GEOL110 Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are essentially the consolidation (or lithification) of sediments. Commonly composed of quartz, feldspars, calcite & clay minerals. Can also contain other rock fragments & fossils. Contain evidence of past environments. Economic importance, as they may contain: coal, petroleum & natural gas, ore deposits, etc.

Sedimentary Rocks
Are the most common rock type on Earths land surface

~5% (by volume) of the Earths crust ~75% of rock outcrops on the continents are sedimentary

Deposited in a large variety of settings terrestrial & marine Contain many clues to the character of the sediments source area and environment of deposition

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are composed of:
particles (mineral grains & rock fragments) derived from weathering & erosion of pre-existing rocks clastic precipitates from solution chemical consolidated fossil fragments/remains of plants & animals biogenic volcanic ejecta pyroclastic

Most sedimentary rocks form from loose grains of sediment, for example:
Sand on beaches Mud on a lake bottom Gravel in streams Boulders frozen in ice (glaciers) Dust settling out of the air Volcanic ash and debris from volcanoes

Turning sediment into rock

Sediment is unconsolidated grains are separate (unattached) from one another. Many changes occur to sediment after it is deposited. Diagenesis = chemical, physical & biological changes that take place after sediments are deposited. Diagensis includes:
Recrystallisation: development of more stable minerals from less stable ones, (common in limestones) Lithification: sediments are transformed into solid rock by compaction & cementation

Lithification
Compaction:
- As sediment accumulates, the weight of overlying material compresses the deeper sediments - As the grains within the deeper, buried sediment are compressed, there is a considerable reduction in pore space (the open space between particles) [For e.g., the volume of buried
clay-rich sediments can be reduced by as much as 40%]

- Decreasing pore space drives out any remaining water within the sediment - Coarser sediments (e.g. sand & gravel) are less compressible, thus compaction is a more common lithification process in fine-grained sedimentary rocks (e.g. mudstones).

Lithification
Cementation:
- Chemical diagenetic change that involves the precipitation of minerals among individual sediment grains. - Saturated solutions (i.e., dissolved minerals in water) percolate through pore spaces between the sediment grains. - Over time, the mineral/s precipitate out of solution, fills the open pore spaces, thus cementing the grains together. - The most common cements include quartz (silica), calcite (calcium carbonate) and iron oxide.

Sedimentary strata
Beds series of visible layers in the rock normally horizontal (cross bedding is the exception) Bedding plane is the relatively flat surface of deposition surface often displays sedimentary structures and fossils Laminations thin (<10 mm) sheet-like layers which may form in fine-grained sediments (muds) Contact: the boundary surface between two different rock types often produced by: a change in grain size; a change in composition of the particles being deposited; or a break in deposition (unconformity)

Bedding (strata)
beds

bedding planes

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the type of sediment they contain. Four major groups of sedimentary rocks:
Clastic or detrital (terrigenous = terrestrial source rocks) Biogenic Chemical Pyroclastic

Clastic (= detrital) Sedimentary Rocks

Composed of:
debris/particles weathered and eroded from an older landscape (= pre-existing source rocks)
sandstone conglomerate

rock debris/particles = gravel, sand, silt and clay sediments composed of mostly mineral grains and rock fragments

From Weathering to Clastic Sedimentary Rock

Components of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Grains (also called clasts)
Mineral, fossil shell or plant fragments Particles of rock

Matrix or Cement
Finer grained material that binds the grains together

Classification of clastic sedimentary rocks

(0.004-0.06) (0.004)

Sedimentary structures
Most common in clastic sedimentary rocks. Important indicators of environmental conditions. Form whilst the sediment is unconsolidated. Common structures include: cross bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, etc

Biogenic (or organic) Sedimentary Rocks

Composed (substantially) of the fossilised remains of animals or plants. Sediment with a high organic component (biogenic sediment) that has subsequently lithified. Chert, coal, limestones, chalk, etc.
Limestone containing brachiopod fossils Coquina

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical precipitation of minerals from a saturated solution. Examples include:
Evaporites (deposits that form
from a saline solution as a result of extensive water evaporation) Banded iron formation (BIF)

Banded iron formations (BIFs) Inorganic limestones (e.g. oolitic limestone)

www.pibweb.com

Mt Pinatubo, Philippines - 1991

Pyroclastic Rocks
Composed of:
volcanic fragments ejected during an eruption felsic minerals, typically quartz and feldspar, but also glassy material such as pumice Highly viscous magma containing volatiles (e.g., gas under high pressure) results in explosive eruptions [Analogous to a shaken soft drink bottle]
Pumice

Fossils
Remains of once living organisms.
Important indicator of the depositional environment. Different species usually inhabit specific environments. Important for relative dating biostratigraphy. Can also be important indicators of past climates & continental reconstruction. Can only be preserved & found in sedimentary rocks!!!
Brachiopod Fossil leaves - Glossopteris Trilobite

Fossils
Not all sedimentary rocks contain fossils. Preservation of fossils depends on a number of factors. Organisms with high preservation potential:
Live in a marine environment (relatively constant & quick sedimentation avoiding physical & biological destruction) Deposited under low energy & low oxygen levels leading to extraordinary preservation (soft parts) Morphology: possess hard parts (e.g., shell, bone, etc.)

Examples of extraordinary preservation

Fish from Solnhofen, Germany (Jurassic: 150 Ma) Insect in amber (Canada; Cretaceous: ~100 Ma)

Ichthyosaur giving birth (Germany; Jurassic: 175 Ma)

Examples of extraordinary preservation

Fur

Gut (with last meal preserved)

Pholidocercus (type of mole) from Messel Quarry, Germany (Eocene: 50 Ma)

Dragonfly from Solnhofen, Germany (Jurassic: 150 Ma)

Fossils
Organisms with low preservation potential:
- Live in the terrestrial realm, which has fewer suitable sedimentary environments greater chance of physical & biological destruction - Morphology: no hard parts (i.e., no biomineralised structures)
aydin.net

Fossilisation example
1. A dinosaur dies at a stream's edge.

2. The carcass is quickly submerged by seasonal flooding. The river carries sediment, which begins to bury the carcass.

Fossilisation example (cont.)

3. The flesh decomposes and the skeleton is buried in a layer of sediment. (Often disarticulated prior to this stage).

4. Over millions of years the sediment lithifies and bones are slowly replaced by minerals percolating through the surrounding rock (permineralisation).

Fossilisation example (cont.)

5. Eventually the rocks above the skeleton are eroded, and the fossil is exposed (and hopefully found!).

6. Specimen is prepared, studied/described and restored to provide more information about ancient life on Earth.

Upcoming lectures on sedimentary rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks & sedimentary structures Biogenic sedimentary rocks Chemical sedimentary rocks Pyroclastic rocks Sedimentary environments

Essential reading:
TEXTBOOK Earth: Portrait of a Planet (3rd Edition): - Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and Sedimentary Rocks, pages 183-192 + 198-227 only. - Chapter 9: The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic Eruptions, pages 269-281 only. ONLINE STUDY NOTES