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MATURSKI
IZ ENGLESKOG JEZIKA
RAD
Tema/Topic:
IMENICE/NOUNS
CONTENTS
Introduction.........................................................................................................................3 Origin of Nouns in English Language................................................................................4 Forming of Nouns (suffixes and prefixes) .........................................................................6 The Kinds of Nouns............................................................................................................9 The Use of Capital Letters................................................................................................10 Gender of Nouns...............................................................................................................11 Number of Nouns ............................................................................................................14 Count and Non-count Nouns ...........................................................................................19 Cases of Nouns Genitive ..............................................................................................23 Compound Nouns ............................................................................................................27 The use of nouns...............................................................................................................30 Bibliography.....................................................................................................................32
Introduction
English is widespread and it is most likely that it is going to be considered a world language in the sense of being universal. It is estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million who use English as a second language and a further 100 million who use it as a foreign language. There is only one language ahead of English in the number of people who use it. It is becoming very clear that without an extensive vocabulary, communication in English just cannot occur in a meaningful way. The vocabulary itself, with its most important part the class of nouns, is very complex and diverse and consists of several hundred thousand words. This is due to many influences of other languages and to constant increase in number of words, including slang or words derived from proper names. Respectively the number of nouns increases as well. In English, but also in any other language nouns are very important. It is important to maintain as many nouns in the language as possible because nouns mostly refer to people, places and things, and are therefore real, tangible and necessary. Besides naming something tangible they can also stand for something abstract. Nouns are used according to some grammatical categories, like those of gender, number, case They can also be made of more than one word. A noun can be used in numerous ways within a sentence. This emphasizes their importance even more. The rules and ways of using this tremendously important wordclass are discussed in this work.
French, including Old French and early Anglo-French: 28 % Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28 % Old and Middle English, Old Norse, and Dutch: 24% Greek: 17% All other languages contributed less than 3%
Nouns of French and Latin Origin The French influence was so great that it affected around 60 percent of the English vocabulary. This included words which are Latinderived (mostly from Norman French but some borrowed directly from
Latin). Therefore the origins of many of these words can be traced further back, most frequently to Latin; however it was from the French that English gained these words. Some of these words are: activity age ambition caf catalogue hotel marriage mask money peace people table
Words that come directly from Latin (from modern scientific and technical Latin): abdomen equation eternity fate Germany Greece minimum maximum military placebo republic religion
Nouns of Old and Middle English, Old Norse and Dutch Origin These make up an important part of English. Among them are: bridge cottage island lake brother friend answer apple arrow cookie snack home
These came to English firstly through their Latin derivates and later on through scientific studies. They include the following: atom dogma diploma echo galaxy gymnastics hemisphere narcotic oxygen paradox planet stigma.
Suffixes: -er, -or, -ar ---- a liar. (added to a noun or a verb to name the one that is the doer of the action) -ie, -let, -ling dog ---- a doggie. (added to a noun to form diminutive) -hood false ---- falsehood. 6 a brother ---- brotherhood, a child ---- childhood, a star ---- a starlet, a duck ---- a duckling, a to dance ---- a dancer, to act ---- an actor, a lie
(added to a noun or adjective to form abstract nouns) -ship -dom wisdom. (added to a noun or adjective also to form abstract nouns) -ness kind ----kindness, dark ---- darkness, conscience ---(added to an adjective again to form abstract nouns) -th long ---- length, wide ---- width, to grow ---- growth. (added to an adjective or a verb) -ful mouth ---- mouthful, hand ---- handful. (added to nouns to show quantity) consciousness. a relation ---- relationship, a leader ---- leadership. a king ---- kingdom, free ---- freedom, wise ----
II. Some Prefixes and Suffixes That Originate From Other Languages. Prefixes: com- compassion con- confederation dis- distrust ininaction hemirehemisphere
remake
Suffixes: -ian pedestrian -ance -ence -cy endurance preference -ism criticism -ice malice -ment -ry 7 punishment bakery
frequency
-tion demonstration
-sion expansion
When a suffix is added to a noun it can also form verbal nouns (also known as gerunds). This is achieved by adding ing. The verbal nouns are used with an article, demonstrative and possessive adjective, descriptive adjective and other. Verbal nouns are frequently used to form compound nouns. Examples of verbal nouns: smoking, acting, playing. Smoking is bad for your health! Compound nouns are created from two or more nouns and sometimes from other parts of speech. Compound nouns can be one word, two (or even three) word or they can be hyphenated (-). Examples of compound nouns: six-pack. Compound nouns will be thoroughly discussed later on. shipbuilding, tea leaves,
Proper nouns are in reality names by which we distinguish specific people, places or institutions. They can be single-word nouns or they can be lengthily phrases usually accompanied by a definite article. Proper nouns also include days, seasons and holidays. Some proper nouns are: people) London, Serbia, Malta The Royal Academy Yugoslavia The New York Times Friday, spring, Easter and holidays) (places) (institutions) (single-word) (phrases) (days, seasons George W. Bush (specific
Material nouns are the names of different kind of materials. (milk, air, dust, ice, wine.) They do not form plurals. Collective nouns are the names of any collection of beings or objects. (class, team, flock) Abstract nouns are the names that represent nonmaterial things. (thought, fear, grace)
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Buddhism, Christianity, God, Allah, the Bible... VII. Title that stands with a name and the titles of important Dr. Jones, Senator Taylor, the Prime Minister... VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. Names of companies and organizations: Coca-Cola, Motorola, the United Nations... Historical events and eras: World War II, the Middle Ages... Titles of books, movies, articles (for more important words)... War and Peace, The Old Man and the Sea... Family title as a part of a name: Aunt Grace, Uncle Joe... Family title instead of a name: Mother, Father (Father was very upset.) officials:
Gender of Nouns
In English nouns can be of masculine, feminine, neuter or common gender. I. Nouns that are masculine are those that represent male William, boy, father, step-brother... II. Nouns that are feminine are those that represent female Jane, wife, sister, mother... III. IV. Nouns that are of neuter gender are almost all things: shoe, apple, pencil, house... Nouns that are of common gender are those that serve as both female and male: beings:
beings:
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friend, child, cousin, baby... Making of The Gender Nouns of feminine gender are made out of the masculine in several ways. I. By adding -ess to the masculine: prince ---- princess,
NOTE:
If the noun that is of masculine gender ends with -er or -or, then before adding the -ess the consonants e or o are omitted. waiter ---- waitress, emperor ---- empress.... II. Some nouns form the feminine gender irregularly: master ---- mistress, heroine... III. Sometimes the difference between the masculine and the feminine is made by putting a word that represents the gender: boyfriend ---- girlfriend, he-goat ---- she-goat, tom-cat ---- she-cat... IV. There are many nouns that have different words for male and feminine: man ---- woman father ---- mother brother ---- sister uncle ---- aunt son ---- daughter husband ---- wife sir ---- madam king ---- queen (bride) groom ---bride bull ---- cow horse ---- mare cock ---- hen duke ---- duchess, hero ----
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exception of farm animals and pets V. Some nouns do not have a common feminine equivalent: author, poet, supervisor...
NOTE:
*When sex is unknown it was common to express the noun in the masculine gender, however today this is avoided because it is considered sexist. Instead of the masculine (he) today we use they or he or she. If the employee is not satisfied he or she (they) can take legal actions. For the same reasons we switched from using terms like chairman to chairperson, spokesman to spokesperson, fireman to fire-fighter... VI. Inanimate things are all of the neuter gender with the exception of nouns like ship, car, plane and others which are feminine especially when talked about by its users. My ship hit a rock! She is sinking! VII. My car is great! She runs like the wind!
In poetic style some nouns of neuter gender become of feminine or masculine, like love, ocean, sun, wind, time... Also when personified the nouns that imply strength and power are masculine and those that imply beauty and gentleness are feminine. Among these are moon, nature, soul, city, charity...
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Number of Nouns
The Formation of Plural Most nouns in the English language form plural forms by adding s. The s is read as /s/ or /z/ depending on what letter stands before it: cat --- cats girl --- girls pea --- peas dog --- dogs brother --- brothers shop --- shops
Nouns that end with ce, -ge, -dge, -se, -ze also add an s but because of the e they are read /-iz/:
face --- faces horse --- horses edge --- edges --- ages
Nouns that end with ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x form plural with es and which is also read as /-iz/:
church --- churches boxes bus --- busses buzz --- buzzes
box---
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Nouns that end with -th //, when plural (ths) are read like /z/: path --- paths truth ---
When these nouns have a short vowel or a consonant or r, (ths) is read like -th //
month ---
When a noun ends with y, with a consonant before it, plural is formed by changing y into i and adding es:
army ---
If a noun ending with y, is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed just by adding s:
donkey ---
Nouns ending with o form plurals by adding es: hero --- heroes tomato --- tomatoes motto --negro ---
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Nouns ending in vowel + -o form plurals by adding s: photo --- photos kilo --- kilos piano --- pianos studio ---
Nouns originally taken from Greek or Latin kept their original form:
nucleus
Irregular Plurals Noun plurals ves: elf --- elves life --- lives half --- halves loaf --- loafs self --wife --- wives
calf --- calves knife --- knifes leaf --- leaves selves
(other nouns ending in f are regular and s is just added: chiefs, roofs, dwarfs, cliffs...) Other irregular plurals:
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Nouns That Have The Same Form of Singular and Plural species, series, means, fish, sheep, deer, crossroads, headquarters, barracks...
NOTE:
Nouns like fish have plurals (fishes) when we refer to different kinds of fish There are all kinds of fishes in our seas but All fish taste the same to me. Nouns for quantity and measures if used in front of nouns as adjectives or if they are used alongside a number. A dozen eggs --- Three dozen eggs hundred people --- Three hundred people One pound note --- A A
five pound note A three foot wall --- He is five foot seven
Scissors, trousers, breeches, scales, glasses (spectacles)... Material nouns do not form plurals (except when we refer to
different kinds of material --- There are cheeses of all kinds --- similar to the fish example in the prior NOTE)
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The plurals of compound nouns will be discussed in the Compound nouns section.
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The countable nouns are those that form plurals. They include separate objects, people, ideas and other things that can be counted. We use articles a/an, numbers or other modifiers like many. Some examples of countable nouns are: a car, a boy, many children... The uncountable nouns are those that only have the singular form. They are also known as mass nouns. These nouns are the names of materials, liquids, abstract and all other things which we do not see as separate objects. We use modifiers like much and others Some uncountable nouns are: money... Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses. These are mixed uses. Nouns that stand for materials are uncountable but we can use them as countable when we talk about something made out of the material or depending on the sense in which we use it Can I borrow some coffee? please? Life is very short. A cat has nine lives. Could I have two coffees music, wool, much
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Using Articles and Adjectives With Countable and Uncountable A countable noun, when singular always goes with the indefinite (a,an) or the definite article (the). When plural it will be used with a definite article if it refers to something specific or without an article when stating something general. She is the guest of honor. Once a guest, now shes like a part of the family. The guests were snobbish and talked only of money and power. Guests are welcome at anytime. Uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article. They are used with the definite only when we refer to something specific. Sugar is turning out to be very expensive. Could you please pass me the sugar? The quantity adjectives that go with both countable and uncountable nouns are some, any, enough, plenty of... Do you mind if I put some music on? napkins. Do you have enough money? enough t-shirts. You should bring I need some clean
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Many is used only with countable nouns, while much is its equivalent that is used only with uncountable nouns. Their informal substitutes are a lot of (for countable nouns) and lots of (for uncountable nouns) He wrote many books. take? Other modifiers used with countable nouns are few and quite a few. Some other that are used with uncountable nouns are little, quite a little, a little bit of, quite a bit of. Few politicians are honest nowadays. I put quite a little sugar in your tea. Partitive Constructions Both countable and uncountable nouns can enter constructions to state a part of a whole. Partitive constructions can refer to quantity or quality. In case of quantity as in the case of quality we have singular and plural. By this we can give a number to uncountable nouns. The partition is expressed by a countable noun of partitive meaning (such as piece) followed by an of- phrase. I. Quantity partition: Of uncountable nouns (piece of, bit of, item of...): A piece of bread An item of clothing Three pieces of bread Several items of clothing How much money did you
A page of a book
II.
Quality partition (kind, sort and also variety, blend, type) Countable nouns (kind and sort): A new kind of software A sort of drink Uncountable nouns (kind and sort): A tasty kind of bread A strong sort of liqueur Some tasty kinds of bread Strong sorts of liqueur Several kinds of cookies Two sorts of drinks
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The formation of genitive I. Almost all nouns in singular and the ones that when plural do
not end with s, form genitive by adding s. They are then read according to the rules of reading plurals. The cats paw /kts/ bosss dog /bosiz/ II. When used with foreign names that end with s, we only add The boys mother /boiz/ My
The genitive of compound nouns will be discussed in the Compound nouns section.
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The s genitive is formed with nouns that denote living beings and are then used as attributes. Johns sister Mr. Browns car
This genitive can be used with other nouns such as: I. With nouns that state time, distance and measure: A miles distance. dollars worth
NOTE:
An hours exercise
debate... II. With nouns that state the names of countries and cities: Serbias national team III. Europes strict rules.
With seasons, months, days, and nouns like: sun, moon, earth The moons surface is not smooth. We have a
months supply of coal. IV. With nouns like: ship, boat, plane, train: The ships crew consisted of a few young sailors.
NOTE:
If the genitive is used as an attribute with a noun that is commonly used, like: shop, park, house, church, hospital: Ill be at my sisters. (house) I got the medicine at the chemists. (shop)
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The kinds of genitive Most commonly genitive is supposed to represent possession (possessive genitive). The womans baby. girls locket. Other kinds of genitive include: I. Subjective genitive: an action) II. III. work)
NOTE:
The
Caesars murder (The noun in genitive is an object) Bacons essays (This genitive shows the origin of a
The following genitive can have 3 meanings: My brothers picture was hung in the living room.
(It can mean that my brother painted the picture - origin, it can mean that it is a picture my brother owns possessive, or it can mean that somebody made my brothers portrait) III. IV. Genitive of measure: Descriptive genitive: Its a miles walk from here. A childs play A doctors
degree
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Sometimes the noun does not change but it is still in genitive Our student days. The Cyprus problem.
case:
The of genitive Nouns that do not denote living beings form genitive with the preposition of. The parts of speech drawers of the desk. When genitive is used with nouns that name animals both s and of can be used. The horses tail --------- The tail of the horse With proper nouns both s and of can be used. Robert and Kellys father --------- The father of Robert and Kelly With collective nouns: With objective genitive: The opinion of the public The murder of Caesar ... The color of the sky The
NOTE: Instead of using two genitives we use one with the addition of the preposition of: Instead of: We say: My sisters husbands house The house of my sisters husband
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Compound Nouns
When we want to specify something we combine a noun in these forms: noun+noun, ing+noun, noun+ing, noun+s+noun (possessive genitive) or noun+preposition+ noun. When a particular combination is regularly used to make a new noun it is called a compound noun.
Noun+noun With the noun+noun combination, some compound nouns are written as one word, some as two separate words and some are written with a hyphen (-). Some examples are: a window-cleaner Some compound nouns can be written in more than one of these ways (a golf course or a golf-course). Some compound nouns are made out of more than two nouns (a milk chocolate bar). When a noun has a plural meaning, it is usually in singular form (a bottle bank, an address book), but there are several exceptions. When nouns are those that are either used only as plurals, or have different meaning when singular/plural or countable/uncountable: a glasses case communications network To make a compound noun plural we usually make the second noun plural: a savings account a a tablecloth, a language teacher,
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Office-worker
But if the two nouns are joined by of or in we make plural form by making the first noun plural Brothers-in-law, pray NOTE: We say: girl But can say: winner two-third(s) five-time(s) ten-minute speech a five year old Commanders-in-chief, Birds of
Ing+noun The ing form (sometimes called gerund) usually states what function the noun has. Some examples are: a turning-point a living room, drinking water,
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Sometimes a noun+noun combination is not the most suitable. That is when we use noun+s+noun or noun+preposition+ noun. This is in cases when: I. The first noun is the user of the item (second noun): Childs bedroom womens clinic II. The item (second noun) is produced by the first (commonly students lounge
animals): Cows milk cheese III. When we talk about parts of body of people or animal. But hens eggs goats
when we talk about parts of things we use the noun+noun combination: A mans hand womans lips but: a window frame a pen top a giraffes neck a
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I.
As a subject:
II.
As an object:
Everyone heard his speech on the news. She gave Maria your note.
III.
As object complement:
IV.
As a predicative:
V.
As an attribute:
VI.
Along with a preposition as noun complement, adjective Hes a boy of great talent . (object
Shes good at housekeeping. (adjective complement) She broke the mirror to pieces. complement) (verb
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Bibliography
Books: Mihailovi, Ljiljana. (1958) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Beograd. Kolarev narodni univerzitet Brihta, J; Grgi, B. (1969) Engleska gramatika za svakoga. Zagreb. kolska knjiga iri, Goran. (1998) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Kruevac. Teatar ZA Greenbaum, S; Quirk, R. (1990) A Students Grammar of The English Language. Edinburgh Gate. AW Longman Eckersley, C.E; Macaulay, M; Swan, D.K. (1986) Brighter Grammar 1. Edinburgh Gate. Longman Group Swan, Michael. (1995) Practical English Usage. Oxford. Oxford University Press Hewings, Martin. (1999) Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press Dictionaries: Hornby, A.S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Oxford. Oxford University Press Web pages: http://www.krysstal.com/borrow.html
http://www.southampton.liunet.edu/academic/pau/course/webe sl.htm
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http://userpages.burgoyne.com/bdespain/grammar/r_k_toc1.ht m
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