itreversi b l e l 1 Thcr; if wt' s u c c e e d Ln o b t a i n i n g an e q u i v a l e n t scntcrlce whose s o l u t i o r . is o b v i o u s , w e are s u r e t h a t we have t h e required t r u t h s e t without checking. Or" course, a check may te d e s i r a b l e t o c a t c h mistskes i:i a r : ~h : n e t i c . t As another example, solve the e q u a t i o n

T h i s e q u a t i o n is equivalent to

(Y :

+
+

ti)

+ ((-zy) + ( - 8 ) )

(8y

i (-10))

+ ( ( -%J} +- ( - 6 ) )

t ! ~ a is, to t
( ~ J T

(-py))

+ ( 8 + (-8)) =
3y
=

(?J

+ (-3)) + ((-10) + ( - ~ ) \
' J

and to

-18.
-k

In o t h e r w o r d s , y is a S o l u t i o n of' "5y o n l j ~if y 1s a s o l u t i o r ~o f t f 3y = -18."

equivalent t o

2y

-k

(-1G)" - if 2nd

he latter

sentence is

( + 1 ( 3 ~ )= (+)(-16), t h a t is, to
y
=

-6.

Thus y is a solution o f "3y = -18'' ---- if y i~ a solui f and o n l y t f o n of "y = -6." hence, all t h r e e s e n t e n c e s are equivalent, a n d t h e i r t r u t h s e t is {-61. Here, we were c e r t a i n t h a t oach s t e p was r e v e r s i b l e without a c t u a l l y d o i n g it. When we s o l v e an equation we ask o u r s e l v e s at each s t e p , "1s t h i s s t e p r e v e r s i b l e ? " If tt is, we o b t a i n an e q u i v a l e n t equa t i-on.

L a t e r , we s h a l l l e a r n how to solve o t h e r t y p e s o f sentences

by means o f a p p l y i n g p r o p e r t i e s of numbers.

To do t h i s we shall

l e a r n more a b o u t o p e r a t i o n s which y i e l d e q u i v a l e n t sentences and o t h e r s which d o n o t .

Problem -S e t 7-7

1. Tor each of the p a i r s o f sentences g l v e n b e l o w , show how the s e c o n d is o b t a i n e d from the f i r s t . Show ff p o s s i b l e how the first c a n b e o b t a i n e d from the second. Which p a i r s of sentences a r e equivalent?

2.

F i n d t h e truth s e t o f each of the following equations.

S o l v e : ( - 3 ) + q = (-2x1 + ( - I ) x This s e n t e n c e is e q u i v a l e n t t o ((-3) + 4 4 + ( e x + 3 ) = ( ( - 2 4 + ( - I $

( 2 ~ 31,

6x
and t h l s is e q u i v a l e n t t o

= 2;

1 1 6 ( 6 ~ )= ;;-2,

Hence, the t r u t h s e t is
(a)
(b)

2a+5=17
4~

3y

-t

(c)

12 x

+ (-6) =

5 -+ Y + (-2) 7x s 24

8x + (-3x) + 2 = 7x + 8 62 + g t (-42) 1 + 22 8

( c o l l e c t terms f i r s t . )

T r a n s l a t e t h e following I n t o open sentences and f i n d their t r u t h s e t s , then answer t h e question in e a c h prohlen.

(a) The p e r i m e t e r of a triangle is 44 inches. The s e c o n d

s i d e Is t h r e e inches more than twice t h e length of t h e third s i d e , and t h e fI r a t s i d e is f i v e inches longer than t h e t h i r d s i d e . Find t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e t h r e e s i d e s of
t h i s triangle,

(b)
(c)

If an i n t e g e r and i t s successor a r e added, t h e r e s u l t is

(d)

(e)

*(f)

one more t h a n t w i c e t h a t i n t e g e r . What I s t h e i n t e g e r ? The sum of t w o consecutive odd i n t e g e r s is 11. What are the i n t e g e r s ? !<IF. Johnson bought 3 0 ft. of wire and l a t e r Lought 55 J o r e f e e t of t h e same kind of wire. He found that he p a i d Bi:.20 more than h i s neighbor pa-id f o r 25 ft of the same k i n d of w:re at the sane p r i c e . h%at w3.s t h e c o s t p e r f o o t cf the w i r e " Four t i m e s a11 i n t e g e r is t e n more than t w i c e the successor of that i n t e g e r . t h a t is the i n t e g e r ? In an autclmotjile r a c e , one d r i v e r , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h ~ i r s t f g r o u p of c a r s , d r o v e f o r 3 h o u r s at s c e r t a l n s p e e d and was t h e n 120 miles frorn the F i n i s h line. A n o t h e r d r i ' ~ e r , who s e t o u t w i t h a l a t e r h e a t , had traveled a t the same r 2 t e as the f i r s t d r i v e r fcr 3 h o u r s and w a s 250 m i l e s h o r n t h e f i n i s h . How f a s t were t h e s e men driving?

(g)

P l a n t A grows two inches each week, and it is now 20

i n c h e s t a l l . Plant B grows three inches each week, and it is now 12 inches t a l l . How many weeks from now will t h e y be e q u a l l y t a l l ? (h) A number is increased by 17 and the sum is multiplied by 3 . If the resulting product is 192, what is t h e number? (1) One number is 5 times a n o t h e r and t h e i r sum is 15 more than 4 times the smaller. What I s the smaller number?

(3)

Tho q u a r t s of a l c o h o l a r e added t o the water in a radiator and the mixture then contains 20 percent a l c o h o l . How many quarts of water a r e in the r a d i a t o r ?

7-8.

Reciprocals

We s h a l l find it convenient to

u s e the s h o r t e r

name

for the multiplicative inverse, and we represent the r e c i p ~ o c a lo f a by the symbol 'I$". Thus f o r every a except 0 , a,-1 = 1, a You probably noticed that for p o s i t i v e integers the symbol we chose for "reciprocal" is the familiar symbol of a fraction. Thus, the r e c i p r o c a l of 5 is 5- This certainly agrees w i t h your former experience. 1 1 The r e c i p r o c a l of however, is of -9 is -q; of 2.5 is 1
1 2 2 Since 2 is the r e c i p r o c a l of 5 , and 3 x 3 = 1, it f o l l o w s that 3 I 3 1 7 and g m u s t name the sene number; s i n c e - is the r e c i p r o c a l of
f

3 '

=.

-9

1 -9 and since -9 x ( - V) =

1 1,-9and
and

must -9

name t h e same number.

We

Since ( 2 . 5 ) ( 0 . 4 )

1, 0.4

must name t h e same number.

shall be in a better p o s i t i o n to continue t h i s discussion a f t e r we c o n s i d e r d i v i s i o n of real numbers in a l a t e r c h a p t e r .

P r o b l e m S e t 7-8a

--

1.

I f t h e reciprocal of a n y non-zero number

t h e symbol

a is r e p r e s e n t e d by a ' r e p r e s e n t t h e r e c i p r o c a l of:

(a)

15

(4 7

2.

Write t h e common name f o r t h e reciprocal of e a c h nurnber of Problem 1. In which c a s e s is it t h e same as t h e r e c i p r o c a l w r i t t e n i n Problem lr:
F o r each non-zero r e a l number a t h e r e is o n l y one multiplicative i n v e r s e o f a . ( H i n t : We know t h e r e 1 I Assume t h e r e 1s is - a mu1tLplicative i n v e r s e of a , namely another, say x. Then ax = 1.)
P r o v e the theorem:

3.

a.

from o u r d e f i n i t i o n of reciprocals? Suppose 0 d i d have a r e c i p r o c a l . What c o u l d it be? If t h e r e were a number b which is t h e reciprocal of 0 , then 0.b - 1 . What is t h e t r u t h s e t o f the s e n t e n e e 0 - b = l? You should conclude t h a t U s i m p l y cannot have a reciprocal. Here we have an o p p o r t u n i t y to d e m o n s t r a t e , u s i n g a r a t h e r s i m p l e example, 3 v e r y powerf u l type o f p r o o f . This p r o o f depends on t h e f a c t t h a t a g i v e n sentence e i t h e r -----f a l s e , b u t n o t b o t h . An a s s e r true or it is tion t h a t a g i v e n s e n t e n c e is b o t h t r u e and f a l s e is called a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . If we r e a c h a contradiction in a c h a i n a ? c o r r e c t r e a s o n i n g , t h e n we a r e f o r c e d t o admit that t h e r e a s o n l n g : s based on a false statement This is t h e idea behind the p r o o f of t h e next theorem.
Nhy did we exclude
0

---

Theorem 7-6a.

The number

has no r e c i p r o c a l .

Proor : The sentence " 0 has no reciprocal " is either true or f a l s e , b u t n o t b o t h . Assuming t h a t it is f a l s e , t h a t is, assuming t h a t 0 does have a reciprocal, we have t h e following chain o f reasoning:
1.
2.

There is a real number

such t h a t 0 - a
O m a = O

Assurription.

1.

The product of 0 with any r e a l number is 0 .

I

3.

T h e r e f o r e 0 = 1.

Thus we a r e l e d to t h e assertion t h a t " 0 = 1" is a t r u e sentence. B u t " 0 = 1" is o b v i o u s l y a f a l s e sentence, and s o we have a con-

t r a d i c t i o n . Conclusion: Step 1 o f the argument cannot b e true. Therefore it is f a l s e t h a t 0 has a r e c i p r o c a l ; that is, 0 has no - reciprocal.
A proof of t h e above type is c a l l e d i n d i r e c t
b~ cont;radiction o r

o r a proof

a reducti.0 ad absurdum.

W s h o u l d l i k e now t o s e e what we can d i s c o v e r and what we e

can prove a b o u t t h e way reciprocals behave. In each of the following s e t s of numbers, find t h e reciprocals. h k a t conclusion do you draw a b o u t r e c i p r o c a l s on examining the two
sets?

O b s e r v a t i o n of r e c i p r o c a l s on the number line strengthens our belief t h a t the following theorem is true.

The r e c i p r o c a l of a positive number is p o s i t f v a , and t h e reciprocal of a negative number is negative.

Theorem 7-8b-

We know t h a t a-; 1 = 1; t h a t is, the product of a nonz e r o nmber and its reciprocal is the positive number 1. L e t us f i r s t assume that a is positive. Then exactly one of three p o s s i b i l i t i e s must be true:
Proof':

1 1 We see that if - is negative, then a . is negatlve, a contradiction ~ a a m - is p o s i t i v e . Also, If 1 = 0 when a is 1 -of the :act that a I ;positive, then ama = 0, agaln a contradictf on. This leaves b u t one i remaining possibility: a is p o s i t i v e .

I n the same w a y , we may show t h a t if

,

is negative, then

is negative.

For each of the following numbers, find t h e reciprocal o f t h e m b e r ; then f i n d the reciprocal of t h a t reclprocal. What conclu[$ion is suggested?
I

Theorem 7-8c. kreal number s l a

I

The r e c i p r o c a l o f the r e c i p r o c a l o f a non-zero a itself.

1

Proof: T h e reciprocal of the reciprocal of a I s T, a 1 i - and a a r c b o t h reciprocals of 1 (why?), and since [Since 1 a I "

ithere I s exactly

one r e c i p r o c a l

1 of i;, it follows t h a t
Renc e ,

T a

and

1"a

must be names of the s m e number.

Problem -S e t 7-8b
1. Find the r e c i p r o c a l s of the following numbers:

2.

For what r e a l v a l u e s of reciprocals? a + (-I), a

do the following numbers have no

1, a*

(-11, a(a

I),

a T i , a 2 + 1,

1 + l

3.

Consider t h e sentence
(a t (-3)) (a

+ 1)

= a

+ (-31,

which has the t r u t h s e t {O, 3 ) . ( v e r i f y this f a c t . ) If both members of the sentence are multiplied by t h e r e c i p r o c a l of a -k (-31, that is by , and some properties o f real ( 3 - ) numbers a r e used (which p r o p e r t i e s ? ) , we o b t a i n the sentence

For a = 3, we have 3 + 1 = 1, and t h i s is clearly a false senterice. Why doesn't the new sentence have the same t r u t h s e t as the o r i g i n a l sentence? 4.

Write a p r o p e r t y of opposites which corresponds to Theorem 7-8b, Write a p r o p e r t y of o p p o s i t e s which corresponds to Theorem 7-8c.
Consider three pairs o f numbers: ( 2 ) a = 4, b = -5; ( 3 ) a = -4,

5.

a'b

'

a = 2, b = 3; b = -7. Does the sentence (1)

cases?
cases of Problem 5?

z5

hold t r u e

in a11 three

1 1 6. Is the sentence - > 6 true in a l l t h r e e a

7.
8.

Show the numbers and t h e i r reciprocals on the number line. 1 1 Is it true that if a > b and a, b are positive, then 6 > z? T r y this f o r some p a r t i c u l a r values of a and b . 1 Is it t r u e that if a > b and a, b are negative, then 1
S u b s t i t u t e some particular v a l u e s of
a

and

> Z?

b.

3.

Could you t e l l immediately whizh reciprocal 1s greater t h a n a n o t h e r if one of the numbers is positive a n d t h e o t h e r is r l e g a t l v e ? lllus t r a t e on t h e n u m b e r l-l . ne

*lo.
!
I

F f n i s ~t h e proof of Theorem 7-8b for the case when

negative

is

. .

In P r o b l e m 5 above you showed that f o r t h r e e p a r t i c u l e r pairs 1 1 = of v a l u e s of a and b , ;;;-b 1 In o t h e r words, t h e product

o f the r e c i p r o c a l s of these t w o nwnbers is t h e recip-ocal of their product. How many times would we need t o t e s t t h i s s e n t e n c e f u r

particular numbers in o r d e r t o b e s u r e it is true f o r a l l r e a l numberls except zero? Would 1,000,000 tests b e enoug?? How w o u l d we know t h a t t h e sentence would n o t be f a l s e f o r the 1000,001st
test?

W e can o f t e n reach probable conclusions by observing hat happens i n a n m b e r of p a r t i c u l a r cases. W call this i n d u c t i v e e r e a s o n i n g . No matter how mny cases we observe, inductive r e a s o n i n g a l o n e cann~t assure us t h a t a s t a t e n e n t is always true. 1 1 1 Thus we cannot use i ~ d u c t i v e reasoning to prove t h a t a.5 = ab is always true. ~e can prove it f o r a l l non-zero r e a l numbers by deductfve reasoning as follows. e em ember t h a t In t h e proof we nay use o n l y p r o p e r t i e s which have already been s t a t e d . )

Theorem 7-8d.

F o r any non-zero real nwnbers

and

b,

1.1 ,= a b
Discussion:

ab'

1 S i n c e our object 1s t o prove t h a t 1 T5-

a.

is t h e

r e c i p r o c a l o f a b , w e r e c a l l t h e d e f i n i t i o n of r e c i p r o c a l . Then we 1 1 concentrate on the product ab.(-.-) b and try t o show t h a t it Is 1. a

Proof:

1 I ab (-1 b) = a(z).b(E) 1

--

by commutative and associative properties 1 since = 1

. I
x b -

1 1 Hence, -*- b is the r e c i p r o c a l of ab. a

In other wonis,

Notice how c l o s e l y the proof of Theorem 7-8d parallels t h e proof t h a t t h e sum of the opposites of two numbers is the opposite of t h e i r sum. Remember how t h i a result was proved: a + b) + ( - a + - 1 ) = (a + (-a)) + (b + (-b)) = 0; hence, ( - a ) + (-b) = (a + b).

Problem S e t 7 - 8 c

1.

Do the f o l l o w i n g multiplications.

(1n these and in f u t u r e problem s e t s we assume t h a t the values of the variables are such that the fractions have meanin&)

2.

What is the value of 87 x ( - 9 ) x 0 x

IS

5 x 642?

3.
4.

8.17 = 0 a true sentence?

Why?

If 11-50 0, what can you say about n? =

5.

If p . 0
If p * q

0, what can you say about p?

6.

= 0,

what can you say about p or q?

7. If

p . q = 0, and we h o w that p

>

10, what can we say about q?

The idea suggested by the above exercises will be a very useful one, e s p e c i a l l y in finding t r u t h s e t s of c e r t a i n equations. We are a b l e to prove the following theorem now by u s i n g the properties of r e c i p r o c a l s .

I
2.

179
a

Theorem 7-8e. For real numbers o n l y i f a = O or b = 0 .

and

b,

ab = 0 if and

Because of the "if and only if," we really m u s t prove two theorems: (1) If a 0 or b = 0, then ab = 0 ; (2) If ab = 0 , then

a = O

or b = 0 .

Proof: If a = 0 or b = 0 , then ab = 0 by the multiplication property of 0. Thus, we have proved one p a r t of t h e theorem. To prove t h e aecond part of the theorem, n o t e t h a t e i t h e r a = 0 or a # 0 , but not b o t h . IS a = 0, the requirement that a = 0 or b = 0 is s a t i s f i e d . Why? If ab 0 and a f 0, then t h e r e is a reciprocal of a and
3

Thus, in this case alao the requirement t h a t a = 0 or b = 0 is s a t i s f i e d ; hence, we have pmved t h e second p a r t of the theorem.

Problem Set 7-8d

--

07 = 0, what m u s t be true about 7 or (x Can 7 be equal to O? What about x + ( - 5 ) then?

(-5$

Explain how we know t h a t t h e only value of y which will make 9 x y x 17 x 3 = 0 a true sentence is 0 , 1 6 3 If a is between p and q , is 1 between 1 and -? .. Explain. P 9

4.

Theorem 7-8e enables us to dctcrmlne t h e t r u t h set cf an equation s u c h as

(X

c (-3)) (x

w i t h o u t guesswork. With a = and b = (x + (-8)) , the theorem t e l l s us t h a t t h i s sentence is equivalent to t h e

+ (-8)) (x + (-3)) +

sentence

x + (-3)

= 0

or x

(-8) = 0 .
Find

From t h i s sentence we read off the t r u t h set a s 13, 81. the t r u t h s e t of each of the following equations:

5.

Prove;

If a, b, c are real numbers, and if ac = bc and c then a = b.

&

0,

7-9.

The Two B a s i c Operations -- I n v e r s e -f -a Number Under and the o

These O p e r a t i o n s

In the f a s t two chapters we have focused o u r a t t e n t i o n on a d d i t i o n and nultiplication and on the i n v e r s e s under these two operations. These f o u r concepts zre basic to t h e r e a l number syst e m . Addition and multiplication have a number of properties by
themselves, and one p r o p e r t y connects addition w i t h multiplication,

All o u r w o r k in algebraic simplification rests on these p r o p e r t i e s and o n t h e various consequences of them whlch r e l a t e additlon, multiplication, opposite, and reciprocal.
namely,.the distributive p r o p e r t y .

We have pointed out that the distributive property comeeta addition and multiplication. St is i n s t r u c t i v e to see whether some relationship occurs which connects every combination of addition, multiplication, o p p o s i t e , and reciprocal In p a i r s . Let us w r i t e down a l l p o s s i b l e combinations.
1.
2.

Addition and multipllcation: The d i s t r i b u t i v e property, a(b + c) = ab + ac. Addition and opposite: We have proved t h a t
- ( a + b) = ( - a ) + (-b). Addition and reclprocal:

3.

We f i n d t h a t there - - atmple is no 1 1 r e l a t l o w h i p connecting a t 6 and 7 . f a c t , there In a + are no real numbera at a l l f o r which these two phrases r e p r e s e n t the same number. Thls unfortunate l a c k of
1
relationship is considerable cause of trouble in algebra f o r a t u d e n t s who unthinkingly assume t h a t these expressi o n s represent the same n m b e r . Multiplication and opposite: We have proved t h a t -(ab) = ( - a ) (b) = ( a ) (-b) M u l t l p l F c a t i o n and reciprocal: We have proved t h a t 1 1 1

4.

5.
6.

x = z.5

o p p o s t t e and reciprocal:

= -(;).

This l a s t r e l a t i o n is a new one and should be proved. !/!he proof may be obtained from ( 5 ) above by replacing b by -1. The proof is left to the students. (Hint: kkat is t h e r e c i p r o c a l of -I?)

(51, ( 6 ) In words. Do y o u aee any s i m i l a r i t y between addition and o p p o s i t e , on the one hand, and multistate ( I ) , (2), ( 4 ) ,

plicatlon and r e c l p r o c a l , on the o t h e r , in these propertfes?

Explain.

Review Problems
1. Write a sumnary of the important ideas in this chapter, similar t o t h a t written at the end of Chapter 6 .
2.

Change to indicated s m : (a)

3a (a

(-29

3.

Write each of t h e following as an indicated product: ( a ) pax -t- 2ay (bj ac + ( - b c ) + c (c) c ( a + S)X t (a t b)y ( d ) 1cx2 + (-15x1 + (-5) ( e ) 9x3 -I-6x2 + (-3x)
(a) 4a ( b ) 8x
fc)

4. Find t h e truth s e t of each of the following equatfons:

+ 7 = 2a + 1I + (-18)= 3x +
+
2x

17

7x 4- 2
1-21

(-54 = 3

(a)
(e)

3x2

(-3) I-2)x = x2

+
3x
2

2x + (-1)

+ 5

2x2

5.

C o l l e c t terns in t h e following phrases:

(a)
3a

+ b + a

t (-?b)

7x 4 b + ( - 3 ~ )+ ( c ) 6a c ( - 7 a ) 13.2 -+ ( - 5 ) a + ( - 8 . 6 ) ( d ) 1x1 + 31-xl + (-2]-xl

(b)
, :

4b (-3b)

*6.

Given t k e s e t S = [ - 2 , -1, 0 , 21 ( a ) Find t h e s e t P o f a11 products of t h e elements o f S taken

(b)

3 a t a time. (~lnt: F i r s t f i n d t h e s e t of all products of p a i r s u f elements. Then f i n d the s e t of t h e products of each element of this new s e t with each element of S*) Flnd t h e s e t R o a l l sums of elements of S taken 3 a t a : time.

For each of the following problems, write an open sentence, f l n d it,s truth s e t , and answer the question asked in t h e problem,

Jim and I plan to buy a b a s k e t b a l l . J i m I s working, so he agrees t o pay a2 more than I pay. If t h e b a s k e t b a l l c o s t s 811, how much does Jim pay? (b) The sum of two consecutive odd i n t e g e r s is 41. What a r e t h e Integers? (c) The length of a rectangle is 27 yards more than the width. The perineter is 395 yards. FEnd Lht! length and t h e
(a)

width. ( d ) Mary and J i m added thetr grades on a t e s t and f'ound the sum to be 170. They s u b t r a c t e d t h e grades and Mary's grade was 14 p a f n t s higher thzn Jim's. What were t h e i r grades? (el A man worked 4 dzys on a job and h i s son worked half as long. The son's daily wage was 5 that of his f a t h c r . If they earned a t o t a l of h96, what were t h e i r daily wages? (f) In a rarmerl s yard were some p i g s and chickens, and no other creatures except the famncr himself. There were, in f a c t , sixteen more chickens than pigs. Observing this f a c t , and f u r t h e r observing t h a t t h e r e were 74 f e e t in t h e y a d , n o t counting hls own, t h e farmer exclaimed hap?ily to himself--for he was a mthematician a3 w e l l as a farmer, and was given to talkbig to himself--"Now I can tell how many of each kind of creature t h e r e are in my yard." How many were there? (~int: Pigs have 4 Eeet, chickens 2 f e e t . ) ( g) A t the t a r g e t shootlng booth at a fair, Montmorency was paid 106 f o r each time he hit t h e target, and was charged 5 $ each time he missed. If he lost 25# at t h e booth and made ten more misses than h i t s , how many h i t s dld he m k e ?

Chapter 8

PROPERTIES OF ORDER

8-1.

In Chapter 5 we extended the concept of order from the nwnbers of arithmetic t o a l l real numbers. This was done by using
the number line, and we agreed that:

The Order -- Relation for Real Numbers --

"Is l e a s than, " f o r real numbers, means "to the left of 'I on the real number l i n e .

If a and b

are real numbers, then

"a is l e s s than b" is written "a

<

b.

"

He speak of t h e relation "is less thw" for real numbera as an o r d e r r e l a t i o n . I Is a binary r e l a t i o n s i n c e it expresses t a relation between - numbers. What are aome of the facts which two we already know about the order relation? What are some of i t s

general properties? Two basic properties of the order r e l a t i o n f o r real numbera were obtalned in Section 5-2.

'I

Comparison propepty: If a is a real nmber, then exactly of the followIn@; ie true: a<b, a = b , b(a.

one
If
a

1
!

Transitive property:

a,

b, b

are
c,

I!:

real numbers and if then a ( c.

<

b and

<

Another property of order which was obtained in S e c t i o n 5 - 3 connects the o r d e r r e l a t i o n with the operation of t a k i n g opposites:

If a and b
a

are real numbers and if

<

b, then -b

<

-a.

You may wonder a t t h i s point why we are so careful t o avoid talking about "greater than". As a matter of f a c t , the r e l a t i o n "18 greater than", f o r which we u s e the symbol ">", I s also an order r e l a t i o n . Does this order relation have the comparison property and the transitive property? Since it does, we actually

have two different (though very closely connected!) order relations f o r the real numbers, and we have chosen to concentrate our attent i o n on "leas thantt. W could have decided to concentrate o n e I1 greater than"; but if we are going to study an order relatlon and its properties, w must not confuse the issue by shifting e from one order r e l a t i o n to anather in the middle of the discussion. Thus we state the last property mentfoned above in terms of "<", but in applying the property we feel free to say, "1f a < b, then -a > -b " , In the next two sections we obtain some properties of the order r e l a t i o n "<" which involve the operations of addition and multiplication. Such properties are essential if we are to make much use of the order r e l a t i o n in algebra.

1.

Problem - 8-1 Set For each pair of numbers, determine t h e i r order.

(c)
2.

c, 1

( ~ ~ n s l d e r comparisonproperty.) the

Continuing Problem l(c), what can you say about the order ht of c and 1 If it is h o w n t h a t c ) 4 ? W a property of order did you use here?
Decide in each case whether the sentence is true. ( a ) - 3 + (-2) < 2 + (-2)

3.

(b)

( - 3 ) + (0)< 2 + 0 (-3) + a

(d)

4.

Decide in each case whether the sentence is true.

(a)

(-3)(5)

(b)

(-3)(0)

< <

W(5)
(2)(0)

(4
(d)

< (2)(-21 ( - 3 ) ( a ) < (2) ( a ) (What h she

(-31(-21

truth s e t of t h i s sentence?)

Decide i n each case whether the sentence is true.

A given a e t may be described I n many ways.

Describe in

three ways the truth s e t of (a) 3 < 3 + x

(b)
3 + x < 3

Determine the truth s e t of (a) 3 = 2 + x (b) 3 = (-2) + x ( c ) -3 = (-4) + x

(d)

fi+ c
3

Determine the truth s e t of (a) Y < 3

Ib)

(4 -lul < 3
(dl
-Y

lul <

<

:
!
'

8-2.

Addition Property of Order --

What is the connection between order of numbers and addition

We shall f i n d a basic property, and from it prove o t h e r properties which r e l a t e order and addition. As before, we concentrate on the order r e l a t i o n "<"; similar properties can be stated f o r the order relation ")", It is helpful to vlew addition and order on the nmber l i n e . We remember that adding a p o e i t i v e number means moving to the right; adding a negative number means moving to the left. Let us fix two points a and b on the number line, with a ( b. If w add the same number c to a and t o e b , we move to the r i g h t of a and of b If c is p o s i t i v e , to the left if c is negative. We could t h i n k of two men walking on the number l i n e carrying a ladder between them. A t the start the man at a ia to t h e left of
of numbers?

t h e man at b. If they walk c units in e i t h e r direction, the fixed length of t h e l a d d e r will insure t h a t the man t o the left w i l l stay to t h e left. In t h e i r new positions the man a t a + c will s t i l l be to t h e l g f t of the man at b + c, Thus,

Here we have found a fundamental property of order which we s h a l l assume f o r a l l r e a l numbers.

Addition Property -of Order. If a, b, c are real numbers and if a < b, then a + c < b + c .

Illustrate this p r o p e r t y f ~ r = - 3 and b = p with a 1 0, - 7 . Here c having, successively, the values - 3 , -3 < - 2. is " ( - 3 ) + (-3) < (- 1 + ( - 3 ) " a true sentence? Continue with t h e o t h e r values of c . Phrase t h e a d d i t i o n property of order in words. Is t h e r e a corresponding property of equality?

I.

Problem -S e t 8-2a By applying the a d d i t i o n propertles of order, determine which of the following sentences are t r u e . 6

( 4 (-5.3) +
(dl

(-2)(2

<

(-0.4)
+ 2

(;I(-

$1 -+

2 (-

2.

Formulate an addition p r o p e r t y of order f o r each o f t h e relations "<I1, ">", "2".

/
I

I I

3.

A extension of the o r d e r property states t h a t : n

I' a, b, c, d are real numbers such that f a < b and c < d, then a + c ( b + d. This can be proved In three s t e p s . Give the reason f o r If a < b, then a each st9i If c < d, then b hence,
4.

iI
1
!

<b + +c<b+
+
c

c;

d;

I,

a + c ( b + d .

Find the truth s e t of each of the following sentences.

Example:

If (- $)
then

+x <
x
x
(

(-5)
(-5)
-2

3 +g

is true f o r some x,
is true r o r the same
x.

3 3 +H+ 2

x.

<

is true for the same

Thus, if x is a number which makes the o r i g i n a l sentence true, then x < 2 If "x < -2" is true for some x, then
(-

g) +

<

3 (- F} + (-2) is true for the same

x,

3 ( - F) + x
;'

<

3 (-5) + p is true for the

same

x.

Hence, the truth set is the s e t of all real numbers less than -2. (a) 3 + x < (-4) ( f l {-x) + 4 < ( - 3 ) + 1-31

. I 5 Graph the truth e e t a of parts (a),

( c ) , and (h) of Problem 4.

6.

In Chapter 5 the following property of order was stated:

b, then -b < - a * " Prove this property, using the addltion property of order. (Hint: Add ((-a) + ( - b to both members of the inequality a < 31; then use property of a d d i t i v e inverses. )

"If a

<

))

"7.

Show t h a t the property: It If 0 < y, then x < x + y. t t is a special case of t h e a d d i t i o n property of o r d e r . (Hint: In t h e statement o f the addftion property of order, let a o, b = y, c = x.)

results about order can be proved as consequences of the addition property of order. Two of these are of s p e c i a l Interest t o us, because they give direct translations back and forth between statements about order and statements about equality. The f i r s t of these results w i l l be a specLal case of t h e property. Let us consider a few numerical examples of the property with a = 0 . If a = 0 , then ''a < b f t becomen "0 < b"; t h a t is, b Is a p o s i t i v e number. Thus, w may write: If 0 < b, e
Many

then

+ 0 < c + b. wt a = ~ ,
Let

b = 3 and

c=4;then

Y - t O < Q t - 3 ;

that is, since

7=4-t3,

then

4<7.

a = 0, b = 5 md c = -4; then (-4) + 0 < ( - 4 ) + 5 ; that is, s i n c e 1 = (-4) + 5, then - 4 < 1.

1
I

These two examples can be thought at as saying: Since 7 = !I + 3 and 3 is a positive number, then
4

<

Since 1 = (-4)+, 5 and 5 is a positive number, then

-4
This result we state as

<

1.

Theorem 8-2a. If z = x + y and y a p o s i t l v e number, then x < z .

is

191
Proof.

We may change the a d d i t i o n property of order to read:

If a

<

b, then

a ( c

b.

(my?)
a , b, c, we

Since the p r o p e r t y is true for - real numbers all may let a = 0, b = y , c = X . Thus,
if
0 ( y, then

x + y,

z = x + y, then "x + 0 have proved t h a t if z = x then x < z.

< x + y''
-+
y

means "x
0
(

<

and

y (y

z", Hence we is p o s i t l v e )

meorem 8-2a now gives us a translation from a statement about equality, such as
-4 = ( - 6 )

2,

t o a statement about o r d e r , in t h i s case

-6

<

-4,

Notice t h a t adding 2, a p o s i t i v e number, to ( - 6 ) ylelds a number t o the r i g h t of -6. Changethesentence

= (-2)

t o a sentence Involving order.

The second result of the addLtion property is a theorem whfch translates from order to equality, instead of from equality

order, as Theorem 8-2a does. You have seen that if y is p o s i t i v e and x is any number, then x is always less than x + y . I x < z , then does there e x i s t a p o s i t i v e nmber y f such that = x + y ? Consider, for example, the numbers 5 and 7 and note t h a t 5 < 7 . What i a the number y such that
to

How did you determine y? Did you find y to be p o s f t i v e ? Consider the nmbers - 3 and -6, noting that -6 < -3. What is the truth s e t of

Is y

again p o a f t i v e ?

What kind of number make8 each o f the above equations tme? In each caae you added a p o s i t i v e number to the smaller number t o get t h e greater. By this time you see that the theorem we have in mind is Theorem 8-2b. ff x
and

numbera such that x < positive real. number y such that z s x + y .

m e two real z, then there is a

z

*Proof. There a r e really two things to be proved. First, w m a t find a value of y such t h a t z = x + y; aecond, w e e must prove that the y we found is p o s i t i v e , if x < z . It l a n o t hard to find a value of y such t h a t z = x + y. Your experience with solvlng equations probably suggests adding (-x) to both members of "2 = x + yrt to obtain y = z + (-x). L e t us try this value of y. L e t

Then

P ~ u s e have found w

a y, namely z + ( - x ) , such that: z = x + y. Tt remaina to show that if x < z, then t h i s y l a p o s i t i v e .

We know there is exactly one true sentence among these: y is negative, y is zero, y is p o s i t i v e , ( b y ? ) If w can show e that t w o of these p o s s i b l l l t l e s are false, the t h l r d must be true, Try t h e f i r s t posslhllity: If I t were true that y is negative

and

z =
z

x +
x,

y, then the addition property of o r d e r would assert

x.) But t h i s contradicts fact that x < z ; cannot be true that y is negative. Try the second p o s s i b i l i t y : If it were true that y is zero and z = x + y, then it would be true that z = x. This again contradicts the f a c t that z < x; so it cannot be true that y is zero. Hence, we are left with only one p o s s i b i l i t y , y is positive, which must be true, This completes the proof.
= y, b = 0 , c =

that

<

(Let a

Theorem 8-2b allows us to t r a n s l a t e from a sentence involving order to one involving equality. Tfius,

-5
can be replaced by
-2 =

<

-2

(-5)

-t

3,

which gives the same "order information" about -5 and - 2 .

That is, there is a p o s i t l v e number, 3 , which when added to the lesser, -5, yields the g r e a t e r , -2.

1.

Problem Set 8-2b For each pair of numbers, determine t h e i r order and f i n d the p o s i t i v e number b which when added to the smaller gives the larger.

--

(a) -15 and -24

(e)

-254 and -345 - 33 and 1.47 and -0.21

$ and &
1 -T
and

3
.

Show that the following is a true statement: If a and c are real numbers and if c < a , then there is a negative real number b such t h a t c = a + b. (Hint: F o l l o w the similar dlacussion for b p o s i t i v e )
Whfch of the following sentences are true f o r a11 real

values of t h e variables?

( a ) If a + 1 = b, then a < b. (b) If a + (-1) = b, then a < b. ( c ) If (a + c ) + 2 = (b + c ) , then a + c < b + c . (d) If ( a + c ) + ( - 2 ) = (b + c ) , then b + c < a + c . ( e ) If a < -2, then there is a p o s i t i v e number d such that -2 = a + d . (f) If -2 < a , then there is a p o s i t i v e number d such that a = (-2)+ d.
4.

(a) U s e 5 + 8 = 13 to suggest two true sentences involving 11 11 < r e l a t i n g pairs of t h e numbers 5 , 8, 13. (b) S l n c e ( - 3 ) + 2 = (-11, how many t m e sentences involvfng "<" can you write using p a i r s of these t h r e e numbers? ( c ) If 5 < 7, write two true sentences Involving "=" relating the numbers 5 , 7,
Show on the nmber l i n e that if a and c are real nmbers and I f b is a negative number such that c = a + b, then
c

5.

<

a.

6.

Which of the following sentences are true for all values of the variables? (a) If b < 0, then 3 + b < b. (b) If b < 0, then 3 + b < 3. ( c ) If x ( 2, then 2x ( 4.
Verify that each of the following is true.

7.

( a > 13
(b)
(c)

4-

41 5 131 + 141 41

I ( - ~ I+

1-31 + 141

1 ~ 3 + (-411 1

1-31 + 1-41

(d)

S t a t e a general property relating

1a + b 1 , 1a 1

and Ib 1

for any real numbers

and

b.

8.

W a general property c a n be stated for multiplication ht slmilar to the property f o r addition in Problem 7 ?

9.

Translate the following into open sentences and f i n d t h e i r truth s e t s . ( a ) The sum of a number and 5 is lesa than twlce the number. What is the number?
[set.

8-21

When Joe and Moe were planning to buy a s a i l b o a t , they asked a salesman about the c o s t of a new type of a boat t h a t was being designed. The salesman r e p l i e d , lllt wontt cost more than $380." If Joe and Moe had agreed that Joe was to c o n t r i b u t e $130 more than Moe when the boat was purchased, how much would Moe have t o pay? ( c ) Three more than six times a number Is greater than seven increased by f i v e times t h e number, What I s the number? ( d ) A teacher says, "1f I had twice as many students in my class as I do have, I would have at l e a s t 26 more than I now have." How many students does he have in h i s class? +(el A student has test grades of 82 and 91. What must he score on a third t e s t to have an average of 90 or higher? *(f) 3111 is 5 years older than Norman, and the sum of t h e i r ages is less than 23. How o l d is Norman?
(b)

I
;

8-3.

Multiplication Property -of Order In the preceding section we s t a t e d a basic property giving the order of a -+ c and b + c when a < b. L e t us now ask about the order of the products ac and bc when a < b. Consider the true sentence 5 < 8 . If each of these numbers is multiplied by 2 , the products are involved in the true sentence

What is your conclusion about a multiplication property of order? Before making a decision, let; us try more examples. Just as above, where w took the two numbers 5 and 8 In the true sentence e < 8" and i n s e r t e d them in ' I ( ) ( 2 ) < ( j ( 2 ) " to make a true
sentence, do the same in the following.

"

2,

-9

-< 6

and
and

( )(5)
( I(-4)

<
<

( )(5)
(

3.

2 < 3

)(-4)

5.

- <

and

( )(-3)

<

( )[-3)

We are concerned h e r e with the o r d e r r e l a t i o n "<", observing the p a t t e r n when each o f t h e numbers in the otatement "a < b" is m u l t l p l l e d b y the same number. Dld you notice that it makes a difference whether we m u l t i p l y by a p o s i t i v e number or a
negative number ? The above experience swgeuts that l r
ac

<

b , then

<

bc

<

bc, p r o v i d e d ac, provided

c c

is - -a p o s i t i v e number; - -a negative number. is

Thus we have found another important s e t a f p r o p e r t i e s of

order.
How can you u s e these properties to t e l l quickly whether the f o l l o w i n g sentences are true?

Since g
Since
Slncc

2 <7

then

<

10 -' 7

5 g

14 5 l g < - V4Jthen - < 78. 51

<

4,

then -

5 & < - iF.

These properties of order turn out t o be consequences of t h e other properties of order, and we state them t o g e t h e r as
Theorem 8-3a.

Order.
and if

Tf
a
(

ac
bc
Proof.

< <

M u l t l p l i c a t l o n Property of a , b , and c a r e real numbers b, then bc, lf c is p o s i t i v e , ac, I f c is n e g a t i v e .

There are two cases. Let us consider t h e case of positive c. Here we must prove that if a < b, then ac < bc.

I
I !
I

You f i l l in the reason f o r each s t e p of the proof. 1. There I s a positive number d such that b = a + d . 2. Therefore, bc = (a + d ) c . 3. bc = ac + dc 4. The number dc is p o s i t i v e . 5. Hence, ac < bc. The proof of the case f a r negative c is left to the student I n the problems. We could equally well have discussed the multiplication property of the order r e l a t i o n "is greater than'' instead of "is less than". When we are comparing numbers, the two statements "a < b" and "b > a" say the same thing about a and b. Thus, when we are concerned primarily with numbers rather than a particular order r e l a t i o n , it may be convenient t o shift from one order relation to another and mlte such sentences as: Since 3 ( 5, then 3 ( - 2 ) > 5(-2). Since -2 > -5, then (-2)(8) > ( - 5 ) ( 8 ) . Since 3 > 2, then (3)(-7) ( 2 ) ( - 7 ) . < Verify that these sentences are true. When we are focusing on the nwnbers involved instead of on an order relation, we can say that ac < bc if c is p o s i t i v e , if a < b, then ac > bc if c is negative. S t a t e these propertles of orders in y o u r o m words. In our study w shall also need some results such as e
Theorem 8-3b.

then
x
is

Proof. If x 0, then e i t h e r x is negative or positive, but n o t both. If x is positive, then x > 0,

If

is negative, t h e n

In e i t h e r c a s e , the r e s u l t is t h e desired one. Tneorem3-3bstates t h a t khe square of a non-zer~number is positive. What can be said about x2 f o r any x? Tqe p r o p e r t i e s of order can be used t o advantage in f i n d i n g t r u t h s e t s of inequalities. For example, let us find t h e truth
s e t of

By the a d d i t i o n p r o p e r t y of order we may add b o t h members o f t h i s i n e q u a l i t y t o o b t a i n

(-2)

+ (-5x)

to

which when simplified is

.
1

-8x

<

-8.

Since ( ( - 2 ) + (-5-r) is a real number f o r every value of x , the new s e n t e n c e has the same t r u t h s e t as the o r i g i n a l . ( m a t must w e add to t h e members of "-8x ( -8" t o o b t a i n the o r i g i n a l s e n t e n c e , t h a t is, t o r e v e r s e the s t e p ? ) Then, by t h e multiplication p r o p e r t y of order.

( - 8 -

6)< (-8x)( - 8 )
1

Here we m u l t i p l i e d by a non-zero r e a l number. Tfius, t h i s sent e n c e is e q u i v a l e n t t o the former sentence. (What must we multiply t h e members of "1 ( x u by t o obtain the former sentence?) Obviously, t h e truth s e t of "1 < x" is t h e s e t of all numbers g r e a t e r t h a n 1, and this is the truth s e t of the o r i g i n a l inequality

1.

Problem -Set 8-3 Salve each of the following inequalities, using the form of the following example. ( R e c a l l that to "solve" a sentence is to find its truth s e t . ) &ample: (.-3x1 + 4 ( -5. This sentence is equivalent to
3

<

(-5

- 4 ,

(add ( - 4 ) to b o t h members)

which is equivalent t o 1 ( - $(-91 < ( - 31(-3~19

(multiply both members by ( -

+I)

< x.

Thus, the tmth s e t consists of all numbers greater than 3 .

(a)

(-2x1
(-2)

(b)

+ 3 < -5 + (-4x1 > -6

( 4 (-4)+ 7 < I-2x1 + (-5) (d) 5 + (-2x1 < 4x + (-3) ( 4 ($1

+

(-81 < (-;I

3 + 1-21

+ (

(g) zx

<

I- $1

(h) (-2)
(1) - ( 2

+5 +
x)

-t

(-3x1
3

<

4~

t (-2x1

<

(-7)

2.

Graph the truth s e t s of parts ( a ) and (b) of Problem I.

Wanslate the following into open sentences and s o l v e . ( a ) Sue has 16 more books than S a l l y . Together they have more than 28 books. How many books does Sally have? (b) If a c e r t a i n v a r i e t y of bulbs are planted, less t h a n B of them will grow into plants. If, however, t h e 3 bulbs are given proper care more than 8 of them w i l l grow. If a careful gardener has 15 plants, how many bulbs d i d he p l a n t ? Isec. 8-31

3.

4, Prove that if a

and c is a negative number, then bc ( ac. Hint: There Is a negative number e such t h a t a = b + e, Therefore, ac = bc t ec. M a t kind of number is e c ? Hence, what I s the order of ac and bc?

<

45.

If c is a negative number, then c ( 0. I3y t&king ogposftes, O < ( - c ) , Since (-c) is a positive number, we may prove the theorem of Problem 4 by noting that if a < b, then
a(-c) ( b ( - c ) ; i . e . , s l o n then f o l l o w ?
-(ac)

<

-(bc).

Wy does the cancluh

6.

and a and b are both p o s i t i v e real numbers, prove t h a t 1 < 1 Hint: Nultiply the inequality a < b 3. i Ikmonstrate t h e theorem on the number l i n e . by ( h . 6 ) .

If

< b,

7.
8.

Does t h e r e l a t i o n
b

are negative?

a < b and both Prove it or disprove it,

i.5 ~(

hold if

and

Does the r e l a t i o n

<

'

hold if

a < b

and

a < 0 and

b
9.
10.

> O?

Prove o r disprove,

S t a t e the a d d i t i o n and multiplication properties of the o r d e r ">".

prove:

Tf

<

of order t o obtain

b, then 2 a ( ab

< b2.
ab

and

<

Hint: b 2.

Use properties

8-4.

I n th1s

The Fundamental P r o o f -Numbers -- --- p e r t i e s - Real and t h c preceding three chapters,

ing w i t h t w o main problems. t h e o r d e r r e l a t i o n and the operations of addltlon and multiplication fros t h e numbers of arithmetic to a l l real numbers. Until t h i s was done we really d i d n o t have t h e real number system t o work w i t h . The second problem was to d i s c o v e r and a t a t e caref u l l y the fundamental p r o p e r t i e s o r the real number system. !The t w o problems, as we have been forced to deal with them, are c l o s e l y intertwined. In t h l s sectlon we shall separate out the moat important problem, the second one, by summarizing the fundamental properties which have been obtained.

we have been dealThe first problem was to extend

Before continuing, we should admit that the decision as to what - a fundamental property I s n o t made because o f s t r i c t is mathematical reasons b u t is to a large e x t e n t a matter of convenience and common agreement. We tend t o think of the real number system and i t s many p r o p e r t i e s a s a "structure" b u i l t upon a foundation consisting of fundamental p r o p e r t i e s . This is the way you should begin to t h i n k of the real number system. A good question, which can now be answered more precisely than before, is: What is the real number system?
The r e a l number system is a s e t ,of elements f o r which binary operations of addition, " t l 'and multiplication, I t . " , , along with an o r d e r r e l a t i o n , "<", are given with the following

Properties.
1.
2.

3.
4.

For any r e a l numbers a and b, a + b is a real number. For any real numbers a and b, a + b = b + a . For any real numbers a, b, and c, ( a + b) + c = a + (b + c ) , There is a apecial real number 0 such that, f o r any real number a,
a+O=a.

( Closure )

(~ornmutativity)

(~ssociativf ) ty

( ~ d e n t i t yelement)

5.

For every real number a there is a real number -a such t h a t a + ( - a ) = 0.

(~nverses)

6.
7.

For any real numbers a and a . b is a real number. For any real numbers a and
a - b = boa.

b,

(Closure)
b,

(Commutativity)

8.

For any real numbers a, b, and c , (a-b).c = a. ( b . c ) .

(~ssociativity)

9.

There is a special r e a l number such t h a t , f o r any real number a.1 = a.

a,
(~dentity element)

10.

For any real number a d i f f e r e n t 1 from 0, there is a real n m b e r g such that I a - (-1 = 1. a For any real numbers a , b, and ad(b + c ) = a ~ + a - c . b
c,

(Inverses)

11.

(Distributivity)

12.

13.
14.
1

fir any real numbers a and b, exactly one of t h e following is true: a ( b, a = b, b < a. ( comparison) For any real numbers a, b, and C , if a ( b and b < c , then a < c. (~ransitivity) For any real numbers a, b, and C 9 if a ( b , then a + c < b -k c . (Addition property) For any real numbers a, b, and c , if a < b and 0 < c, then
a-c

< <

bmc,
c

if

<

and
b.c

<

0 , then

ahc.

(Multiplication property

You have probably n o t i c e d that there are several familiar and useful p r o p e r t i e s whlch we have failed to mention. This is not an oversight. The reasons for o m i t t i n g them is that they can be proved from t h e properties listed here. In fact, by adding just one - property, we could obtaln a list of new p r o p e r t l e a from which everything about the real numbers could be proved. We shall not consider this additional p r o p e r t y since that would take us beyond the limits of t h i s c o u r s e . You w i l l see i t i n a later course. P r a c t i c a l l y all of the algebra in this course can be based on the above l i s t of p r o p e r t i e s . It is by means of proofs that we bridge the gap between these basic properties and a l l of the many ideas and theorems which grow out of them. The chains of reasoning Involved i n proofs are what h o l d together the whole structure of mathematics -- or of any l o g i c a l system.

Thus, If we are going to appreciate f u l l y what mathematics is l i k e , we should begin t o examine how ideas are linked in these chains of reasoning -- we should do some proving and n o t always be satisfied with a plausible explanation. It is true that some of the statements we have proved seem very obvious, and you might wonder, quite Justifiably, w y we should bother h to prove them. As we progress further in mathematics, there will be more ideas which are not a t all obvious and which are established only through proofs. During the more elementary stages of our t r a i n i n g we need the experience of seeing some simple proofs and developing gradually some feeling for the chain of reasoning on which the whole structure of mathematics depends. This is our reason for looking closely at proofs of some rather obv2ous statements. The a b i l i t y to dlscover a method f o r proving a theorem is something which does not develop overnight. It comes with seeing a variety of different proofs, by learning to look f o r connecting links between something you know and something you want to prove, by t h i n k i n g about the suggestions which are given to lead you i n t o a proof. On the other hand, the kind of thfnking required is n o t used only in mathematics but i s involved In a l l logical reasoning. Let us now return to the fundamental properties of real numbers and summarize a few of the other p r o p e r t i e s which can be proved from those given above, Some of these were proved in the text and some were included i n e x e r c i s e s .

16. 17. 18. 19.

20.

real number x has just one a d d i t i v e Inverse, namely -x, For any real numbera a and b, - ( a + b) = (-a) + (-b). For real numbers a , b, and c, If a + c then a b. F r any real number a, a. 0 = 0. o For any real number a, (-1)a = -a.
Any
E

= b

c,

For any real numbers a and b, (-a)b = -(ab) and (-a)(-b) = ab. The opposite of the o p p o s i t e of a real number a is a. A y real number x d i f f e r e n t from 0 has n 1 j u s t one multiplicative inverse, namely x' The number 0 has no r e c i p r o c a l . The r e c i p r o c a l of a p o s i t i v e number i s p o s i t i v e , and t h e r e c i p r o c a l of a negative number is
negative The r e c i p r o c a l o f the r e c i p r o c a l of a non-zero real number a is a . For any non-zero real numbers a and b ,

For real numbers a and b, ab = 0 if and only if a = O o r b = 0 . F o r real numbers a, b, and c with c # 0 , if ac = be, then a = b. F o r any real numbers a and b, if a < b, then
-b

<

-a.

and b are real numbers such that a < b, then there I s a positive number c such that

I a f

b = a + c .

If x # 0 , then x2 > 0 . 1 1 I 0 ( a < b , then 6 < a. f

If
0
(

b,

then

a2

<

bP

You may have noticed that we gave a proof of t h e multiplication p r o p e r t y of order in S e c t i o n 8-3. In fact, this p r o p e r t y (No. 15 i n the list) f o l l o w s from t h e other 14 fundamental properties. Therefore it could have been omitted from the l i s t without limiti n g i n any way its scope. Eowever, we have i n c l u d e d the p r o p e r t y i n o r d e r t o emphasize the parallel between t h e p r o p e r t i e s of addi t i o n and t h e p r o p e r t i e s of multiplication.
[sec.

8-41

You may have noticed a l s o that nowhere in the above discussion of fundamental properties is t h e r e any mention of absolute values. This important concept can be brought into t h e framework of the basic p r o p e r t i e s by the d e f i n i t i o n :

If 0 < a , then
If a
( 0,

la1

then

a. la1 = - a .
=

We close t h i s summary with a mention of some properties of a rather d i f f e r e n t kind, namely the properties - equality. of These are properties of t h e language of algebra rather t h a n properties of real numbers. Recall that the sentence "a = b", where "a" and "b" are numerals, asserts that "a" and "b" name the same number, The first two properties of equality which we l i s t have n o t been stated before but have actually been used many times. In the following, a, b, and c are any real numbers.
35, 36.

I f If 37. If 38. If
39.
40.

= b,

then
and

b = a.

(symmetry)

b = c , then a = c. a = b, then a + c = b + c. a = b, then ac = bc.

= by

a = b

If a ~f a

then = b, then

-a

= -b. = lbl.

(Transitivity) ( ~ d d f t i o n roperty) p (Multiplication property 1

1 1 3

1.

Review Problems For each pair of numbers, determine their o r d e r .

{a)

-100, -99
0.2, -0.1
1-31,
)

(dl
(e)

6 7

(b)
(c>

1-71

(f) x

3.4+ (-4), 2

1, 0

2.

If p
and

(a)
(b)
(c)

and n < 0, determine which sentences are true which are false. If 5 > 3, then 5n < 3n. If a > 0, then ap < 0. If 3x > x, then 3px > px.
0

(d) If ( i ) x
(e)

If p

>
>

(f)

I ~f f

1, then x > n . 1 n, then 1 < E. P 1 1

>

>

0, then p

<

x and x

>

0.

3.

Which of the following pairs of sentences are equivalent? (a) 3a > 2, ( - 3 ) a > (-2) (b) 3x > 2 + x, 2x ) 2
(c)

37
-X

+ 5

= y

(d)
(e)

<

+ (-I), 2y

(-6)

3, x

-P

+ 5
0

<

(-3) P + (-11, 6

>

>

2p

4. If

and n < 0, determine which represent positive numbers, which represent negative numbers.
p

>

(a) -n

(dl

Pn

5.

Solve each of the following inequalities.

(a) -x
(b)

5 (-1) + 2~

>

(d)

(-4)

(-x)

<

3~

(e)

b + b

+5 +

3x + 8 2b = + 1 2 < 3 8 1

>

6.

Find the truth s e t of each of t h e following sentences.

(a)

1 2 < 1 and

x ) 0

(d)

1 2 (x) >
2x

and

(b)
(c)
i

1 = 1 2 1 ; < 1 and ;

(e) o

<

180

<

7.

If the domain of the variable is the set of i n t e g e r s f i n d the t r u t h s e t s of t h e following sentences.

(a)

3x +- 2x = 10

(dl

~ ( + (-33 x
3x

=
-I

5
3
1

(b)
(c>

x + (-1) = 3x t 1
2X f

(e)
(f)

+ 5<
+

2x

1 = -3x

-t

(-9)

($1

(-XI >

(-

(-2x1

8.

Solve t h e f o l l o w i n g equations.
(a) 3x = 5

( 4 7~ +
(el (f)
3x
3q
=

3 = y

+ (-3)
(-2)x
= (-2)

(b)
(c)

3 + x = 5 2n + n + (-2) = o

7x +

+ (-q) + 5 + q

9.

Solve the f o l l o w i n g equations. ( a ) 3 ( x + 5 ) = (x + 3 ) + x ( b ) x(x + 3 ) = ( X + (-4) ( X t 3 ) 1 ( 4 2Y T"+ ( - 1 = ( - 1 + ( - 1

(d)

a2 = . ( a
(X t

4. 1)
-t

(e)

2)(x

3 ) = x ( x t 5)

-+ 6

The length of a rectangle is known to be greater than or equal t o 6 units and less than 7 units. The width is known t o be 4 units. Find the area of the rectangle. 11. The l e n g t h of a rectangle is known t o be greater t h a n or equal to 6 units and less than 7 units. The width is kcnown to be g r e a t e r than or equal to, 4 units and less t h a n 5 unlts. Find the area of the rectangle. "12. The l e n g t h of a rectangle is known to be greater than or equal to 6.15 inches and l e s s t h a n 6.25 inches, The width I s known to be g r e a t e r than or equal to 4.15 inches and less t h a n 9.25 inches. Find the area of the rectangle.
1. 0

13.

14.

c e r t a i n variety of corn plant y i e l d s 240 seeds per p l a n t . N o t a l l the seeds w i l l g r o w i n t o new plants when planted. Between 3 and of the seeds will produce new plants. Each new p l a n t w i l l also yield 240 seeds. From a single corn p l a n t whose seeds are harvested i n 1960 how many seeds can be expected i n 1961? ( b ) Suppose instead that a corn plant d i d n o t y i e l d exactly 240 seeds, but between 230 and 250 seeds. Under this condition how many seeds c a n be expected in 1961 from the 240 seeds planted at the beginning of the season? Write open sentences and f i n d t h e s o l u t i o n t o each of the questions which follow.. A square and an e q u i l a t e r a l triangle have equal p e r i (a) meters. A side of the t r f a n g l e l s 3.5 inches l o n g e r than a side of the square. What is the length of the s i d e of the square? (b) A boat traveling downstream goes 10 miles per hour faster than the r a t e of the current. Its velocity downstream is not more than 25 miles per hour. What is t h e rate of the c u r r e n t ? ay ( c ) M r has typing to do which will take her at least 3 hours. I she starts at 1 P.M. and must finish by f 6 P,M., how much time can she expect to spend on the
(a)
A

(d)

job ? Jim r e c e i v e s $1.50 per hour for work which he does in

his spare time, and is saving his money t o buy a car. 1f the car will cost him at least $75, how many hours

must he work?

Chapter g
SUBTRACTION AND D I V I S I O I J FOR REAL NUMBERS

D e f i n f t i o n o f Subtraction _ Suppose you make a purchase which amounts t o 83 c e n t s , and give the c a s h i e r one d o l l a r . What d o e s she do? She p u t s down two c e n t s and says " 8 5 " , one n i c k e l and says "go", and one dime and says "one dollar". What has she been doing? She has been subt r a c t i n e 83 from 100. How does she do it? - S y f i n d i n g what she has t o add to 8 3 to obtain 100. The q u e s t L o n "100 - 83 = w h a t ? " means t h e same a s "83 + what = 100?", And how have we s o l v e d the

9-1.

equation

83 t x = 100 so f a r In t h i s course? W e add t h e o p p o s i t e of 83, and f i n d x = 100 + ( - 8 3 ) . Thus "100 - 83" and "100 + (-83)" a r e names for the sane number. T r y a few m o r e examples:

From t h e s e examples you will agree t h a t subtracting a p o s i t i v e number b from a larger p o s i t i v e number a, g i v e s the saxe r e s u l t as adding the opposite of b to a. S i n c e subtractLon f o r p o s i t i v e nunbers 1 s already familiar t o you, you p r o b a b l y wonder what we have a c c o m ~ l i s h e d . Our p r o b lem I s to d e c i d e how Lo d e f i n e subtraction f o r - r e a l num5ers. all We have now d e s c r i b e d subtraction in the f a l l l i a r c a s e of t h e positive numbers in terms of o p e r a t i o ~ l swe h o w how t o do f o r a l l real n u m b e r s , namely adding and t a k i n g o p p o s i t e s , And so w e define subtraction for a l l real numbers as a d d i n g the opposite. I n t h i s way, we extend sll'otraction t o r e a l numbers so t h a t it still h a s the p r o p e r t i e s we know from arithmetic; and our definition has u s e d o n l y ideas with which we have previously become familiar.

To s u b t r a c t t h e real number

add the o p p o s i t e of
and

to

from t h e real number a, Thus, f o r r e a l numbers a

b
(-b).
= -3

b,

a
Examples :
2

b = a
2

5=

+ (-5)

(-5) 5
(-2)

(-5)

2 =

? ? ? ?

(-2) =

(-5) =
(-2)
=

Read t h e e x p r e s s i o n " 5 - ( - 2 ) ", Is t h e symbol "-I1 used In two different ways? What is the meaning of t h e f i r s t " - I 1 ? What i s t h e meaning of t h e second 'I-"? To h e l p keep these uses of the symbol clear, we make t h e following p a r a l l e l s t a t e m e n t s about them.

stands between t w o numerals and i n d i c a t e s , t h e operation of subtraction, W e read t h e above a s "a minus b".

11-lt

is part of one numeral a n d i n d i c a t e s the o p p o s i t e - We read the above as of. "a plus t h e o p p o s i t e of

11

lt

b"

W e see t h a t t h e operation o f s u b t r a c t i o n is c l o s e l y related to t h a t o f a d d i t i o n . We may s t a t e this as

Theorem

9-1. F o r
a

any real numbers

a, b, c, a

= b

if and only if

b = c

Proof:

Remember that in order t o prove a theorem i n v o l v i n g 'tif and o n l y i f " w e r e a l l y must prove two theorems.

Let us f i r s t prove:

if

a = b

c,

then

b = c

b = c, then a = b + c. To do t h i s , The student c " means "a + (-b) = c". may now complete the proof.

Next we prove: if note that "a - b =

Problem Set
(-5000)

9-1

(-2000)

Subtract -8 from 15.

From -25,

subtract - 4 -

What number is 6 less t h a n -9?

-12 is how much greater than -17?

How much greater is 8 t h a n -5?

Let R be the s e t of a l l real numbers, and S the s e t of a l l numbers obtalned by performing t h e o p e r a t i o n of subtraction on pairs of numbers of R. Is S a subset of R? Are t h e r e a l numbers closed under s u b t r a c t t o n ? Are the numbers of arithmetic closed under s u b t r a c t i o n ?

15.

Show why

"a

0"

is true f o r a l l real numbers.

16.

Find t h e t r u t h set of each of t h e following equations:

(a)

y-725=25

(a)
(e)

3y
x
z

(b)
(c)

2~ +
z

34 = 76

= -16

(f)

- 2 = -14 + 23.6 = 7.2 3 1 + (- T ) = - ?

17.

From a t e m p e r a t ~ r eof ' below zero, the temperature dropped 3 1 0 ' . What was the new temperature? Show how t h i s question is related t o subtraction of real numbers.

18.

Mrs. J had a credit of $7.23 in her account at a department . store. She bought a dress f o r $15.50 and charged it, W a ht was t h e balance in h e r account?
Billy owed his b r o t h e r 80 cents. He repaid 50 c e n t s of the debt. How can t h i s t r a n s a c t f o n be written a s a s u b t r a c t i o n of real numbers? ( ~ e p r e s e n tt h e debt of 80 c e n t s by (-80.))
The bottom of Death Valley is 282 f e e t below sea Level,

19.

20.

The t o p of Mt. Whitney, which is v i s i b l e from Death Valley, has an altitude of 14,495 feet above sea level. How high above Death Valley is Mt. Whitney?

9-2.

Properties of Subtraction What are some of the p r o p e r t i e s of s u b t r a c t i o n ? 5 - 2 = 2 - 5 ?

Is

What do you conclude about the commutativity of subtraction? is

Next,

8 - (7 - 2) = ( 8 - 7 ) - 2? Do you t h i n k subtraction is a s s o c i a t i v e ? If subtraction does n o t have some of the p r o p e r t i e s t o which we have become accustomed, we shall have t o learn to subtract by g o i n g back to the d e f i n i t i o n in terms o f adding t h e opposite. Addition, after all, does have the familiar properties.

For example, s i n c e subtraction I s pression 3 2 4

not associative,

the ex-

- -

r e a l l y l a n o t a numeral because it does not name a specific number. Recall that subtraction is a b i n a r y operation, that is, 2 4" mean "3 (2 - 4)" i n v o l v e s two numbers. Then does "3 or does it mean " ( 3 - 2 ) 4 " ? To make a d e c i s i o n , we convert subtraction to addition of opposite. Then

- -

On t h e other hand,

The second of these I s the meaning we decide upon. agree t h a t a - b - c meana (a b) c , that is a b - c = a + (-b) + ( - c )

We shall

&ample

1, -

Find a common name for

W can think of this e

as

6 (5+

2)

1 )

and then we b o w t h a t we

can write

~xmple - U s e the properties of addition to write 2. -3x + 5x - 8x in simpler form. -3x + 5x - 8x = ( - 3 ) ~ 5x + (-8)x, +

where we have used the theorem, -ab = (-a) b, f a r the f l r s t term, and the d e f i n i t i o n of subtraction the same theorem f o r the last term, That is, we think of -3x + 5x -8x as the o f (-3)x, 5x, and (-8)x. Then
-3x

+ 5x - 8x

((-3)
-6~.

+5+

(-8))

by the d i s t r i b u t i v e property

While it is not as p r e c l s e , we use the commonly accepted word "simplify" f o r d i r e c t i o n s such as "find a common name f o r " and "use the p r o p e r t i e s of addition to write the f o l l o w i n g in simpler form", When there is no posslbLlity of confusion, this term will appear henceforth.

mample 3.

Simplify

(5y

3)

(6y

- 8).
t h e sum of the opposites.

= jy

(-3)

(- the o+ po(- (-8)) thesinceis (6y) ) , ite of , sum

I n s t e a d of t h e f a c t t h a t the opposlte of a sum is the sum of the o p p o s f t e s , we c o u l d a l s o have used Theorem 7-2a which s t a t e s t h a t -a = (-l)a, and t h e n t h e distributfve property. Then our example would have proceeded as follows:

When you understand the steps involved, you can abbreviate the a t e p a t o : (5y 3) (6y 8) = 5~ - 3 6~ -I-8

You may be impressed b y the way we are now doing a number of steps mentally, T h i s a b i l i t y to comprehend several steps without writing them a l l down is a sign of our mathematical growth. We must be c a r e f u l , however, to be able at any time to p i c k out a l l t h e detailed steps and explain each one. For instance, give the reason f o r each of the f o l l o w i n g steps:

(6a

8b

c)

(4a

- 2b + 7 c )

Simplify

Problem Set 9-28 (In Problems 7 and 20 show and explain each step a a in the first two parts of Example 3 . In the remaining problems, uae the abbreviated form of the t h i r d part of Example 3. )

--

1 .

(a) 3x
( b j -5a

4x

7.

( 3 + 9) ~

( 5 - 9) ~

3a

( c ) 4x2
(d)

8 ( 2 6 + 8) .
9.
-4y

(2

(-7x2)
xz

+
+

-fi)

6y
5c

-4xz

10. -3c

I +p

(b) -3c
(c)

-1 7x2 - 4x2 - llx2

5c
TC

12. ( 3 x

13.

- 6 ) + ( 6 - 3x) (5a - 17b) - (ha - 6b)

4)

3.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(3x

4y)

15. (3a + 2b
16. (7x2
17. (7x2

(5a

TX

3b

+
8)

c)

I-5a
(4a

3y)

3x1
3x)

( 4 2 (4x2

6a)

- 8)
-

7x

21. From l l a
-3x

13b

7 c subtract R a

5S

,b c .
+
5x

22. What is the r e s . ~ l t 3T subtracting

-3x 2

- 7 from
-9s

12?

23. W a must be added to ht

24.

3s

Prove:

If

b, then

- 4t + 7u to obtain a - b is p o s i t i v e .

3u?

25. If (a a < b,

b) I s a positive number, which of the statements, a = b, a ) b, I s t r u e ? What if ( a - b) is a n e g a t i v e number? What i f (a. b ) I s zero?

26. If a, b, and c are real numbers and a ) b, what can we say a b o u t the order of a - c and b - c? Prove your statement.

The d e f i n i t i o n of s u b t r a c t i o n in terms of addition permits us t o extend further our a p p l i c a t i o n s of the d i s t r i b u t i v e prop e r t y , and t o describe i n d i f f e r e n t language some of o u r steps in finding t r u t h s e t s . Example Simplify

By applying the d e f i n i t i o n of aubtraction, we have

(-3)(2x

- 5) =

(-3)

(2X

+ (-5))
+
x
(-3)(-5)
(my?)

= (-3)(2x) = ((-3)(2)) = (-6)x

15

What properties of
muXtiplication have we used here?

15

You would perhaps have done some of these steps m e n t a l l y , and would have written directly:
(-3)(2~
thlnking

- 5) = - 6 ~ 15, +

" ( - 3 ) times (2x1 is (-6x)"

"(-3) times (-5) i s 15."

1.

Problem Set 9-2b Perform i n d i c a t e d operations and simplify where possible:

(a> 4 ( 3

5)
(-a))

(b) 2 -

(4

(-3)(4

(-5))
x)

- 2x1 ( 9 ) (-2)(3x - (-3)) (h) 2(-3x - 3 )

(f) 5 (3

( d l (-x)(-2

+ 7)

(1) a ( b

2)

(4 (-4)(3 -

(3)

(-y)(-x

- 4)

2 .

Perform I n d i c a t e d operations and simplify where p o s s i b l e :

(a) ( - 3 ) ( - a
(b)
(-3x

2b

- c)
2(-2x

i 2y) -

y)

(d)

4u (2u
X(X

3)

3(2u

3)

+ Y) - Y ( X + Y) ( s ) 2a(a - b ) + b ( a - b)
(el
(g)

(h)

(i)

- b - 2c) (-X)( 4 - y) + 2x(-x - y ) ~ a(b + c + 1) - 2a(2b c - 1)

3(a

c ) -(2a

-I

(J)
3.
(a)

a(a

3)

b(a

3)

3(a

+b +

3)

Solve :

3 x - 4 = 5
2 a m 1 = 4 a - 3
-3y = 2

(f) 0 . 7 ~ + 1.3

= 3.2 - I 1.4~

- 0.3

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

(g) - x - 1 < 4 - x

-y -2 - 2y < 4u

(h) 3a
(i)

+ 3 = 7a .+ 4 - ba 12 - 2 . 5 ~ < - 3.3 .

-1
c

>

-5u

(a)

The width of a rectangle is 5 inches less than i t s l e n g t h . What is I t s l e n g t h if its perimeter is 38 inches'!

(b)
(c)

If 17 I s subtracted from a number, and the result I s multiplied by 3, t h e product is 102. What is the number?
A teacher says,

"If I had 3 times as many students in my class as I do have, I would have l e s s than 46 more than I now have." How many students does he have in his class?

Subtraction in Terms of Distance Suppose we ask: On the number l i n e , how far is it from 5 to 8? If A represents the number of units in t h i s distance, then

9-3,

---

The s o l u t i o n of t h i s equation, a s we have seen, can be w r i t t e n as x = 8 - 5. Thus, 8 - 5 can be interpreted as the d i s t a n c e from

5 to 8 on the number l i n e .

L e t us now a s k how far I t i s from 3 t o (-2). s e n t s the number of u n i t s in t h i s distance, then

If y

repre-

Thus

(-2)

-3

can be interpreted a s the distance from

3 to (-2).

The q u a n t i t y 8 - 5 = 3 is p o s i t i v e , while ( 2 - 3 is negative. What does this d i s t i n c t i o n tell us? It t e l l s us that the distance from 5 to 8 Is to the right, while from 3 to ( - 2 is to the left. Therefore, a b really gives us the distance f r o m b to a, t h a t is, both the length and its -

direction,

Suppose we are not Interested I n the d i r e c t i o n , b u t only in the d i s t a n c e between a and B Then a - b is the distance from b to a, and b a is the d i s t a n c e from a to b, and the distance between a and b is the positive of these two, From o u r earlier work, we know t h a t this is la - bl. For example, the d i s t a n c e from 3 t o (-2) is (-2) -3, t h a t is, -5; the d i s t a n c e between 3 (-2) is 11-21 - 31, t h a t is, 5. In the same way, the dlatance from 2 x is x 2; the d i s t a n c e between 2 -- x I s Ix and 21.

- -

1 .

Problem S e t 9-3 -What is t h e distance

( a ) from -3 t o 5?
(b) between -3 and 5?
( c ) from

If) between 5 and I?

( g ) from -8 to -2?

6 to -2?

(h) between -8 and -2?

( 5 ) from

( d ) between
( e ) from
2.

6 and -2?

7 to

O?

5 to l?

(j) between 7 and O?

What I s the distance

(a) from x t o 5?
(b) between x and 5?
( c ) from -2 to x?
( d ) between -2 and x?

( e ) from -1 t o -x?

(f) between -x and -1

(g) from

t o x?

(h) between 0 and x?

3.

For each of the f o l l o w i n g pairs of expressions, fill in the symbols "<" , "=", o r l a > " , which will make a true sentence.
(a)

19
12

21 ?
?

191
121

(b)
(C

- 91 - 91

121

191
1-21

19

(-211 ?
?

191
1-21

Id)

11-21

191

4. Write a symbol between 1 a b 1 and 1 a \ lb 1 which will make a t r u e sentence for a11 real numbers a and b. Do the same f o r )a - bl and IbI - l a l . For la b ) and

llal

lblI

5. Describe the r e s u l t i n g sentences in Problem 4 in terms of dist a n c e on the number l i n e .

6 What are the two numbers x on the number l i n e such that .

Ix

41

I?

7. What is the t r u t h set of the sentence

IX

- 4 1 < 1,

Draw the graph of t h i s s e t on the number l i n e ,

8. What is the truth s e t of the sentence

Ix-41 > I ?
9 , Graph t h e t r u t h set of
x > 3

and

x < 5

on the number l i n e . Is this s e t the same as the t r u t h s e t of ' /x 4 I ( l? (we u s u a l l y write " 3 ( x < 5 for the sentence "x ) 3 and x ( 5".)

10. F i n d the t r u t h s e t of each of the following equations; graph each of these sets:

(a)
(b)

Ix-61=8
y

( - 6 ) = 10

(dl

1x1 Ivl

(4
(f)
(g)

< >

3 -3

iyl +
ly

12 = 13
(

- 81

(~ead this: The distance between y and 8 is less than 4.)

(h)
(1)

121

+12 = 6

IX -

(-1911

Ij)

IY

+ 51 =

11. For each sentence in the left column pick the sentence in t h e r i g h t column which has the same truth s e t : 1x1 = 3
x=-3
a d

x = 3

1x1 1 3

x>-3
x > - 3

and

x < 3

1x1 1x1

>

or
and

x < 3 x

23 1x1 6 3
1x1

<

-3

>

x < - 3
x i - 3

or or

x > 3

$ 3

x 2 3

*12. From a p o i n t marked 0 on a s t r a i g h t road, John and Rudy ride bicycles. John rides 10 miles per hour and Rudy rides 12 miles per hour. F i n d the distance between them after

(a)

They start from t h e

mark at the same time and John

0

goes e a s t and Rudy goes we st.

(b)
(c)

John is 5 miles e a s t and Rudy is 6 miles west of the mark when they s t a r t and they both go e a s t .

John s t a r t s from the O mark and goes east. Rudy s t a r t s from the 0 mark 15 minutes later and goes west.
Both s t a r t at the same time.

(d)

John starts from t h e

mark and goes weat and Rudy starts 6 miles west of the 0 mark and a l s o goes west.

You will recall that we defined subtraction of a number as addition of the opposlte of the number:

In other words, we defined subtraction In terms of addition and the additive inverse. Since d i v i e i o n is related t o multiplfcation in much the same way as subtraction I s related to a d d i t i o n , we m i g h t expect to d e f i n e d i v i s i o n in terms of multiplication and the multiplicative inverse, This is exactly what we do.
For any real numbers a and b (b # 0), "a divided by bl1 means "a multiplied by the reciprocal of b" ,
We shall indicate

"a divided by

btl by the symbol

'a' l 6'

This

symbol is n o t new, You have used it as a fraction i n d i c a t i n g division. Then the definition of division I s :

"b" the denominator of the fraction When there is no posaib i l i t y of confusion, we e h a l l a l s o c a l l the number named by "a1' the numerator, and the number named by "b" the denominator, Here are some examples of our d e f i n i t i o n . By LQ , we mean
H

As in arlthmetie, we s h a l l call "an the numerator and

I1

Does t h i s definition of d i v i s i o n agree w i t h the i d e a s about division which we already have in arithmetic? A elementary way n is t o ask "what times 2 g i v e s lo?" Since to talk about
52 = 10, then '
2 10

7=

5.

Why in t h e definition of d i v i s i o n d i d we make the restriction "b f O"? Be on your guard agalnst being f o r c e d into an impossible situation by i n a d v e r t e n t l y t r y i n g to divide by zero.

Problem Set - 9-4a Write common names f o r the f o l l o w i n g :

Mentally complete the following, and compare

10--I8

2 - 5

and

10 = 5-2,

-3

and
and

-18 = 6( ),
8y = 2y(4).

What do these suggest about the r e l a t i o n between multiplication and division? Is the following theorem c o n s i s t e n t with your experience in arithmetic? Theorem

94 -.

For

# 0, a

cb

if and only if

= c.

This amounts to saying t h a t a divided by b is the number which multiplied by b g i v e s a. Compare t h i s with Theorem 9-1 which says that b subtracted from a I s the number which added to b gfves a . Again, in order to prove a theorem involving "if and o n l y ifl1 we must prove two things. First, we must show t h a t if $ = c (b # 0), then a = cb. The fact t h a t we want to obtain cb on the r i g h t suggests s t a r t i n g the proof by multiplying both members of

Proof:

If

= o

(b

0), then

1 a-b =

C,

1 a(%.b) = cb, aml = cb,

a = cb.
Second, we must show that i f

= cb ( b

a 0), then -E;= c.

This
1 -' b

time, the f a c t t h a t we do n o t want

on the r i g h t suggests

starting t h e proof by multiplying both members of ''a = cb" by This is possible, since b # 0 .

Esec.

9-41

Proof:

If

= cb (b

1 # 0), then am5

= (~b)~,

a - 1 = c(b*t), E

Supply the reason f o r each step of the above proofs. The second part of this theorem agrees with our customary method of checking division by m u l t i p l y i n g the quotient by the divisor. The multfplication property of 1 s t a t e s that a = a(1) f o r any real number a . If we apply Theorem 9-4 to this, we obtain two familiar s p e c i a l cases of division. For any real

number

a,

and for any non-zero real number a,

8 -= a

1 .

1 .

Problem -Set 9-4b Prove that for any real number a,

2 .

Prove that f o r any non-zero real number a ,

[ s e c . 9-41

In the following problems p e r f o m the i n d i c a t e d divisions and check by multiplying the q u o t i e n t by the divisor.

4.

Comment on 28

5.

When d i v i d i n g a p o s i t i v e number by a negatfve number, I s the q u o t i e n t positive or i a it negative? What if we d i v i d e a n e g a t i v e number by a p o s l t f v e number? What if we divide a negative number by a negative number?
Find the t r u t h s e t of each of t h e f o l l o w i n g equations :

6.

(a)

6y = 42

(h)

?X

1 = 20

(b) -6y = 42
(c)

6y = -42

( e ) 42y =

( f ) 42y = 42
(g)

4~

43

Find t h e truth s e t o f each of t h e following equations.

(b)
(c)

& + 13
x

= 25

.30x = 6.50

1 ( e ) +a = ga

+4

If six times a number is decreased by 5, the r e s u l t is -37.

F i n d the number.

If t w o - t h i r d s of a number is added to 32, the result is 38. What is the number?

2 If it takes 7 of a pound of sugar t o make one cake, how many pounds of sugar a r e needed f o r 35 cakes f o r a banquet which 320 people will attend.

A rectangle is 7 times a s l o n g as it Is wide.

I t s perimeter

1s 144 inches.

How wide is the r e c t a n g l e ?

John is three times a s o l d as Dick. Three years ago the sum of their ages was 22 years. How o l d is e-ach now?
Find two consecutive even integers whose sum is 46.
F i n d two c o n s e c u t i v e odd p o s i t i v e integers whose sum is less

than o r equal t c 83.

On a 2 0 % d l s c o u n t sale, a chalr cost $30. of the c h a i r before the sale?

What w a s the price

Two t r a i n s leave Chicago at the same time: one travels north at 60 m.p.h. and the o t h e r south at 40 m.p.h. After how many hours will they be 125 miles a p a r t ?

One-half of a number is 3 more than one-sixth of t h e same number. What is the number?

Mary bought 15 three-cent stamps and some four-cent stamps. If she p a i d $1.80 f o r all the stamps, was she charged the correct amount? John has 50 c o i n s which are nickels, pennies, and dimes. He has f o u r more d i m e s than pennies, and six more n i c k e l s t h a n dimes. How many of each k i n d of coin has he? How much money does he have?
John, who is saving hi3 money f o r a b i c y c l e , said, "In f i v e weeks I s h a l l have one dollar more than three times t h e amount I now have. I shall then have enough money f o r my bicycle." If the b i c y c l e c o s t s $76, how much money does John have now?
A p l a n e which f l i e s at an average speed of 200 m p h ... (when no wind is blowing) is h e l d back by a head wind and takes 31 2

h o u r s to complete a flight of 630 miles. speed of the wind?

What is t h e average

The sum of three successive p o s i t i v e integers is 108. the i n t e g e r s ,

Find

The sum of two successive p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s is less than 25. Find the i n t e g e r s .

manufacturer made 160 g a l l o n s of symp worth $608 by mixing maple syrup worth $2 per quart with corn syrup worth 60 c e n t s per quart. How many g a l l o n s of each k i n d did he use?
A syrup

Show Chat if the q u o t i e n t of two real numbers is p o s i t i v e , the product of the numbers a l s o is p o s i t i v e , and If t h e quot i e n t is negative, the product i s negative.

Common Names In Chapter 2 we noted some special names f o r r a t i o n a l nwnbers which are in some sense the s i m p l e s t names f o r these numbers, and which we c a l l e d "common names1'. Two particular items of Interest

9-5.

about i n d i c a t e d quotients were the f o l l o w i n g :

We do n o t c a l l

20 5
'l

"14"
a common name f o r "fourtt, because "4" is simpler; similarly,

is n o t a common name f o r "two-thirds" because "21'i s simpler. 3

a rem - = 1 . a

We

o b t a i n these common names by uslng the property of 1 and the theo-

and

On the o t h e r hand, we cannot slmplify " 4 " and 7 any f u r t h e r . In the above example, what permitted us to write

z(T)? This 3 7
Theorem

familiar practice from arithmetic is one which can be

proved f o r a l l real numbers.

95 -.

For any real numbers a, b, c , d, If b # 0 and d & 0, then

Proof:

a x*,c

1 1 (aab)(cea)

(why?

= (ac)

1 1 (---I d b

(why?)

Theorem 7-8d
(why?1

Example 1 .

Simplify

3azb 5aby

"2f1

3a2b -= 5aby 5y ab
=

*lab{
3a

by a s s o c i a t i v e and commutative properties, by Theorem 9-5,

by t h e p r o p e r t y of 1.

5~ ab

ab) ,

3a - - 5~
Example - Simplify 2.

. ( weo assume a uwe i n a t i c a lthls phrase, ~ t e : When write to l y that the

domain of y excludes 1,
Why?)
= 3 2 * [

*.

, ,

by t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y ,
by

= F (%I y
=

Theorem 9-5,
1, (here a = y

$(I)

, since a = a
,

- 1)

by the multiplication property of 1.

After further experience, your mental agility will undoubtedly permit you to skip some of these steps. Example 3 .
Simplify

'

2x

+ 5 ) - (5

- 2x1
-+
2x

By the d e f i n l t i o n of subtraction,

I2x

5)

(5

2x1 - 2x

+
9

=4xx
--

" -2

by the multlplf c a t i o n p r o p e r t y of 1.

The numerals 2 and

-X

and -? a l l name the aame number,

and a l l look equally simple; the accepted common name Is the l a a t of these. Therefore,
2x 4- 5

(5

- 2x1 = - T o
X

1.

Problem Set 9-5 We have used the property of real numbers if b # 0 , then

and

that

-a a a 't5 "-b= '6

Prove this theorem.

In each of the following problems, simplify:

5.

(a)

w.
&+

(b)

6. (a)

-*, ++(c)
xy+y

(dl

yyx"Y1j

(4

10. ( a )

6a2b a
(X
+

5a2b
(b)

( 47 2b a

6a2b

3ab(2a + a ) -15abc

11. ( a )

l)Cx
x

l)

( 1

(X

1)(2x- 3 + x ) 4x 4

9-6 F r a c t i o n s
A t the b e g i n n i n g of S e c t i o n 9-5, we recalled two c o n v e n t i o n s on common names which we have been u s i n g ever s i n c e C h a p t e r 2:
A common name c o n t a i n s no I n d i c a t e d d i v i s i o n which can be per-

formed, and if it c o n t a i n s an i n d i c a t e d d i v i s i o n , the resulting f r a c t i o n s h o u l d b e " i n lowest terms1'. Then d u r i n g Section 9-5, we s t a t e d a n o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n , this one about opposites: We prefer writing - - t o any of the o t h e r s i m p l e names f o r t h e same number, b

"

L e t us return t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n s about f r a c t i o n s .

In this

course a " f r a c t i o n " i s a symbol which indicates t h e quotient of t w o numbers. Thus a fraction i n v o l v e s t w o numerals, a n u m e r a t o r and denominator, When there i s n o possibility o f confusion, we s h a l l use the word " f r a c t i o n " t o r e f e r also to t h e number i t s e l f which is represented by t h e fraction. When there a possibility of c o n f u s i o n we must go back t o our s t r i c t meaning of f r a c t i o n as a numeral, I n some a p p l i c a t i o n s of mathematics the number g i v e n by a is called t h e r a t i o of a t o b . Again we shall sometimes speak of the ratlo when we mean the symbol indicating the q u o t i e n t .

In the preceding s e c t i o n we used Theorem 9-5 t o write a fraction as the lndlcated product of two fractions. F o r I n s t a n c e , we wrote

Let ua now a p p l y Theorem 9-5 In the "other d i r e c t i o n " to write an indicated product of fractions as a s i n g l e f r a c t i o n .
Example 1: x 5 Simplify 5.6.

BY Theorem 9-5,

x 5 3m6=

Sometimes we use Theorem 9- "both ways" in one problem. 3 1 Example - Simplify ( T ) ( 3 ) . 2 :

3 14 (s)(T) =
-

3.14

3.w.
2- 3.3

(why?1

because 14 = 2.7

a d

= 303

(why?)

= ( =

by Theorem 9-5.

by the p r o p e r t y of 1 .

Problem -Set 9-6a

In Problems 1-10 simplify:

2'

(8)

y.5

(b)

E*T

h 21

(c) 4 . 7 5+2 7d ) 14 (

-*1

4-21

lo

4.

1 1 ( a ) ,*E

(b)

"'6

(4 i * ~

1 1

, i i

6-

(8)

3 2

10.3

(b)

2+

3
(c}

(-?)($)

(d)

(-%) (- $) +

11. C a n every r a t i o n a l number be represented by a fraction? Does every fraction represent a r a t i o n a l number?
2 12. The ratio of faculty to students in a c o l l e g e is 5 If there are 1197 students, how many faculty members are there?

13. The profits from a student show are to be given t o two

If the fund r e c e i v i n g echolsrship funds in the r a t i o the larger amount was g i v e n $387, how much was given to the o t h e r fund?

5.

can s t a t e what we have done so far in another way. A product of two i n d i c a t e d q u o t i e n t s can always be written as one i n d i c a t e d quotient. Thus, in certain kinds of phrases, which involve the product of s e v e r a l fractions, we can always simplify the phrase t o j u s t one f r a c t i o n . If a phrase c o n t a i n s several fractions however, these f r a c t i o n s might be added or subtracted, or d i v l d e d . We shall see in thls sectlon t h a t in U these cases, we may a l w a y s f i n d another phrase for the same number which involves only one indicated division. We are thus able t o s t a t e
W e

one more c o n v e n t i o n a b o u t i n d i c a t e d q u o t i e n t s : No common name for a number s h a l l contain more t h a n one i n d i c a t e d d i v i s i o n . Thus the instruction "simplify" will always include the idea "use t h e properties of t h e real numbers to find a n o t h e r name which c o n t a i n s at most one i n d i c a t e d d i v i s i o n . "

The key to simplifying the sum of t w o fractions is u s i n g the p r o p e r t y of one to make the denominators alike.

Example 3:

Sirnpllfy

5+ .
=

X+Y- X 3

(1)

+*
5

(I), by the p r o p e r t y of 1,

" (55 ) +
1 5x(=)

(31,since 3

a = 1

by Theorem 9-5,
=

+
3

3 y (-), I

by the d e f . of l5 division,

(5x

~, by t h e~ distributive )
property,

by t h e deflnltion o f division,

Once again, you will soon learn t o t e l e s c o p e these steps.

P r o b l e m S e t 9-6b

In Problems 1-5 simplify:

3.

(a) 4

a +5a

7.

Prove t h a t
(c

-+ a C
a

= 8 + b
C

- for real numbers

C

a, b, and

0).

+8.

Prove t h a t

f o ~ r e a l n u m b e r s a, b, c , and

9 Find the t r u t h .
~xample:

4 - 2 -5.

s e t of each of the following open sentences:

Two d i f f e r e n t procedures are possible.

X 9

= 2
=

18
1

(a)
(b)

~ Y + ~ = T Y

We multiplied by 9 because we could see t h a t the res u l t l n g equation would contain no f r a c t i o n s . a (f) F - 3 = -3- a
(P)

:+%=I
=
JX

( ~ + 1

8 = 1

lwl + T 41
22

(4 2 (d)
(e)

3
+
8

(h)

3 - -7 +

1x-31

<

7 3~ =

& = 3 5 - x

10.

The sum of two numbers I s

t h e other.

240,

and one number is

F i n d the t w o numbers.

3 5

times

11.

The numerator of the fraction

4 - is 7

i n c r e a s e d by an amount

1 2

x . The v a l u e of the r e s u l t i n g fraction is 3 By what amount was the n u m e r a t o ~increased? 13 of a number i s 13 more than of t h e number. What
is the number?

13.

Joe is 3 as o l d as h i s father. 1 - as old a s his father then 1s. 2

In 12 years he will b e
How old is Joe?

His father?

14.

The sum of two p o s i t i v e integers is 7 and t h e i r difference is 3. What a r e t h e numbers? What is the sum of the r e c i p r o c a l s of these numbers? What is t h e difference of the reciprocals?

15.

16.

In a shipment of 800 r a d i o s , 20 of the radios were defective. What is the r a t i o of d e f e c t i v e r a d i o s to non-defective radios in the shipment? (a) If I t takes Joe 7 days to p a i n t his house, what part of t h e j o b will he do in one day? How much in d days?
(b)

8 days to p a i n t Joets house, what p a r t of t h e job would he do in one day? In d days?

If it t a k e s Bob

(c)

If Bob and Joe work together what p o r t e o n of t h e j o b would they do in one day? What p o r t i o n in d days? R e f e r r i n g t o parts (a), (b), ( c ) , translate t h e f o l l o w i n g into an mglish sentence:

(d)

Solve t h i s open sentence f o r

represent?

d.

What does

( e ) What p o r t i o n of the p a i n t i n g will Joe and Bob, working together, do in one day?

"17. A b a l l team on August 1 had won 48 games and lost 52. They had 54 games left on t h e i r schedule. L e t us suppose that t o win the pennant they must f i n i s h with a s t a n d i n g How many of their remaining games must of at l e a s t .600. t h e y win? What is t h e h i g h e s t s t a n d i n g they can get? The lowest?

For s i m p l i f y i n g the indicated product of two f r a c t i o n s , a key p r o p e r t y was Theorem 9-5; f o r simplifying t h e i n d i c a t e d sum of two f r a c t i o n s , a key p r o p e r t y was the p r o p e r t y of 1 . When handling t h e i n d i c a t e d quotient of two fractions, we have several alternative procedures i n v o l v i n g these properties. Let us consider an example.
Example 4:

Simplify

5 z1 2

Method 1 .

L e t us apply t h e p r o p e r t y of 1, where we shall think 6 6 of 1 as 5 (YOU w i l l see why we chose g as the

work proceeds. )

10
=
Method 2.
3 9

by o u r p r e v i o u s work on multiplication.

Let us use the property of 1, where we shall t h i n k of 1 as 3 . We choose 2 because it is t h e reciprocal

5
then
1 2

= 1
2

10

numerator by previous work

because

1 denominator by choice of reciprocal of 2

f o r any

a.

Method 3:

L e t us a p p l y the d e f i n i t i o n of d i v i s i o n

$ (2)
3

Since

1 = a

by previous work on multiplication.

You may apply any one of these methods which appeals to you, prov i d e d t h a t (1) you always understand what you are doing, and (2) you receive no i n s t r u c t i o n s to the contrary.

Problem Set 9-6c

In each of the following, s i m p l i f y , using the most appropriate

method:

a - b 2 a - b

Ti2

10.

a - b

- 4

a - b

9-7.

Summary

Definition - subtraction: To subtract the r e a l number of from the real number a, add the opposite of b to a.

Theorem 9-1. For any real numbers and o n l y if a - b = c.

a, b, c,

a = b

if

On the number a - b is the b - a is the la-bl is the

line,
d l s t a n c e from

distance from a distance between

to a to b a and

D e f i n i t i o n - d i v i s i o n : To divide the real number a by of t h e non-zero real number b, multiply a by the r e c i p r o c a l of b.

Theorem 9-4.
a = cb

For any real numbers a if and only if i;-= c ,

a, b, c, where

0,

Theorem - For any real numbers 9-5. and d # 0, then

a, b, c,

d,

if

b f O

The simplest name for a number: (1) Should have no i n d i c a t e d operations which can be performed. ( 2 ) Should In any indicated dlvislon have no common factors in t h e numerator and denominator. ( 3 ) Should have the form In preference to -& or

-g

(4) Should have at most one i n d i c a t e d d i v i s i o n .

Review Problems Which of the following name real numbers? For each part write either the common name f o r the number or the reason why it is n o t a number.

1 .

(b)
(c)

3 4
3.0

(fj 5*0

(i) 8 - 2 - 3

2 .

I n s e r t parentheses in each of the following expressions so that the r e s u l t i n g sentence is t r u e (a) 5

(b) 5

5-7 = 0

5.7

(d)
(e)

7 - 6 - 2 = - 1
3-2

-30

- 2.5
-

( ~ 1 7 - 6 - 2 = 3
3.

(f) 3 2 .

2 - 5 = 20

Find t h e value of the phrase,

b2
(d)
(e)

k c , f o r each of the
=

following:

(a) a
(bj
(c)

= 2,

b = (-I), c = 5

a = 5, b = 6, c a
= 1, b = (-31,

1,654, b

= 2,

= 0

a = 5 , b = 0, 1 1 c = ( - a ) (r) a = ~ b, = T ,

(-3)

-5

-5

4.

Given t h e f r a c t i o n

3x rn; what
+

is the only value of x f o r

which t h i s is n o t a real number?

5.

Use the distributive p r o p e r t y t o write the following a s i n d i c a t e d sums.

(b)
(c)
(d)

ab2 ( a

- b)
1)
~ )

(f)
(g)

(x
(2x

3 ) 7x2
3yHx + 4 ~ )

rn2 (m
-(3x

-2
+

(h)

(28 1

3b12

6.

Solve t h e f o l l o w i n g sentences
(a)
2 a - 3 < a + 4

(dl

3 $ - y < $

(b)
(c)

7x + 4

(-X)

= 3x

-8

(e) z ,

1 =gz

6m2135
1

(f) -31x1

-6

7.

If

of a number increased by

1 g of the number is less than

the number diminished by 25, what is the number?

8.
Find t h e average of t h e numbers
x-!-3
X

'

X - 3
X

'

x + k
X

' -X
20

X - k

where

# 0.
Then t e l l

9,

show that

3 8 < 20

and

2 <

& -

are t r u e sentences.
istme.

why you h o w Immediately t h a t

3< 2 15

*10, A haberdasher sold t w o s h i r t s for $3.75 each, On the f i r s t he lost 2 5 % of the cost and on the second he gained 25% of the cost. How much did he gain or lose, or did he break even on t h e two sales?

11. If y = ax + b and a d 0, f i n d an equivalent sentence f o r in terms of a, b, and y.

12. Last year t e n n i s b a l l s cost d dollars a dozen. This year the price is c c e n t s per dozen higher t h a n l a s t year, What w i l l half a dozen b a l l s cost at the present rate?

13. Find the t r u t h s e t of each of the following equations.

( a ) (X
(b)

- l)(x + 2 ) = 0
= 0

(d) (2m

(Y + 5 ) ( ~ 7 ) +

(e)
(f)

(c) 0 = z (2

2)

- l)(m - 2) = o ( x 2 + 1) 3 = o ( x - 3) + (x - 2 ) =

19. If g a

where

a, b, c ,

and

are real numbers with

(a) Prove that

(b)
(c)

ad = bc
c

Prove that, if

0 , then 0, c

a = a b
=

Prove that, if
Prove t h a t

0, then

(d)

-=b

a + b

c + d d

15. Prove the theorem: If b 4 0 and

0 , then

ac = i a ;

16. Prove the theorem: If a d 0 and

b 0, t h e n l - - -a' a b
-j] and t h e f o l l o w i n g r n u l t l p l i c a t i o n

*17. Given the set {I, -1, A,

table.

Second Number

(a) Is the set closed under multiplication?

(b)

Verify that this multiplication is commutative f o r the

cases (-1,

J ) , (j, -j) and (-1,

-JL

( c ) Verify that this multiplication is a s s o c i a t i v e f o r the

c a s e s (-1, j, -j) ( d ) Is it true that

and

(1, -1, j).

a x 1 =

a, where

is any element of

[I, -1, J , - J l *
( e ) Find the r e c i p r o c a l of each element in this set.

If x is an unspecified member of the set, find the t r u t h sets of the following (make use of questlan (e)).
(f) j x x = 1 .
(h)
j2 x x = -1.
=

W-J

x x = 3.

(I) j3

..

-1.

INDEX

The reference is to t h e page on which t h e t e r m o c c u r s .

abscissa, 406 absolute v a l u e , 113, 115, 118 addition fractions, 258 of r a t i o n a l expressions, 355 of r e a l numbers, 121, 125, 127, 141 on t h e number line, 1 4 addition method, 476 addition property, 202, 205 a s s o c i a t i v e , 201 commutative, 201 i d e n t i t y element, 162, 201 o f equality, 133, 141 of opposites, 131, 141 of order, 187, 188, 190 of z e r o , 57, 71, 131, 141 additive i n v e r s e , 13 5, 201 approximation, 299 o f 6, 306 associative property of a d d i t i o n , 24, 71, 130, 1 4 1 , 201 of multiplication, 27, 71, 153, 201 axis, 500 base, 267 bas ic operat ions, 180 blnary o p e r a t i o n , 23, 110, 201 binary r e l a t i o n , 185 c l o s u r e property of addition, 61, 71, 201 of multiplication, 17, 27, 71, 201 c o e f f i c i e n t , 317 collecting terms, 1% combining terms, 158 common names, 19, 229 commutative p r o p e r t y of addition, 25, 71, 130, 141, 201 of multiplication, 28, 71, 151, 146, 201 comparison p r o p e r t y , 105, 118, 185, 202 completing the square, 3 3 3 , 368, 503 compound s e n t e n c e , 56 w i t h t h e connective and, 52 with the connective 53

constant,

317 constant of variation,

c o n t a i n s , 42 j contradiction, 173

or,

438

c o o r d i n a t e , 9 , 406 c o o r d i n a t e a x l a , 407 correspondence, 8 counting numbers, 2 cube, 267 cube root, 285 degree of a polynomial, 317 denominator, 223 rationalizing, 296 difference of squares, 325, 367 dlstance between, 114, 220 distance from b t o a, 219, 220 d i s t r i b u t i v e property, 31, 66, 67, 71, 146, 155, dividend, 3 59
division,

d i v i s i b l e by, 248 223, 2 4 1 checking, 226 of polynomials, d i v i s o r , 359 domain, 38, 102

358-359

element o f a s e t , 1 empty set, 2 equal s i g n , 19 equality addition property of, 133, 141 properties of, 205 equation, 50 equations involving f a c t o r e d expressions, 388 e q u i v a l e n t i n e q u a l i t i e s , 385 equivalent open sentences, 377 equivalent sentences, 169, 198 e x i s t e n c e of multiplicative inverse, 164 exponents, 266, 267 n e g a t i v e exponents, 273 z e r o exponents, 273 f a c t o r i n g , 347 f a c t o r t n g a polynomial, 316 f a c t o r s and d i v i s i b i l i t y , 247 f a c t o r of the i n t e g e r , 248 facforlng over the positive i n t e g e r s , 252 f a c t o r s of sums, 263 f i n i t e set, 5 f o u r t h r o o t s , 286 fraction, 9, 233 adding, 236, 258 subtracting, 258 fractional equations, 391 function, 516 function notation, 519 fundamental p r o p e r t i e s , 201 fundamental theorem of arithmetic, 257

domain o f d e f i n i t i o n ,

516

13, 416 of a sentence, 55, 56 of' functions, 524 of open sentences fnvolvlng absolute value, 448 of open sentences i n v o l v i n g I n t e g e r s only, 440 o f open sentences with t w o variables, 411 of quadratic polynomials, 493 o f the polynomial, 437 of t h e t r u t h s e t o f an open sentence, 48 greater than, 49, 185 g r e a t e r than or equal t o , 54 grouping terms, 323 h o r i z o n t a l change, 428 identity element for addition, 57, 162, 201 for multiplication, 57, 162, 201 if and only if, 169 indicated d i v i s i o n , 236 i n d i c a t e d product, 19 indicated quotient, 235, 236 indicated sum, 19 indirect p r o o f , 174
graph,

infinite set, 5 i n t e g e r s , 98, 252 i n v e r s e s , 180 addition, 135, 201 multiplication, 162, 163, 172, 202 irrational numbers, 9 8 , 118, 299 JF is i r r a t i o n a l , 287 is approximately equal t o , 302 l e a s t common denominator, 259 l e a s t common multiple, 59, 258 less than, 49, 102, 118, 185 less than or e q u a l t o , 54 l i n e a r function, 529 linear in x , 437 nember of a s e t , 1 monomia 1, 3 17 multiple, 5 least common, 59, 258 multiplication fractions, 230 o f a real number by -1, 155 on the nurriDer llne, 1 4 r e a l numbers, 145 multiplication p r o p e r t y , 202, 205 associative, 27, 71, 153 commutative, 25, 71, 151, 201 identity element, 57, 162, 201 of e q u a l i t 167 of one, 58' 71, 151, 236
of o r d e r , i 9 5 , 196 o f z e r o , 58, 72, 151, 179 of zero - converse, 179 use of, 156

multiplicative inverse, 162, 163, 172, 202 natural numbers, 2 negative exponents, 273 negative number, 118 n e g a t i v e real number, 98 n th r o o t , 286 null set, 2 number, i r r a t t o n a l , 98, 118, 287, 299 line, 7 , 9 , 97, 101

natural, 2 negative, 118 negative r e a l , 98 of arithmetic, 11

positive, 113 positive real, 98 rational 9 , 98 real, 96, 118 whole, 2 number line, 7, 9, 97, 101, 155 nurnber plane, 405 numbers o f arithmetic, 11 numerals, 19 numerical phrase, 21 numerical sentence, 22 numerator, 223 one, multiplicatfon property of, 58, 71, 151 open p hrase, 42, 77 open sentence, 42, 56, 82 o p p o s i t e s , 108, 110, 118, 209 addition property of, 131, 141 ordered pairs, 406 order relation, 185 ordinate, 406 parabolas, 500, 534 pattern, 196 p e r f e c t square, 286, 330, 367 phrase, 21 polynomial inequalities, 398 o v e r t h e integers, 314 over the rational number, 347 over the r e a l numbers, 347 p o s i t i v e number, 113 positive r e a l number, 98 p o s i t f v e square r o o t , 283 power, 267 prime f a c t o r i z a t i o n , 255 prime numbers, 252, 254 product of real numbers (definition), 147 p r o o f , 137 by contradiction, 174, 288 proper f a c t o r , 248

properties of addition ( s e e addition property) of comparison, 105, 118, 185, 202 of equality, 205 of exponents, 2 7 , 273 '1 of multiplication ( s e e multiplication properly) transitive property, 106, 118, 185, 202, 205 proper subset, 1 4 property, 23 proportional, 480 quadratic equation, 505 , 540 quadratic formula, 545 quadratic function, 531 quadratic polynomial, 317, 334, 368, 493 quotient, 359 radicals, 286, 290, 294 range, 516 ratio, 233, 480 rational expression, 351 ra t lonallzing the denominator, 296 rational number 9, 98 real number, 96, 118 reciprocals, 172, 175 r e d u c t i o ad abaurdum, 174 r e f l e x i v i t y , 205 remainder 3 59 r o o t s , 263 aatisfy a sentence, 412 sentence, 22, 41 compound, 56 numerical, 22 open, 42, 56, 82
set,

1 empty,

2 element o f , finite, 5
infinite,

Sieve of Eratosthenes , 254, 255

simplest name f o r a number, 242 s l o p e , 427 134 solutions, of equations, 167 solution of a sentence, 412 solution s e t , 134 s o l v e , 134

member of, 1 null, 2 solution, 134 truth, 45, 56

square, 267 square of a non-zero number is p o s i t i v e , square of a number, 44

197, 198

square root, 283, 284, 300 trial and e r r o r method, 300 is irrational, 287 to a p p r o x i m a t e n , 306 squaring in equationa, 394 standard form, 300, 503, 537 s t r u c t u r e , 201
subset, 3 subs ti t u t i o n method, s u b t r a c tlon

482

d e f i n i t i o n o f , 209, 241 fractions, 258 in terms of distance, 219 is not associative, 213 on the number line 241 substitution method, 462 successor, 7 symbol "Z", 302 systems of equations, 465 sys terns of inequalities, 485 terms of a phrase, 158 theorem, 138 transitive p r o p e r t y , 106, 118, 185, 202, 205 t r a n s la tion from equality to order, 191 from order to equality, 191, 193 t r u t h set, 45, 56, 167 o f a system, 466 unique, 137, 164 value of a function, 519 variable, 37, 77, 102 value o f , 37 v a r y d i r e c t l y , 438 vary inversely, 439 vertical change, 428
2 y-form, 414 y-intercepts, 426 y-Intercept numbers, 426 zero addition p r o p e r t y of, 57, 71, 131, 141 has no r e c i p r o c a l , 174 multiplication p r o p e r t y of, 58, 72, 146 zero exponents, 273

vertex, 500 whole number,