Math1040 Notes

MATH1040
Lecture notes
Second edition, 2005
About these notes
These are the lecture notes for MATH1040 (and for MATH7040, for
students enrolled in the Graduate Certicate of Education. Throughout
these notes, we will only refer to MATH1040, however any comments are
also relevant for MATH7040).
We will use these notes very heavily, so it is important that you get your
own copy. Details on how you can obtain a copy will be given in class
during the rst week of semester. Please note that there is no text book
for MATH1040, so these notes are your primary source of information. Do
not try to re-use a copy from previous years or from your friends: the
notes change from year to year, and in addition it is important for you to
write things in your own words.
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contain copies of all the slides used in lectures. Thus you will have time to
listen and think in class, rather than spending your whole time writing.
However, there are many spaces in your notes for examples and solutions.
Well work through these in lectures, and you should write down all the
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Other materials for MATH1040 include a studyguide (which contains
extra information, including previous exam papers and solutions), and
assignments.
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some errors in them. We are continually trying to improve the notes. If
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Page 2
Table of contents.
About these notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
. . .
1 Numbers, arithmetic and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Types of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Simple mathematical operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Order of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Prime numbers and factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Introduction to exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 Introduction to algebraic expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9 Number lines and order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.10 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.11 Square roots; higher order roots; surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.12 Exponents (powers, indices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.13 Intervals on the real line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.14 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
. . .
2 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1 Introduction to sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3 Venn diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
. . .
3 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1 Graphs in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 Graphs in two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Lines parallel to the axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Linear graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5 Non-linear graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.6 Some special graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
. . .
4 Functions;
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Functions and function notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Domain and range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3 Sigma notation,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
. . .
5 Straight lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1 Introduction to straight lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 General form and special types of straight line . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3 Finding the equation of a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.5 Distance in two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
. . .
6 Intersecting lines; simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1 Intersection of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Algebraic solution of simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . .
7 Quadratic Equations and polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1 Introduction to polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2 Quadratics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.3 Shapes of some polynomial functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.4 Solving quadratics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.5 Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.6 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
. . .
8 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.1 Introduction to probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.2 Principle of inclusion/exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.3 Conditional probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.4 Gold Lotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
. . .
9 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.1 Introduction to trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.2 Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.3 Evaluating sin, cos and tan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.4 Angles bigger than /2 (90
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.5 Graphs of sin x, cos x, tan x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
. . .
10 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.1 Introduction to limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.2 A special limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.3 Limits and slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
. . .
11 Derivatives and rates of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.1 Dierentiation and derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.2 Rules for dierentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.3 Product rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.4 Chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.5 Quotient rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
. . .
12 Applications of derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.1 Tangent Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
12.2 Physical interpretation of derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.3 Second derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
12.4 Local maxima and minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.5 Some practical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
. . .
13 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.1 Introduction to integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.2 Rules for integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
13.3 Initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
13.4 Denite integrals and areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.5 Physical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
. . .
14 Logarithms and exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
14.1 Introduction to exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
14.2 Exponential growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
14.3 Exponential decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14.4 The exponential function, e
x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
14.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.6 Derivative of e
x
and e
kx
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
14.7 Dierentiating logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.8 Summary of logs and exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
. . .
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269-1
1 Numbers, arithmetic and
equations
Why are we doing this?
this material is fundamental to all the maths you will do in
MATH1040, in your degree (and most courses in that
degree) and even in real, everyday life!
Must be condent with numbers, fractions, variables,
expressions and solving equations.
if you cant do this stu, you wont be able to do the harder
and more interesting things.
Try to stay awake! Things get much harder fairly quickly.
Later in semester, many people will have problems with
these introductory concepts. Topics we cover are:
Types of numbers.
Simple mathematical operations:
Order of operations
Prime numbers and factors.
Fractions.
Introduction to exponentiation
Introduction to algebraic expressions
Formulae
Number lines and order.
Absolute value.
Square roots; higher order roots; surds
Exponents (powers, indices)
Intervals on the real line
Inequalities
MATH1040, 2005. Section 1.0. Page 7
1.1 Types of numbers
N natural numbers
counting numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
examples of uses:
counting pigs in a (non-empty) pen
counting how many birthdays youve had
Z integers
whole numbers
. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
examples of uses:
measuring a credit-card balance in cents
counting number of seconds before or after a rocket
takes o.
Q rational numbers
quotient of integers
those numbers which can be written exactly as a fraction
For example,
3,
1
4
= 0.25,
7
5
= 1.4, 0 =
0
1
4, 1000,
49
50
, 4
1
2
examples of uses:
measuring blood alcohol content
cutting a birthday cake into pieces, with sizes
proportional to ages
R real numbers
includes rationals and irrationals
Irrationals: numbers which are not rational;
e.g. = 3.14159 . . .
2 = 1.4142 . . .
also e,
5,
2
examples of uses:
nding the area of an oval
calculating length of the fence of a round yard.
Decimal expansion of real numbers:
Example 1.1.1
0.52 = (5
1
10
) + (2
1
100
)
tenths hundredths
=
5
10
+
2
100
=
52
100
(rational!)
Finite decimal STOPS after nite number of decimal
places.
Recurring decimal: one with a repeating pattern.
Example 1.1.2
0.333333 . . . = 0.
3 ( =
1
3
exactly!)
0.212121 . . . = 0.
1 ( =
7
33
exactly!)
Finite and recurring decimals can always be represented
exactly as fractions: hence they are rational.
recall: irrational numbers CANNOT be represented as
fractions.
Question 1.1.3 Write 0.
4 as an exact fraction.
Question 1.1.4 Write 0.
9 as an exact fraction.
1.2 Simple mathematical operations
You should be quite familiar with this. If not, seek help!
(i) + addition.
(ii) subtraction.
(iii) or multiplication.
(iv) / or division.
(v) brackets ( and ) [ and ].
Write a b as a b, or as ab
Distinguish between dot for and dot for decimal point!
1.3 Order of operations
Consider the expression 2 + 3 5
do we add 2 and 3, and then multiply by 5, giving 25?
do we multiply 3 by 5, and then add 2, giving 17?
Need rules for order of operations
Many people get it wrong.
The word BEDMAS (or BOMDAS, or BODMAS) can
help you remember the rules.
Each letter stands for a common mathematical operation;
the order of the letters matches the order of doing the
mathematical operations
B stands for brackets eg (3 + 4)
E stands for exponentiation eg 3
5
D stands for division eg 3/4
M stands for multiplication eg 3 4
A stands for addition eg 3 + 4
S stands for subtraction eg 3 4
The basic rule is: work from left to right, with exact order
decided by BEDMAS.
B: Look for any brackets in the expression, and evaluate
inside the brackets rst. If there are brackets inside
brackets, then the innermost parts get evaluated
before the outermost ones.
E: Next, any exponentiation must be evaluated.
D and M: Next, evaluate divisions and multiplications,
working from left to right. Note that even though D
comes before M in BEDMAS, they have the same
priority. The rule could also be called BEMDAS.
A and S: Finally, evaluate any additions or
subtractions, working left to right. Even though A
comes before S in BEDMAS, they have same priority.
For safety, you can always use brackets to make it clear
It is important to practice evaluating mathematical expressions.
It may all seem pretty easy now, but it will get harder!
Question 1.3.1 Evaluate each of the following expressions:
(1) 2 + 6 + 10 5
(2) 3 + 4 2
(3) (3 + 4) 2
(4) 3 4 + 2 3 12 3
(5) 2 (1 + 4 (6 3))
(6) 3 (4 (2 + 1))
(7) 12 2 3 4
(8) 12 (4 2) 3
1.4 Prime numbers and factors
Given a natural number x, with x = a b, then a and b are
called factors of x.
Example 1.4.1 14 = 2 7 = 1 14: 1,2,7,14 are factors of
14 (usually omit mention of 1 and 14)
A prime number is a natural number, greater than 1,
whose only factors are 1 and itself.
Example 1.4.2 12 is NOT prime because 12 = 3 4; thus 3
and 4 are factors of 12.
Examples of primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . . (1 isnt prime,
and 2 is the only even prime)
Can write any natural number (bigger than 1) as a product
of primes (or 1).
Example 1.4.3 4 = 2 2, 5 = 1 5, 6 = 2 3, 7 = 1 7,
8 = 2 2 2, 9 = 3 3, 10 = 2 5
Question 1.4.4 Write each of the following as the product of
prime factors (if not already prime):
(1) 12
(2) 31
(3) 48
(4) 12 12 12
Common factors.
If two or more integers share the same factor, then this is
called a common factor of the integers.
e.g. 12 has factors 1,2,3,4,6,12 and 15 has factors 1,3,5,15.
Their common factors are 1 and 3.
The highest common factor (HCF) of two or more integers
is the largest of their common factors.
e.g. The HCF of 12 and 15 is 3.
Two integers are called relatively prime if their HCF is 1.
Question 1.4.5 Find the HCF of 12, 36 and 108
Question 1.4.6 Are 72 and 35 prime?
Question 1.4.7 Are 72 and 35 relatively prime?
Question 1.4.8 Are 33 and 22 relatively prime?
1.5 Fractions
The ratio of an integer divided by another integer:
numerator
denominator
Consider the fractions
1
2
,
3
6
,
4
8
,
49
98
each of these has exactly the same value: they are
equivalent fractions.
A fraction is written in simplest form or lowest terms if
numerator and denominator are relatively prime.
The process of converting fractions to simplest form is
called cancellation.
Method: Repeatedly nd common factors for numerator
and denominator, and divide both by the common factor,
until they are relatively prime.
Often called whatever you do to the top you must also do
to the bottom.
You nd the simplest form by cancelling common factors.
20
30
=
2 2 5
2 3 5
=
2
3
Given a fraction
a
b
, its inverse is
b
a
Arithmetic involving fractions
Following rules show how to operate on fractions.
In each case, usually write answer in simplest form.
To add (or subtract) fractions with the same denominator,
add (or subtract) numerators and place result over the
same denominator.
13
32
+
7
32

4
32
=
13 + 7 4
32
=
16
32
To add (or subtract) fractions with dierent
denominators, rst convert them to equivalent fractions
with the same denominator, then proceed as above.
1
4

1
6
+
1
3
=
3
12

2
12
+
4
12
=
3 2 + 4
12
=
5
12
To multiply two fractions, put the product of their
numerators as the numerator of the result, and the product
of their denominators as the denominator of the result.
3
4

2
3
=
3 2
4 3
=
6
12
=
1
2
To divide two fractions, multiply the rst fraction by the
inverse of the second fraction.
3
4

1
8
=
3
4

8
1
=
3 8
4 1
=
24
4
= 6
Question 1.5.1 Simplify each of the following:
(1)
1
2

1
4
+
1
8
(2)
1
5

1
4

2
40
(3) 3
4
9

5
6

5
8
(4)
5
3
+
1
3
(2 + 6 3)
1.6 Introduction to exponentiation
Consider 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 . . . 3
Shorthand notation, often called exponent or power form:
3 3 3
2
3 3 3 3
3
3 3 3 3 3
4
and so on.
Given any number n,
n
0
= 1 n
1
= n
n
2
= n n n
3
= n n n
n
2
is pronounced n to the power 2, or n squared
n
3
is pronounced n cubed
in general n
m
is pronounced n to the power m
n is called the base; m is called the index
We have already seen the following:
10
0
= 1 10
1
= 10
10
2
= 10 10 = 100 10
3
= 10 10 10 = 1000
Negative powers
Well see later that, in general, a
n
=
1
a
n
.
10
0
= 1
10
1
=
1
10
10
2
=
1
1010
=
1
100
10
3
=
1
101010
=
1
1000
Question 1.6.1 Write in power form the product of 2n by
itself, 4 times. Hence write the value for (2n)
4
Powers of negative numbers
Be careful when raising negative numbers to a power!
If power is even, the answer is positive.
If power is odd, the answer is negative.
Question 1.6.2 Evaluate each of:
(1) (2)
3
(2) (2)
4
(3) (6)
1
(4) (3)
0
(5) (2)
3
Question 1.6.3 Evaluate each of the following expressions:
(1) 4 2
2
(2) 2
2
+ 2
1
1
2

1
4
(3) 3
0
3
1
3
2
1
3
(4) (2)
3
+ 2
(1+
1
2
1
6
)
(5) (6
3
2x

3
x
)
(1+21)
3 8 4
(6) ((3)
1
+ (1)
15
+ 2
3
4)
3
1.7 Introduction to algebraic expressions
Until now, we have mostly dealt with numbers, but in some
cases, we used letters, such as n, or a.
Letters are commonly used throughout mathematics. They
can represent
a xed value. For example, is always used to represent
the number 3.141592 . . . .
an unknown value, such as let m be the number of
marks needed to pass MATH1040
several or many values: for example, plot the graph of
2x + 1 for x ranging between 0 and 4.
When used in this way, letters are called algebraic
quantities, or often just variables.
Sometimes, if there are many such letters, or they are
related, we use a subscript on them. For example, x
1
, x
97
and y
3
all represent dierent quantities.
An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers,
algebraic quantities, and arithmetical symbols. Commonly,
the name is shortened to expression.
Example 1.7.1 Here are some examples of expressions:
x
2
2x + 4
x
2
1
x
2
2
+ 2x
1
x
2
15xy
(x y)(x
2
+y
2
)
Observe from those examples that multiplication signs
between variables are often omitted.
To use the product of a number and a variable, such as 3xy
(meaning 3 x y). The number is always written before
the variable, and is called the coecient.
Note that powers of variables work in a similar way to
powers of numbers: for example, x
3
= x x x.
It is conventional to call pieces of an expression terms. For
example, in the expression 3xy + 4x + 2y, the terms are
3xy, 4x and 2y.
Terms are separated by mathematical operators
(eg + and ).
Terms are called like if they have the same variables, each
raised to the same powers (only coecients dier).
Usually, expressions are written with like terms grouped.
Question 1.7.2 Group like terms together in each of:
(1) x
2
+ 2x + 6 2x 3x
2
+ 4
(2) 3x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
xy x
2
+ 4xy
(3) x
1
+x
2
+ 3x
1
4x
2
+x
1
x
2
(4) 2 +a
2
b +ab
2
+ab 2a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ 4
Arithmetic on algebraic expressions
Frequently, you will need to simplify expressions.
Various terms in expressions can be added and subtracted,
in the obvious way.
Write the expression with like terms grouped together, then
add and subtract coecients of all like terms to simplify the
expression.
Note, as stated above, that terms are only like if they have
the same powers of all algebraic quantities in the term:
for example, you cannot add together x
2
and x
3
.
Example 1.7.3
3x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
xy x
2
+ 4xy
= 3x
2
x
2
+ 2xy xy + 4xy +y
2
= 2x
2
+ 5xy +y
2
Example 1.7.4
2x
2
1
x
2
x
2
+ 3x
2
1
x
2
+ 3x
2
1
4x
2
1
x
2
+x
2
3x
2
1
x
2
1
x
2
= 3x
2
1
3x
2
1
+ 2x
2
1
x
2
+ 3x
2
1
x
2
4x
2
1
x
2
x
2
1
x
2
x
2
+x
2
= 0x
2
1
+ 0x
2
1
x
2
+ 0x
2
= 0
Multiplication and division follow normal rules, such as
1. a b = ab = ba = b a
2. a (b) = (a) b = ab
3. (a) (b) = ab
4.
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
5. a b = a (
1
b
) =
a
b
6.
a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
7.
a
b
=
a
b
Example 1.7.5
2 6xy
z

2 z
3y
=
12xy
z

2z
3y
=
12xy 2z
z 3y
=
24xyz
3yz
= 8x
Question 1.7.6 Expand and simplify the following expression:
8 ab
c

18 ab
c

Take care when +, , , are combined with brackets.
Following rules are fundamental, especially the third one.
These are the important rules of expanding expressions.
a (b +c) = (b +c) a
= a b +a c
a (b c) = ab ac
(a +b) (c +d) = a (c +d) +b (c +d)
= ac +ad +bc +bd
Dont memorise formulae; remember the method.
Useful special cases: (last is dierence of two squares)
(a +b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab +b
2
(a b)
2
= a
2
2ab +b
2
(a +b)(a b) = a
2
b
2
Question 1.7.7 Expand and simplify (x 2) (x 2)
Question 1.7.8 Expand and simplify (a 3) (3 a)
Question 1.7.9 Expand and simplify (2x 3)(2x + 3)
Question 1.7.10 Expand and simplify (x1)(x+1)(x2)
Take care when brackets and powers are combined
Question 1.7.11 Expand and simplify the following:
(1) (2x 3)
2
(2) (
1
x 2
)
2
Factorisation
In previous problems, we have expanded expressions which
contain brackets.
For example, we know that (a b)
2
expands to give
a
2
2ab +b
2
.
Sometimes, the reverse process is useful.
For example, a
2
b
2
factorises to give (a b)(a +b).
This can be very useful: consider the following example.
Example 1.7.12
(a
2
b
2
)
(a +b)
=
(a b)(a +b)
(a +b)
= a b
Factorisation is the process of taking an expression, and
breaking it into components which are multiplied together.
Some expressions do not factorise at all; others do, but it
can be very hard to do so. We will stick to easier stu.
Question 1.7.13 Factorise each of the following expressions:
(1) 27x
4
36x
2
(2) 24x
1
+ 8x
4
1
(3) 24xy
2
z + 6xyz
2
+ 18x
3
y
2
z
2
Factorisation is useful for simplifying expressions.
(1)
8x 2
3
(x 1)(x + 1)
(2)
(2x
2
+ 6x
4
)
8x
3
1.8 Formulae
A formula relates algebraic quantities to each other.
Algebraic quantities in a formula can be called
variables if they take a range of values, or
constants if their value is xed.
They can also be called
knowns if their value is known, or
unknowns if their value is not known.
A formula expresses a relationship between various
quantities.
Commonly, the relationship is equality: thus a formula
often says that one expression equals another one.
Example 1.8.1 Here are some examples of formulae:
1. E = mc
2
2. A = r
2
3. V =
4
3
r
3
h
4. P = A(1 +r)
n
In each of these formulae, a value on left-hand side of equals
sign is given by an algebraic expression on right-hand side
of equals sign.
In each case, the quantity on the left-hand side is called the
subject of the formula.
In fact, each of those formulae represents a formula for a
particular physical quantity.
Often choose algebraic quantity which bears some logical
relationship to physical quantity it represents. e.g. A is a
good for area, V volume, l length etc.
Substituting into formulae
If values are known for all but one of the algebraic
quantities in a formula, then those values can be
substituted into the formula, to enable the remaining
value to be determined.
Usually, the unknown is on the left-hand side of the equals
sign, but that is not essential.
Often, formula needs to be determined from a wordy
question, before values can be substituted into it.
Question 1.8.2 A rock is dropped vertically onto a lecturers
head, with initial speed u = 4. It accelerates at a rate of
g = 9.8. The distance D it has travelled after t seconds is
given by D = ut +
1
2
gt
2
. How far has it travelled at t = 2 and
t = 5.
Question 1.8.3 Cylinders have volume V = r
2
h units, where
h is vertical height, and r is radius of circle at base. Penelope
wants a cylindrical tank with volume 31,400. Because of space
constraints, her tank must have a radius of exactly 20. How
tall should her tank be? (Assume = 3.14.)
Transposing formulae
In the previous example, the unknown quantity was on the
right hand side of the formula.
We were still able to nd the value of the unknown
quantity, by substituting values for the known quantities.
Often, we need to rearrange a formula, to make one of the
variables in an algebraic expression the subject of that
formula.
In English, we want to rearrange the formula, to put a
given variable on the left-hand side: called transposing
the formula.
There are very important rules for transposing formulae:
'
(1) The same quantity may be added to, or subtracted from,

both sides
(2) Both sides may be multiplied by, or divided by, the same
quantity
In English: whatever you do to one side, you must also do
to the other side.
Be careful: for example, you cant divide by zero.
Question 1.8.4 In each case, write x as the subject of the
formula:
(1) 2x a = x
(2) y =
1
x
(3)
1
x 3
= b
(4) 5 =
2 x
(5)
1
x
2
= 4
Equations and solutions
Often, formulae which state that two quantities are equal
are called equations.
A solution to an equation is a set of values for each of the
variables in the equation, which, when substituted into the
equation, make the equation true.
Question 1.8.5 Show that x = 6 is a solution of the equation
2x
12
x
= 10.
Solving an equation involves nding values for each of the
variables, such that the values give a solution to the
equation.
A fundamental tool for solving equations is transposition.
Question 1.8.6 Solve the equation 24 2x =
x
2
+ 4.
For the moment, equations we encounter have a unique
solution: there is only one solution to the equation.
1.9 Number lines and order
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
This number line shows the order of numbers; given any
two numbers, the one on the right is larger.
E.g. 3 < 1 or 1 > 3
2 < 7 or 7 > 2
< >
less than greater than less than or greater than
equal to or equal to
3 same distance from 0 as 3, but in opposite
direction
(3) same distance from 0 as 3, but in opposite
direction, so (3) = 3 (or +3).
1.10 Absolute value
The absolute value of a number is its distance from zero;
(always positive or 0)
e.g. absolute distance above or below sea level.
Notation: Write [a[ for the absolute value of a.
Formally, we dene
[ x [ = x, for x 0
[ x [ = x, for x < 0
Example 1.10.1 [2[ = 2 [ 2[ = 2 [ 3
1
2
[ = 3
1
2
[0[ = 0 [
2[ =
2 (Note: 0 = 0)
Question 1.10.2 Evaluate each of the following:
(1) [ 5 [
(2) [ 4 [
(3) [ 7.82 [
(4) [ 1 [
(5) [ [ [ [
(6) [ x [ [ x [ x x
(7)
[ x [
x
More examples involving absolute values
From the denition, [ x [= a x = a
This is also true for mathematical expressions!
Question 1.10.3 Find all x such that [ x [= 4.
Question 1.10.4 Find all x such that [ 4x + 2 [= 2.
Question 1.10.5 Find all x such that [ 3x + 12 [= 1.
Question 1.10.6 Find all x such that [ 2x + 3 [ + 2 = 3.
1.11 Square roots; higher order roots;
surds
Recall n
2
= n n. We commonly write n =
n
2
, pronounced
the square root of n squared.
In general,

m is the number which, when multiplied by itself,
gives m. Thus

m
m = (
m)
2
= m
Properties of square roots
You must try and remember these!
(1)

a
b =
ab
(2)
a
b
=
b
(3)
a is undened for positive a

(4)
a
2
= a
Note carefully the following non-properties: in general, the
following things are not equal.
(1)

a +
b ,=
a +b
(2)

a
b ,=
a b
Question 1.11.1 By letting a = 9 and b = 16, show that it is
not necessarily true that

a +
b =
a +b.
Higher order roots
Recall that

n is dened by:

n
n = n.
We can also dene higher order roots.
The cube root of n, written
3
n is dened by
3
n
3
n
3
n = n.
Note the changed notation: there is a small 3 in front of the
root sign.
We can similarly dened roots of higher orders again: for
example,
4
n,
5
n, and so on.
The higher order roots have similar properties to square
roots. For example,
3
a
3
b =
3
ab.
Later well encounter higher order roots in more detail.
Surds
Some square roots can be written exactly as fractions, eg
4 = 2 =
2
1
.
Many square roots cannot be written as a rational.
For example,
2,
5,
7 are all irrational.

Square roots which are not rational numbers are called
surds.
It is important to be able to manipulate surds.
Simplifying surds
Sometimes, a surd can be written in a simpler form. Look
at what is inside the square root sign!
Make use of the properties of square roots, as given above.
Can possibly take something outside square root sign.
Question 1.11.2 Simplify each of the following surds:
(1)
32
(2)
75
(3)
20
Multiplying surds
Surds can be involved in expressions. For example, 3 +
5
is an expression involving a surd.
Mathematical operations (such as addition, multiplication
and so on) can be performed on such expressions.
Be careful to remember the relevant properties.
Example 1.11.3
(
2 + 5) + (
2 6)
2 =
2 +
2 + 5 6
=
2 1
(1) (3 + 2
5) (4
5)
(2) (
5 + 2)(
5 2)
Rationalising the denominator
Sometimes, surds appear as the denominator of fractions.
This is complicated, so it is common to remove the surd
from the denominator.
Can do this, by multiplying both the numerator and
denominator by an appropriate number: this converts it to
an equivalent fraction, but with a rational number as the
denominator.
This is called rationalising the denominator.
Question 1.11.5 Simplify
1
2
2
1
2
+
3
4
1.12 Exponents (powers, indices)
Think back to exponentiation.
Example 1.12.1 3
2
means 3 3 (or 9)
3
3
= 3
2
3
1
= 3 3 3 = 3
2+1
(= 27)
3
4
= 3
3
3
1
= 3 3 3 3 = 3
3+1
(= 81)
= 3
2
3
2
= 3
2+2
There are rules for manipulating powers: you should understand
and remember these:
Rule 1 a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
Example 1.12.2 2
2
2
3
= (2 2) (2 2 2) = 2
5
Question 1.12.3 Prove Rule 1:
Rule 2 a
0
= 1 (any a ,= 0)
Example 1.12.4 3
4
3
0
= 3
4+0
= 3
4
= 3
4
1
divide both sides by 3
4
and get 3
0
= 1
Rule 3 a
m
=
1
a
m
(a ,= 0)
Example 1.12.6 7
2
7
2
= 7
(2+(2))
= 7
0
= 1
So (dividing both sides by 7
2
), 7
2
=
1
7
2
Fractional powers
We know that a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
.
We also know that

a
a = a
1
= a.
It would be nice to be able to write

a as a to some power.
If we could write

a in such a way, it would look like
a = a
p
for some power p.
Extend Rule 1 (a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
) to m, n in Q.
Clearly we require p =
1
2
.
It can be shown that this works in general: that is, for any
a,

a = a
1/2
, or equivalently

a = a
0.5
.
Higher order roots are the same:
m
a = a
1/m
.
Rule 4 a
1
m
=
m
a
So if b = a
1/m
=
m
a, then b
m
= a.
Example 1.12.8
1. 2
1
2
2
1
2
= 2
1
2
+
1
2
= 2
1
= 2
So 2
1
2
=
2
2. 8
1
3
.8
1
3
.8
1
3
= 8
(
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
)
= 8
1
= 8
So 8
1
3
=
3
8 = 2
3. 2
1
2
=
1
2
1
2
=
1
2
.
Rule 5 (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
Example 1.12.9 (2
2
)
3
= 2
2
2
2
2
2
= 2
2+2+2
= 2
6
= 2
23
Question 1.12.11 Evaluate each of:
(1) (2
1
2
)
2
(2) (2
3
)
2
(3) (xy)
4
(4) (x
2
y
2
)
3
Example 1.12.12
2
3
= 8
2
2
= 4
2
1
= 2 At each stage we drop
2
0
= 1 the power by 1,
2
1
=
1
2
and divide the value by 2
2
2
=
1
4
2
3
=
1
8
Example 1.12.13
x
4
(xy)
2
y
3
x = x
4
.xy.xy.y
3
.x
= x
(4+1+1+1)
y
(1+1+3)
= x
7
y
5
.
Question 1.12.14 Evaluate
2
3
4
1
2
36
1
2
81
1
4
(Hint: 81
1
4
= (81
1
2
)
1
2
.)
2
x
x
2
2
The ve rules are repeated here. They are important!
(1) a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
(2) a
0
= 1 (any a ,= 0)
(3) a
m
=
1
a
m
(a ,= 0)
(4) a
1
m
=
m
a
(5) (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
They can also be extended to the following (no need to prove
the rest; they are easily derived from the ve above). Rule (7) is
particularly useful.
'
(6) a
1
= a
(7) a
m
a
n
= a
mn
(8) (ab)
n
= a
n
b
n
Note: we cannot simplify x
a
y
b
(or even x
2
y
3
, say).
Here the bases, x and y, are dierent.
We have given a lot of rules for expanding and simplifying
expressions, using powers, rules such as BEDMAS and
fractions.
This can all be put together, to manipulate complicated
expressions.
1.13 Intervals on the real line
Any number can be marked as a single point on the real
line.
Intervals or regions can also be marked on the real line;
they include all real numbers x which lie between two
endpoints.
Such intervals can be described by inequalities
(< > ).
Question 1.13.1 Mark each of the following intervals on the
real line:
(1) x 2
(2) x 2
(3) 2 x 2
The intervals we have seen so far all involve or .
We can also mark intervals which involve < or >.
real line:
(1) x < 2
(2) x > 2
(3) 2 < x < 2
There is an easy way to write intervals:
[a, b] denotes the interval a x b
[a, b) denotes the interval a x < b
(a, b] denotes the interval a < x b
(a, b) denotes the interval a < x < b
a and b are called the endpoints of the interval.
Note the brackets: they indicate the type of interval.
Square bracket means corresponding endpoint falls
inside interval. Interval is closed at that end.
Round bracket means corresponding endpoint falls
outside interval. Interval is open at that end.
In set notation (we cover sets in Section 2):
[a, b] = x R [ a x b.
(a, b) = x R [ a < x < b.
[a, b) = x R [ a x < b.
(a, b] = x R [ a < x b.
real line:
(1) (, 0)
(2) [0, 5)
(3) (0, 5]
(4) (, )
1.14 Inequalities
Just as we can solve equations, can also solve inequalities.
There are standard rules which can be applied
Note rules 3 and 4: the inequality is reversed!
1. The same quantity can be added to, or subtracted from,

both sides of the inequality.
2. Both sides of the inequality can be multiplied by, or di-
vided by, the same positive quantity.
3. If both sides are multiplied by, or divided by, the same
negative quantity, then inequality must be reversed (that
is, < becomes >, > becomes <, and so on).
4. If a < b then b > a; if a > b then b < a.
Example 1.14.1 Solve the inequality 3x + 2 6 x.
3x + 2 6 x
3x + 2 6 x
3x 4 x
4 x 3x
4 4x
1 4 1 4x
4 4x
1 x
x 1
Question 1.14.2 Find all y which satisfy 2y 4 > y + 3
Question 1.14.3 Find all y which satisfy 3(y + 2) < 3y + 4
Question 1.14.4 Find all x which satisfy 2x x + 3
Absolute values, inequalities and intervals
We can combine absolute values and intervals in a useful way.
Question 1.14.5 Mark, on a real line, the region dened by
[ x [< 2. Write this region in interval form.
Question 1.14.6 Mark, on a real line, the region dened by
[ x [ 3. Write this region in interval form.
In general: (understand and versus or!)
'
(1) [ x [< a means a < x < a (ie a < x and x < a)

(2) [ x [ a means a x a (ie a x and x a)
(3) [ x [> a means x > a or x < a
(4) [ x [ a means x a or x a
Rather than just x in the inequality, can have an expression.
Example 1.14.7 Solve the inequality [ x 5 [< 6.
6 < x 5 < 6
6 < x 5 and x 5 < 6
6 + 5 < x 5 + 5 and x 5 + 5 < 6 + 5
1 < x and x < 11
1 < x < 11
Example 1.14.8 Solve the inequality [ 3 x [ 5.
3 x 5 or 3 x 5
3 x 5 or 3 x 5
3 x +x 5 +x or 3 x +x 5 +x
3 5 5 +x 5 or 3 + 5 5 +x + 5
2 x or 8 x
x 2 or x 8
Question 1.14.9 Write the answers to the two previous ex-
amples in interval form and on the real line.
WARNING
If you have 1 < x and x < 3 then these may be combined and
written as 1 < x < 3.
BUT if you have x < 1 or 3 < x then you CANNOT write
these two inequalities as a single piece. For, to put the x in the
middle, wed have 1 > x and then x > 3, but it isnt true that
1 > 3. We cannot write 1 > x > 3 !!
The check is to draw a picture! Only if the two separate
inequalities form a single piece of number-line can we write the
two inequalities in one go.
(Note the and in the rst case and the or in the second.)
2 Sets
This section covers a basic introduction to set theory.
very dierent to what we have just studied, probably more
intuitive and more interesting
Sets incorporate many common sense concepts from
everyday life
Many uses, including:
economists and statisticians use sets in probability
computer scientists use sets to identify objects or
processes which all satisfy certain properties
can implement sets very eciently in computer software,
often allowing fast, parallel execution of commands
Need to know:
basic denitions and various types of set notation
how to operate on sets
how to visualise sets diagramatically
We will keep referring to concepts and notations from set
theory.
Topics in this section are:
Introduction to sets
Operations on sets
Venn diagrams
2.1 Introduction to sets
Set collection of objects or elements, enclosed in curly
braces, , separated by commas.
Convention: capital letters A, B, S etc usually represent
sets, while lower case a, b, c, x, y usually represent elements.
Can specify a set in dierent ways:
1. Make a list of all the elements (use curly braces, )
e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, pig, newt, halibut, numbat.
2. All elements which satisfy a particular property.
x [ x has some property (note that [ is not absolute
value!)
The set of all x such that x has some property.
Write a A for a belongs to A
or a is an element of A
or a is a member of A.
Order within braces irrelevant: 1, 2, 3, 4 = 2, 1, 3, 4.
Elements do not repeat within a set:
Thus x, x, y, x, y = x, y = y, x.
Notation: 2 1, 2, 3, 4 but 5 , 1, 2, 3, 4.
A set with no elements is called the empty set. If A is an
empty set, we write A = or A = .
Question 2.1.1 List the set S in each case:
1. S = n [ n N and n < 5. (Recall N is set of natural
numbers.)
2. S = x [ x
2
4 = 0.
3. S is the set of factors of 12.
4. S = x [ x Z, [ x [< 5 and x ,= 3.
Question 2.1.2 Mark the following sets on number lines:
(1) S
1
= 1, 2, 3, (2) S
2
= x [ x R and 1 x 2.
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Given two sets A and B, B is said to be a subset of A if
every element of B is contained in A. We write B A.
Formally, B A if and only if for each x B, it is also the
case that x A.
Remember: N Z Q R.
2.2 Operations on sets
Just as operations such as +, can be performed on numbers,
can dene operations on sets. Given two sets A and B, dene:
1. the intersection of A and B, A B:

A B = x [ x A and x B
(The set of elements which are in both A and B)
2. the union of A and B, A B:
A B = x [ x A or x B
(The set of elements which are in either of the sets A
or B (or both))
3. the set-theoretic dierence of A and B, A\ B:
A\ B = x [ x A but x , B
(The set of elements which are in A but not in B)
Example 2.2.1 There are 7 people and two tests. Let set of
people be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. They do tests a and b.
Let A = x [ person x did test a = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Let B = x [ person x did test b = 1, 4, 5, 7.
A B = set of people who did both tests = 1, 4.
A B = set of people who did test a, b or both
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7.
A\ B = set of people who did test a, not b
= 2, 3.
2.3 Venn diagrams
Can represents sets pictorially, using a Venn diagram.
Sets are represented as circles:
A
Area within each circle represents the contents of that set.
Circles overlap if sets intersect, and the region of overlap
represents their intersection:
A B
Be able to interpret dierent regions on a Venn diagram.
you can write the elements of the sets on the diagram, in
the correct places.
Question 2.3.1 On the following Venn diagrams identify each
of the regions A B, A B, A\ B and B \ A.
B A
B A
B A
B A
Can also show subsets on a Venn diagram.
Example 2.3.2 Use the sets of pets from the previous exam-
ple.
Now let B = x [ pet x is kept by Peter
= Pigs.
So now B is a subset of A, which is shown as:
A
B
Question 2.3.3 Let A = 1, 2, 3 and B = 3, 4, 5. Evaluate:
(1) A B
(2) A
(3) A
(4) (A )
(5) (A ) (B )
(6) (A ) (B )
(7) (A ) (B )
(8) (A ) (B )
(9) A\
Can have more than two sets.
Operations on many sets become more complicated.
Well always use brackets to make it clear in which order
the operations should be performed, if there is ambiguity.
Question 2.3.4 Evaluate each of the following:
A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, B = 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, C = 1, 4, 5, 7, 8
B \ C =
A\ (B \ C) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 \
=
A (B C) = A 4, 7, 8
=
(A B) C = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 1, 4, 5, 7, 8
=
Venn diagrams can also be used with more than two sets.
Take great care to identify correctly each region on the
diagram.
Question 2.3.5 Shade the region which corresponds to each
given expression, on the Venn diagrams below.
(1) A B (2) A B C
(3) A B (4) A B C
(5) (A B) C (6) A\ B
(7) (A\ B) \ C (8) (A B) (B C)
(9) A\ (B C)
B
C
A B
C
A B
C
A B
C
A B
C
A
A B
C
A B
C
A B
C
A B
C
3 Graphs
This section covers basic graph drawing: axes, equations
and graphs. You will probably have seen much of this
before.
graphs are very important for visualising the shape and
behaviour of data sets and functions
used to express relationships between various variables,
quantities or concepts.
heavily used in business and economics, engineering,
genetics and biology.
well concentrate on linear (straight-line) graphs
will also see some interesting and non-linear graphs
We will come back to graph drawing throughout semester,
particularly for straight line graphs, quadratics, trig
functions and so on.
Your exams will have a number of nasty graph questions.
Graphs in one dimension
Graphs in two dimensions
Lines parallel to the axes
Linear graphs
Non-linear graphs
Some special graphs
3.1 Graphs in one dimension
Often in mathematics, it is useful to draw a pictorial
representation of what is happening.
We have already done this, with Venn diagrams and
number lines.
Think back to number lines:
one variable or symbol (often x)
one-dimensional picture (only directions are left to right)
graph on the number line.
Question 3.1.1 Graph the region dened by 1 < x < 3
Question 3.1.2 Graph the region dened by [x[ 4
Question 3.1.3 Write each of the above regions in interval
format.
3.2 Graphs in two dimensions
On a number line, we can mark a single value x (eg x = 4,
x = 6 and so on).
What if each data point has two values associated with it?
For example, consider the problem of drawing a picture of:
2 pigs cost $100, 6 pigs cost $300, 3 pigs cost $150.
We cant just mark 2, 6 and 3 on a number line, or even
100, 300 and 150 on a numberline. Need some way to
represent that (2 and 100) are related, (6 and 300) are
related and (3 and 150) are related.
Thus we have two values associated with the point, so we
need a two-dimensional picture, or graph in the xy-plane.
We can draw a picture by marking a number line
horizontally, and then another number line vertically.
Lines called axes, and they intersect at a right angle,
(where 0 would be on these lines) at a point called the
origin.
Suitable numeric scales are placed on each axis, dividing the
whole region into a grid.
One variable is assigned to each axis.
Conventionally, horizontal axis is called x-axis, vertical axis
is called y-axis and values are called coordinates.
The whole diagram is called a graph.
Data values are commonly written as ordered pairs such as
(2, 100), (6, 300), (3, 150) and so on.
Order is important: x takes on the rst value of the pair,
and y takes on the second value.
For (a, b), x-coordinate is a and y-coordinate is b.
The point (a, b) is plotted on the graph by moving to the
point a on the x-axis, and imagining a vertical line. Then
move to the point b on the y-axis, and imagine a horizontal
line. Plot the point (a, b) where the two lines intersect.
Note that graphs may include both positive and negative
values on the axes. The x-axis is positive to the right, and
the y-axis is positive to the top. Other ends are negative.
Question 3.2.1 Plot the following data points:
(x, y) = (2, 3), (1, 4), (0, 2), (3, 4), (1, 1)
y
x
A set of axes divides the whole graph into four parts or
quadrants.
There is a standard way of identifying these parts.
In each quadrant, all x values have the same sign, and all y
values have the same sign.
Example 3.2.2 The four quadrants.
I II
III IV
y
0
x
Quadrant 1: positive x, positive y.
Quadrant 2: negative x, positive y.
Quadrant 3: negative x, negative y.
Quadrant 4: positive x, negative y.
In many problems we want to identify a relationship
between two quantities or variables. Examples of pairs of
variables include
distance travelled time taken
volume of sphere radius of sphere
number square root of number
amount money spent weight of meat purchased.
amount money spent number of pigs bought.
The value of one variable depends on value of other one.
Be a bit careful: x-axis is horizontal and y-axis is vertical.
Variables being graphed may not be x and y (eg plotting
distance and time, variables may be d and t). Relabel axes
with variables being used, but axes can still be called x and
y. We say time is on x-axis, and distance is on y-axis.
We said before that the value of one variable depends on
the value of the other. The rst variable is called the
dependent variable, and the other is called the
independent variable.
By convention, the independent variable is always
represented by the x-axis, and the dependent variable is
always represented by the y-axis.
It can sometimes be a bit hard to determine the dependent
and independent variables, but it is usually fairly obvious.
For example, when plotting distance travelled against time
spent travelling, the distance is dependent on the time.
We can also plot a graph from a given equation.
Pick some values for independent variable and substitute
into equation, giving values for dependent variable.
Plot each resulting data point (x, y) on axes.
Plot is interpolated on the graph, by joining points.
Think about what you are plotting, and make sure you have
calculated enough values to ensure graph is correct. If
unsure, use more points.
Question 3.2.3
Graph of line x +y = 6 (or y = 6 x) where x, y R.
x 0 2 2 3
1
2

1
2
y 6 4
y
x
Can also write as (x, y) [ x, y R and x +y = 6.
Example 3.2.4 Table for cost of rope:
x (rope, metres) 2 4 6 8 10
y (cost, $) 4 8 12 16 20
y
x
= 2 2 2 . . .
y = 2x (straight line through origin, (0, 0))
Sketch this on left-hand axes below.
Example 3.2.5 Sketch 2x + 3y = 6
Points where axes are crossed are useful:
If x = 0, 3y = 6, so y = 2. [x = 0 on y-axis]
If y = 0, 2x = 6, so x = 3. [y = 0 on x-axis.]
Sketch this on right-hand axes below.
Question 3.2.6 Graphs from Examples 3.2.4 and 3.2.5:
y
x
y
x
3.3 Lines parallel to the axes
Lines parallel to the x-axis are where y = c (c is some
constant), thus c is the point where the line cuts the y-axis
called the y-intercept.
Example 3.3.1 On left-hand axes below sketch y = 5 for
x-values between 4 and 4.
Example 3.3.2 Example 3.9
Cost in restaurant as a function of amount eaten: Pay $12,
eat what you like (e.g. Sizzlers salad bar!)
Plot cost (y) against amount eaten (x), on right-hand axes
below.
Question 3.3.3 Graphs from above:
y
x
y
x
Lines parallel to the y-axis are where x = c (c is some
constant), thus c is the point where the line cuts the x-axis
called the x-intercept.
Question 3.3.4 Sketch x = 3 for y [8, 8].
Sketch y + 1 = 2 for x [4, 4].
y
x
y
x
3.4 Linear graphs
Consider car travelling at xed speed. For each minute car
moves, same extra distance is travelled. Total distance
thus increases in direct proportion to travel time.
This is an example of a linear or straight-line
relationship. Many quantities are related in a linear way.
If we know an equation is that of a straight line, then 2
points (plus third as a check!) are sucient for a sketch.
When simplied, equation of a straight line has at most:
one term in x one term in y
one constant term (which may be zero)
NO xy, x
2
, y
2
,

x (etc) terms.
Question 3.4.1 Which of the following are linear equations
(that is, equations of straight lines):
(1) 2x 6y = 18
(2) x(2 +y) = 4
(3) 4x 3y = 0
(4) 2x +
x = 4
(5) x = 4
(6) (5.9)x = 3(y + 1)
(7) x = 2y(2 +y)
(8) 2(2 +x) = 4y 1
(9) x x
2
= y
(10) y = 1
(11) x +y =
2
x + 1
(12) (x + 1)
2
= y +x
2
3.5 Non-linear graphs
Not all graphs are linear.
For example, equations could include x
2
, x
3
,

x etc.
Take care now! It is no longer enough to use two or three
data points to plot your graph!
Question 3.5.1 Spotty Bob runs a bakery. Each day, he bakes
y = 36 (6 t)
2
loaves per hour, where t is the time in hours
since the start of the shift. Draw a graph of the production of
loaves in each hour, for 0 t 10 (for one day).
Answer: rst, for convenience we could rearrange the formula
y = 36 (6 t)
2
= 36 (36 12t +t
2
)
= 12t t
2
= t(12 t)
Next, draw a table of values:
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 0 11 20 27 32 35 36 35 32 27 20
Note: without the restriction 0 t 10, y would become
negative for t negative or for t large and positive.
y
t
Question: Why might the graph look like it does?
Question 3.5.2 Plot xy = 1 (Or y =
1
x
)
x 3 2 1
1
2

1
3
1
3
1
2
1 2 3
y
1
3

1
2
1 2 3 3 2 1
1
2
1
3
y
x
Note: x, y have same sign. Also, as x gets very big, y ( =
1
x
)
gets very small.
Question 3.5.3 Plot y = x
3
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 27 8 1 0 1 8 27
y
x
3.6 Some special graphs
Have seen linear graphs which
increase (that is, go up to the right)
decrease (that is, go down to the right)
are vertical (eg x = 4) or are horizontal (eg y = ).
Have seen some non-linear graphs (eg y = x
2
, y =

x).
Another type of graph which well encounter is that of a
piecewise linear function.
Its graph is a series of straight line segments, perhaps with
a break or discontinuity between pieces of straight lines.
If the line segments are horizontal, these are sometimes
called step functions.
Graphs of piecewise linear functions look quite interesting!
Question 3.6.1 Plot graphs of each of the following:
(a) y =[ x [, (b) y =
[ x [
x
.
y
x
y
x
Floor and Ceiling
Dene the oor or integer part of x, written ]x, to be the
largest integer less than or equal to x.
Dene the ceiling of x, denoted ]x, to be the smallest
integer greater than or equal to x.
Question 3.6.2 Find ]1.6, ]7, ], and ]2.3.
Question 3.6.3 Find ]1.6, ]7, ], and ]2.3 .
Question 3.6.4 Plot graphs of y
1
= ]x, y
2
= ]x.
y
x
y
x
4 Functions;
Notation
This section covers two separate topics: functions, and
sigma notation
most mathematics involves expressing concepts and
relationships as functions
the notation is not too hard, but many nd it a bit
confusing
you must be familiar with functions and their notation: we
will use it very heavily for much of the rest of semester
it will also be used heavily in any maths work you do in
business or economics, in much engineering and information
technology, genetics and biology.
Sigma notation is a short-hand way of writing long
expressions involving addition
Very important in probability and statistics.
Anyone doing any economics statistics will need to use
sigma notation a lot.
Functions and function notation
Domain and range
Sigma notation,

4.1 Functions and function notation
A function is a rule by which an input is converted to a
unique output.
We have already encountered a few functions. For example,
the function x
2
takes the value of x as its input, and gives a
value which is equal to x x.
Absolute value [ x [ again takes a value x, and returns a
value equal to x if x is positive, or x if x is negative.
In each case, input is converted to a unique output.
Dene a simple function, double, which doubles input value.
Thus, given value x, the function converts it to 2x.
For ease of reference, we give the function a name. We
could call it double, but that is a bit wordy.
Instead, we represent it by a letter, say f.
Given input x, f converts x to 2x. We could write this as
f : x 2x, pronounced f maps x to 2x.
An easier notation is to write it as f(x) = 2x. This is now
pronounced f of x equals 2x, and x is called the
argument of the function.
Note that x is merely a symbol to help illustrate the
denition and action of the function. We could also write
f(a) = 2a, f(u) = 2u, and so on. It is usual to use x, just as
it is usual to use f to dene a function.
What does all this mean?
The notation f(x) gives a rule, such as f(x) = x
2
. So
when we know x, we can work out the value of f(x).
Putting x into the function box f gives answer f(x).
So the value of the function f(x) depends on the value x.
Example 4.1.1 If f(x) = x
2
, then:
When x = 2, f = 2
2
= 4. When x = 3, f = 3
2
= 9.
We write: f(2) = 2
2
, f(3) = 3
2
. (Or f(2) = 4, f(3) = 9.)
Question 4.1.2 Let g(x) = x
2
+2x, f(x) =
x 2, h(x) = 4
and v(t) = 4 + 3t.
(a) Find g(3), g(1) and g(a).
(b) Find f(11), f(2), f(1) and f(a
2
+ 2).
(c) Find h(0), h(2) and h(100).
(d) Find v(0), v(10) and v(a).
Functions can be plotted as graphs, in the usual way. In this
case, x is the independent variable, and is shown on the
horizontal axis. f(x) is the dependent variable, and is shown on
the vertical axis. Sometimes, it is written as y = f(x).
4.2 Domain and range
Given a function f, think about what real numbers can
possibly be used as an input to f, and which values can
possibly occur as outputs of f?
Some functions can take any real number as allowable input
values, and it is possible to obtain any real number as an
output value. Of course, any individual input will give rise
to a unique output (that is the denition of a function!)
Other functions have restrictions on what values can be
input to function, and what output values can occur.
Consider f(x) = x
2
, which can take any number as its
input, but can never output a negative number.
Now consider f(x) =

x. It cannot have a negative input,
and cannot give negative output (note that

x is assumed
to always be positive: if we are interested in negative
values, then we explicitly include the negative sign,
x).
Can think of function as rule for translating numbers in a
particular set to numbers in another set. The function
f(x) = 2x translates all numbers on the real line to another
real line, with each number translating to twice original.
The collection of numbers to which the function is applied
is called the domain of the function. (In English, the set of
all possible input x values.)
The collection of numbers which can be obtained by
applying the function is called the range of the function.
(In English, the set of all possible output y values.)
Question 4.2.1 Find the domain and range of the following:
(for (10), (11) and (12) do the domain only.)
(1) f
1
(x) = x
(2) f
2
(x) = x + 1
(3) f
3
(x) = 3x + 3
(4) f
4
(x) = x
2
(5) f
5
(x) = x
2
(6) f
6
(x) = x
2
+ 3
(7) f
7
(x) =[ x [
(8) f
8
(x) =

x
(9) f
9
(x) =
x
(10) f
10
(x) =
1
x
(11) f
11
(x) =
1
x
2
1
(12) f
12
(x) =
1
x
(13) f
12
(x) =
x
[ x [
(14) f
13
(x) = 4
4.3 Sigma notation,
Consider the following expressions:

Example 4.3.1
1. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9
2. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 +. . . + 198 + 200
3. x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+x
5
+. . . +x
50
+x
51
+x
52
4. (2 + 3x) + (3 + 4x) + (4 + 5x) + (5 + 6x)
5.
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
2
3
+
1
2
4
+. . . +
1
2
n
Each of these expressions involves adding together a
number of terms.
There is a shorthand way of writing such expressions, using
the Greek letter capital sigma, written
In general, sigma or summation notation is written

upper
lower
expression
where
lower is an expression for the lower bound or starting
point of the sum,
upper is an expression for the upper bound or ending
point of the sum; and
expression is the expression being added together.
Lower is usually (but not always) of the form
variable=value.
Upper is usually (but not always) of the form value ( N).
Expression is usually (but not always) an expression
involving the variable given in lower.
Example 4.3.2 Here are two examples of signma notation:
5
i=1
i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
100
i=1
2
i
= 2
1
+ 2
2
+ 2
3
+. . . + 2
99
+ 2
100
The shorthand notation can be expanded into a sum via the
following process (sounds complicated but is easy):
take the variable given in the expression lower, and set
it to the value given in lower
form a term from expression, replacing each occurrence
of variable with its current value. Add term to sum
add 1 to value of variable, and check expression
upper. If value of variable is still less than or equal to
upper, go back to previous step and repeat
stop when the value of variable is larger than upper.
Note: always add 1 to variable
A few conventions apply here. It is common to use i or j as
the variable in lower. Also, upper can itself be a variable. In
this case, it is often n or m ( N).
Example 4.3.3
9
i=1
i
2
means The sum of i
2
, from i = 1 to
i = 9.
9
i=1
i
2
= 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ 4
2
+ 5
2
+ 6
2
+ 7
2
+ 8
2
+ 9
2
.
Example 4.3.4 In
9
i=1
i
2
, the symbol i is a dummy symbol;
9
j=1
j
2
= 1
2
+ 2
2
+ + 9
2
also.
9
k=1
k
2
= 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ + 9
2
.
Example 4.3.5
(a)
5
j=2
j
3
= 2
3
+ 3
3
+ 4
3
+ 5
3
( = 8 + 27 + 64 + 125 = 224)
(b)
4
r=2
r(r + 1) = 2(2 + 1) + 3(3 + 1) + 4(4 + 1)
= 2.3 + 3.4 + 4.5
= 6 + 12 + 20 = 38.
Example 4.3.6
An even number is of form 2k, k is any integer.
An odd number is of form 2k +1 (or 2k 1), k is any integer.
And (1)
even
is equal to +1, while (1)
odd
is equal to 1.
Thus (1)
2k
= 1 and (1)
2k+1
= 1.
Then (for example)
6
i=1
(1)
i
i = 1 + 2 3 + 4 5 + 6.
Question 4.3.7 Write each of the following in sigma notation:
(1) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7
(2) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 +. . . + 98 + 100
(3) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 +. . .
(4) 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +. . . + 29 + 31
Question 4.3.8 Write as expanded sums:
(1)
8
i=4
x
i
y
i
(2)
2
j=0
x
i
y
j
(3)
n
i=1
nx
n
(4)
4
i=1
2
(5)
5
i=2
(2i +x
i
+j)
(6)
5
j=1
(1)
j
jx
j
Question 4.3.9 Write each of the following in sigma notation:
(1) x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+x
5
+. . . +x
998
+x
999
+x
1000
(2) (2 + 3x) + (3 + 4x
2
) + (4 + 5x
3
) + (5 + 6x
4
)
(3)
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
2
3
+
1
2
4
+. . . +
1
2
n
(4) x
1
1 +x
2
2 +x
3
3 +x
4
4 +. . . +x
n
n
(5) x + 2x 3x + 4x 5x + 6x 7x + 8x
(6) 1 4 + 9 16 + 25 36
5 Straight lines
This section covers two related topics: straight lines and
distance
linear relationships are very common in representing and
modelling real situations
We have seen how to graph linear relationships, now we
study their general form and see how to recognise a linear
relationship from its equation.
We consider the gradient and y-intercepts of lines, and see
how to nd their equations.
Used a lot in engineering, physics, commerce and business.
Make sure you are familiar with this, as we will return to
straight lines in the next section (on simultaneous
equations) and when we start on calculus.
We also study straight-line distance between two points and
Pythagoras theorem.
Fundamental in any distance calculations.
Introduction to straight lines
General form and special types of straight line
Finding the equation of a straight line
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Distance in two dimensions
5.1 Introduction to straight lines
Equation of a straight line has, in general,
x term, y term, constant term (e.g. 5x + 2y + 3 = 0.)
(Simple exceptions: e.g. x = 4, y = 2 ).
If have y-term, usually write y = mx +c
Example 5.1.1 Writing straight line equation in standard form:
2(x 4) = 3y + 7
2x 8 = 3y + 7
3y = 2x 15
y =
2
3
x 5
Several important features of straight line graphs:
y-intercept is value of y when x = 0. On graph, it is value
of y when line crosses y-axis
x-intercept is value of x when y = 0. On graph, it is value
of x when line crosses x-axis
the gradient of the line is its slope.
xintercept
origin
yintercept
plot of y=x+1
y
x
The two triangles on that gure (in dashed lines) represent
the slope or gradient of the line.
Formally, the slope of a line is the change in its y value,
compared to the change in its x value.
Take a triangle, label points A and B (on line y = mx +c)
and another point D:
D
A 2
(x , y )
1
B
change in x
change in y
(x , y )
1 1
(x , y )
2 2
Because A is on the line y = mx +c, A is (x
1
, mx
1
+c)
Because B is also on the line y = mx +c, B is (x
2
, mx
2
+c)
D is the point where a vertical line through B(x
2
, y
2
)
intersects a horizontal line through A(x
1
, y
1
).
The change in y values is the length of the vertical line BD,
which is y
2
y
1
. Change in x is x
2
x
1
BD (length) is (mx
2
+c) (mx
1
+c)
= mx
2
+c mx
1
c
= mx
2
mx
1
= m(x
2
x
1
)
DA = x
2
x
1
. Hence
BD
DA
= m, slope
A and B were any points on the line.
Hence, on a straight line graph, the slope is the same over
the entire graph.
Thus the slope m of the line is given by:
m =
change in y
change in x
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
y
x
The last line is pronounced delta y over delta x. The
character is the Greek letter delta, and commonly is
used to mean the change in the value of. Thus x means
the change in the value of x.
Thus y = y
2
y
1
and x = x
2
x
1
The slope is positive if the line goes up to the right, and
the slope is negative if the line goes down to the right.
Larger values of [ m [ mean steeper lines.
Question 5.1.2 Assume that a straight line is drawn between
each of the following pairs of points. Find the gradient of each
line.
(0, 0), (3, 3) (0, 0), (3, 3) (1, 2), (2, 6)
(5, 7), (10, 7) (3, 2), (3, 6) (2, 6), (1, 2)
Note: it doesnt matter which point you choose as (x
1
, y
1
) and
which as (x
2
, y
2
). Youll get the same line either way.
5.2 General form and special types of
straight line
Having introduced gradients and intercepts, we can now
interpret the general form for the equation of a straight line.
Linear equations have the general form y = mx + c, where

m is gradient and c is the y-intercept.
There are two special types of straight line: those which are
parallel to the axes.
Lines parallel to the x-axis have zero slope, so m = 0.
Hence they have equations of the form y = c
Lines parallel to the y-axis have innite slope. Hence they
have equations of the form x = b
Question 5.2.1 Plot the following ve lines on the axes:
x = 2, x = 3, y = 2, y = 3, y = x
y
x
5.3 Finding the equation of a straight line
Recall straight line equation y = mx+c. Every point (x, y)
on the line satises y = mx +c. Equivalently, a straight line
is the set of all points which satises that equation.
There are a number of ways of nding the equation of a
straight line, depending on what information is available.
All methods rely on an extremely important property:
Given two points (x

1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
), there is a unique line
which passes through both points.
The goal is: nd equation y = mx +c of a particular line.
There are a number of ways of doing this, depending on
what information is available.
Note there are two unknowns in line equation: gradient
m and y-intercept c.
See what happens if just one of the gradient (left) or
y-intercept (right) is known. In each case, an innite
number of lines is possible.
x
y
x
y
Given a point on the line, and the gradient.
Given point (x
1
, y
1
) on line and gradient m.
This information denes a unique line. The dotted lines all
have gradient m, and the dashed lines all pass through the
point (x
1
, y
1
). Only the solid line has both properties.
1 1
(x , y )
gradient m
As (x
1
, y
1
) is on the line, it must satisfy the general
equation of the line. Hence y
1
= mx
1
+c, where c is the
only unknown. Rearranging this, we have c = y
1
mx
1
We now know the values of m, x
1
and y
1
(all given), and
have calculated a value for c. Thus general equation of the
line is y = mx + (y
1
mx
1
).
Example 5.3.1 Find the equation of the line with gradient 3
which passes through the point (1, 5)
We are given m = 3, and (1, 5) is on the line. The line has
equation y = 3x +c, and hence 5 = 3 1 +c, so c = 2.
Hence equation of the line is y = 3x + 2
Question 5.3.2 Find the equation of the line with gradient
3 which passes through the point (1, 2)
Question 5.3.3 Find the equation of the line with gradient 0
which passes through the point (2, 2)
Given two points on the line.
Here, we know points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) on line. Both
gradient m and y-intercept c are unknown.
The following diagram demonstrates that this information
denes a unique line. The dotted lines all pass through the
point (x
1
, y
1
) and the dashed lines all pass through the
point (x
2
, y
2
). Only the solid line passes through both
points.
2 2
(x , y )
(x , y )
1 1
The gradient m is constant over the entire line, and so
m =
change in y
change in x
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
Now we know gradient m, and a point on the line.
(Actually, we know two points, but we only need one.)
We proceed exactly as before. That is, substitute the point
(x
1
, y
1
) (or (x
2
, y
2
)) into the equation y = mx +c, giving
the value for c.
Example 5.3.4 Find the equation of the line which passes
through the points (2, 4) and (0, 1)
Let (x
1
, y
1
) = (2, 4) and (x
2
, y
2
) = (0, 1). Then
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
1 4
0 2
= 1.5
Then proceed as before. We have y = 1.5x +c. Choose either
point, say (2, 4). This point is on the line, so:
4 = 1.5 2 +c so c = 1.
Hence y = 1.5x + 1.
Question 5.3.5 Find the equation of the line which passes
through (2, 0) and (1, 6).
through (0, 1) and (3, 1).
through (2, 4) and (2, 3).
Note the last two questions! If both y values are equal, equation
will always be y = constant. If both x values are equal,
equation will always be x = constant.
Care needs to be taken with the case of 2 points (a, b) and (c, d)
if a = c. We cannot divide by zero!
Question 5.3.8 Find the line through (1, 2) and (1, 3).
Slope should be
change in y
change in x
But the denominator (change in x) is 1 1 or zero!
So we sketch a graph
y
x
Note that all points on this line will have x-value 1 and its
equation is x = 1
5.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
We look at two special types of line: parallel and
perpendicular lines.
Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient m
Equivalently, given two parallel lines with gradients m
1
and
m
2
, we must have m
1
= m
2
Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at right
angles.
If a given line has gradient m, any line perpendicular to this
has gradient 1/m
Equivalently, given two perpendicular lines (neither one
parallel to the axes) with gradients m
1
and m
2
, we must
have m
1
m
2
= 1
Question 5.4.1 Find the line perpendicular to x +y = 1 and
passing through the origin.
Question 5.4.2 Find the line parallel to 2x + 3y = 5 and
passing through (3, 2).
5.5 Distance in two dimensions
Next we cover a very important result: Pythagoras theorem.
In a right-angled triangle with sides of length a and b and

hypotenuse of length h, we have
h
2
= a
2
+b
2
or equivalently h =
a
2
+b
2
This is sometimes called the most important theorem in the
whole of mathematics.
It forms the entire basis of trigonometry and coordinate
geometry
used to measure distances in 2 and 3 dimensions.
Question 5.5.1 Wilfred starts walking at a point A.
He walks due east for 10
2 km, then due north for 10
7 km,
ending up at point B. How far is B from A, in a straight line?
Distance between two points, (a, b) and (c, d).
Can restate Pythagoras Theorem to work on the (x, y)
coordinates of points.
Consider two points M = (a, b) and N = (c, d). Take point
L = (c, b). Measure horizontal and vertical distances.
M
(a,b)
N
(c,d)
(c,b)
L
LM = c a, or the dierence in the x values.
LN = d b, or the dierence in the y values.
So MN = distance between (a, b) and (c, d)
=
(c a)
2
+ (d b)
2
, by Pythagoras theorem.
often write coordinates of the two points as (x
1
, y
1
) and
(x
2
, y
2
), so distance d is
d =
(x
1
x
2
)
2
+ (y
1
y
2
)
2
=
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
(This formula just says that the distance from point A to
point B equals the distance from point B to point A.)
Dont get this formula mixed up with formula for gradient!
Question 5.5.2 Find the straight line distance between
(2, 1) and (4, 5).
6 Intersecting lines; simultaneous
equations
This section builds on the theory of straight lines.
Now we are concerned with the possible intersection of a
pair of lines.
See two ways of nding the intersection: graphically and
algebraically
Very useful when a number of simultaneous constraints
apply
we only consider a pair of equations with two unknown
variables. More generally, can have many equations with
many unknown variables.
Computers were originally developed mostly for solving
very large systems of equations.
the techniques we learn can be applied to much larger
systems.
Well refer back to systems of equations when we study
matrices and vectors.
Intersection of lines
Graphical solution of simultaneous equations
Algebraic solution of simultaneous equations
6.1 Intersection of lines
Consider two lines, y = m
1
x +c
1
and y = m
2
x +c
2
. Every
point on rst line satises rst equation, and every point on
second line satises second equation.
If both lines are drawn on same set of axes, then must have
one of: the lines must intersect at precisely one point, or
zero points, or at an innite number of points.
It is not possible for them to intersect in any other number
of points (eg 2 points, or 20 points).
If they intersect in precisely one point, say (x
i
, y
i
), then
(x
i
, y
i
) satises both equations at the same time. We call
(x
i
, y
i
) the simultaneous solution to the equations.
If the lines do not intersect at all, then they must be
parallel. Here, we say that there is no simultaneous
solution to the given equations.
If the lines intersect in an innite number of points, then
they must be the same line. We say that there is an
innite number of simultaneous solutions.
There are many examples of simultaneous equations which
need to be solved in everyday life. You need to be able to
solve some simple ones.
Two ways to solve simultaneous equations: graphically and
algebraically. Each has good and bad points.
6.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous
equations
Given the equations of two straight lines, the simultaneous
solution to these equations can be found graphically by:
rst, plot both lines on the same set of axes
nally, look for the intersection of the lines.
If there are no points of intersection (so the lines are
parallel), then the answer is: there is no simultaneous
solution to the given equations.
If there is exactly one point of intersection, then note that
point, say (x
i
, y
i
). The answer is: the simultaneous
solution to the given equations is the point (x
i
, y
i
).
If there is innite number of intersection points, then
lines are identical. Answer is: there is an innite number
of simultaneous solutions to the given equations.
Example 6.2.1 Find the solution to the simultaneous equa-
tions y + 2x = 5 and 2y 4x = 2
Solution: Plot both lines on a set of axes, and note the point
of intersection is (1, 3). This point is the simultaneous solution
to the given equations.
Finally, it is important to check your answer. This can be done
by substituting (x, y) = (1, 3) into the original equations.
continued...
Example 6.2.1 (continued)
x
2
4
6
8
y
1 2 3 4
y=2x+1
(1,3)
y=2x+5
tions y = 2x + 2 and 2y = 4x
Solution: Plot lines, and observe there is no point of intersec-
tion (the lines are parallel) so there is no simultaneous solu-
tion.
x
2
4
6
8
y
2 4 6 8
y=2x y=2x+4
tions y 2x = 4 and 2y 4x = 8
Solution: Observe that the lines are superimposed, so there is
an innite number of simultaneous solutions.
continued...
x
2
4
6
8
y
2 4 6 8
y=2x+4
Advantages of using graphical methods include
visually appealing and can see what is happening (eg if lines
are parallel)
easy to understand.
Disadvantages include
very low accuracy, as it may be hard or impossible to
accurately read coordinates of intersection point (eg solution
could be (x, y) = (3.2176, 1.2842))
the intersection point may be hard to nd. When drawing
axes, if intersection point is near origin, it will be easy to
nd. What if answer is (x, y) = (1782, 62174)?
6.3 Algebraic solution of simultaneous
equations
Alternatively, can use algebraic approaches: use
mathematics rather than a picture (graph).
There are two similar approaches, called substitution and
elimination. Both methods are closely related.
Method of substitution.
1) Given two equations, choose one equation, and isolate one
of the variables to left-hand side.
2) Substitute expression for variable into other equation, thus
eliminating variable from equation.
3) Solve the equation for the remaining variable.
4) Substitute value of variable into either original equation,
giving value for remaining variable.
Example 6.3.1
Solve 2x y = 4 (1)
x + 2y = 28 (2)
Rewrite (1) with y on the left-hand side, so
y = 2x + 4 (3)
Substitute for y in equation (2) gives
x + 2(2x + 4) = 28 (4)
Now (4) is equation with one unknown, so can solve for x:
x + 2(2x + 4) = 28
x + 4x + 8 = 28 5x = 20 x = 4 (5)
Now substitute x = 4 into (1) or (2). Lets choose (1):
2x y = 4 2 4 y = 4 y = 12
continued...
Example 6.3.1 (continued) Thus solution is x = 4 and y =
12; that is, (4, 12).
Finally, we can check that this, by substituting these values of
x and y into both of the original equations (1) and (2).
From (1), 2x y = 4. Let x = 4 and y = 12, so 2x y =
2(4) 12 = 4 as required. From (2), x +2y = 28. Let x = 4
and y = 12, so x + 2y = 4 + 24 = 28 as required.
Hence the solution is correct.
Question 6.3.2 Solve algebraically the simultaneous equa-
tions
3x 2y = 10
x + 3y = 7
Method of elimination.
1) Given two equations, add a multiple of one equation to a
multiple of the other, eliminating one of the variables.
2) Solve the equation for remaining variable.
3) Substitute value of variable into either original equation,
giving value for remaining variable.
Example 6.3.3
Solve x 3y = 1 (1)
3x + 2y = 8 (2)
Lets eliminate y: take 2 (1) and 3 (2):
2x 6y = 2 (3)
9x + 6y = 24 (4)
ADD: 11x = 22
Hence x = 2. Put this back in (1) or (2) to get y:
In (1):
x 3y = 1
2 3y = 1
2 = 3y 1
3 = 3y y = 1.
[Check: in (2), say: 3.2 + 2.1 = 6 + 2 = 8. YES!]
Question 6.3.4 Solve algebraically the simultaneous equa-
tions
3x + 4y = 14
2x 3y = 2
When solving graphically, always have either one solution;
or no solutions (parallel lines); or innite solutions (identical
lines). Same cases arise when solving algebraically.
Question 6.3.5 Solve the simultaneous equations
3x 2y = 4
9x + 6y = 12
Question 6.3.6 Solve the simultaneous equations
2x y = 3
4x + 2y = 5
In Qn (3), nal statement is always true, so there is an
innite number of solutions to the given equations. Any
point which satises the rst equation also satises the
second. Graphically, any point on the rst line is also on
the second, so the lines are identical.
In Qn (4), we arrived at a statement which is never true,
so there is no solution to the given equations. Graphically,
the two lines do not intersect: they are parallel.
7 Quadratic Equations and
polynomials
We have seen linear equations, with a single solution. Now
we look at equations with higher powers of x, and
(possibly) multiple solutions.
Well see how to solve quadratics (using a formula or
factorisation), and the shape of the graphs of some
polynomials.
Polynomials are used extensively in real-world modelling,
particularly by engineers, biologists and economists.
Well use them for much of the rest of this course. Be
familiar with the notation, and in particular be able to
solve quadratic equations.
The calculus section of this course is directed at nding the
slope of an arbitrary polynomial at any point.
This section also briey covers composition of functions
(which allows more complicated functions to be constructed
from simpler ones), and circles.
Introduction to polynomials
Quadratics
Shapes of some polynomial functions
Solving quadratics
Composition of functions
Circles
7.1 Introduction to polynomials
Weve seen equations of straight lines: y = mx + c
Using function notation, we can write f(x) = mx + c
The highest power of x is 1.
What if our function involves terms with x raised to
integer powers other than 1? For example,
P(x) = x
2
3x + 2.
Note that P(x) includes an x
2
term.
P(x) and f(x) are called polynomial functions.
The degree of a polynomial p(x) is the highest power
of x in p(x).
Example 7.1.1 Examples of polynomials:
2x 1 degree 1; linear
3x
2
2x 4
2x
2
+ 1
(x 1)(x + 2)
degree 2; quadratic
3x
3
9x
4.9x
3
+ x
2
1
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 3)
degree 3; cubic
In general, a polynomial is an expression of the form
p(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
2
x
2
+ a
1
x + a
0
(Note that a
1
x = a
1
x
1
, and a
0
= a
0
x
0
).
a
i
is the coecient of x
i
, i 1
a
0
is the constant term (i = 0 case).
We can write the polynomial in a short-hand way, using
sigma notation:
p(x) =
n
i=0
a
i
x
i
(To see this, just expand it out in the usual way.)
Example 7.1.2 In the polynomial 5x
3
4x
2
+ 3
the x
2
term is 4x
2
the coecient of x
3
is 5
the coecient of x is 0
and the constant term is 3
All polynomials are functions p(x) (remember: a
function takes each possible input value, and converts it
to a unique output value).
Well concentrate on three types of polynomial: linear,
quadratics and cubics (wont do much on these).
7.2 Quadratics
These have an x
2
term as the biggest power of x (if
they are a polynomial in x).
General form: f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c
Another example: f(t) = ut +
1
2
at
2
(polynomial in t).
You need to be able to sketch graphs of quadratics.
Can do it in the familiar way: calculate some points,
mark them on axes, and join the dots Make sure you
have enough points!
Well learn a few tricks to make it easier.
Question 7.2.1 Sketch p(x) = x
2
3x + 2.
(Note: p(x) = (x 1)(x 2).
x -1 0 1 2 3 4
p(x) 6 2 0 0 2 6
Question 7.2.2 Sketch the graph of p(x) = x
2
+ 1
Note: this is never zero, for any real x.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
p(x) 10 5 2 1 2 5 10
Compare the two graphs. Take particular note of where
they are positioned in relation to the x-axis.
The graph of a quadratic equation can cross the x-axis 0
times, once, or twice.
Graphs of other polynomials may also cross the x-axis a
number of times.
The places where the graph crosses the x-axis are
important: they are the values of x for which y is zero.
Often, such values of x are called the roots of the equation.
The roots of an equation are those values of x for which y = 0.

Solving an equation involves nding all its roots.
7.3 Shapes of some polynomial functions
Polynomials of dierent degrees have graphs which look
somewhat dierent.
You need to be familiar with the general shapes of graphs of
linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials.
Question 7.3.1 LINEAR y = ax+b where a, b are constants.
(note: we have written this as y = mx + c in the past; dont
get confused!)
If a is positive:
If a is negative:
x = c is also a straight line:
Question 7.3.2 QUADRATIC a > 0.
General form: y = ax
2
+bx +c (b, c may be zero).
If a > 0 and ax
2
+bx +c = 0 has 2 real distinct roots
If a > 0 and ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 has 2 equal roots (sometimes
called one root)
If a > 0 and ax
2
+bx +c = 0 has no real roots
Question 7.3.3 QUADRATIC a < 0.
If a < 0, the above three cases are turned upside-down:
If a < 0 and ax
2
+bx +c = 0 has 2 real distinct roots
If a < 0 and ax
2
+bx +c = 0 has 2 equal roots
If a < 0 and ax
2
+bx +c = 0 has no real roots
In y = ax
2
+bx +c, a shows how opened out the curve is (top
diagram; larger values of a are steeper), and c is y-intercept
(bottom diagram):
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
Question 7.3.4 CUBIC:
In general, y = ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d, where a ,= 0
If a > 0, the general shape is:
If a < 0, the general shape is:
Depending on the number of real roots (solutions) of
ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d = 0, the graph crosses the x-axis either once
or 3 times (or may cross it once and touch it once)..
Question 7.3.5 Roughly sketch the graph of y = x
3
7.4 Solving quadratics
Recall: the root of a polynomial is a value of x which gives
y = 0
Solving an equation involves nding all of its roots
It is easy to nd the roots of a linear equation y = mx +c:
just substitute y = 0 into the equation, and solve directly
for x. It is easy to see that x =
c
m
leads to y = 0
In general, solving quadratics is somewhat harder
1. there may be 0, 1 or 2 roots
2. where do we start? If we let y = 0, it is not obvious
what to do next.
Happily, there is a well-known formula for solving
quadratics.
Roots of a quadratic
Given a quadratic equation y = ax
2
+bx +c, the formula for
the roots of the equation is
x =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
This mystical formula allows us to easily solve quadratic
equations.
you might like to commit it to memory!
It will be given to you on your exam.
We stated above that a quadratic equation has either 0, 1
or 2 roots.
How does this formula give 0, 1 or 2 roots?
if b
2
4ac > 0, then there are two dierent values in the
part of the formula
b
2
4ac. This results in two
distinct roots
if b
2
4ac = 0, then there is one value in the part of the
formula
b
2
4ac (the value is 0). This results in a
single root
if b
2
4ac < 0, then we are trying to take the square
root of a negative number. This is not possible, so there
are no roots.
Question 7.4.1 Find all values of x for which 2x
2
+7x4 = 0
Question 7.4.2 Find all values of x for which 2x
2
+ 7x = 4
Question 7.4.3 Solve each of the following quadratics:
(a) (x 1)(x 2) = x
2
3x + 2
Solve x
2
3x + 2 = 0
(b) (x 2)(x 2) = 0
Solve x
2
4x + 4 = 0
(c) Solve x
2
+ 3x + 3 = 0
We have seen how to solve a quadratic, using the quadratic
formula. Sometimes, it is possible to nd the solution(s),
using trial and error or factoring.
Example 7.4.4 Find all solutions to x
2
5x + 4 = 0
If you happen to notice x
2
5x + 4 = (x 1)(x 4), then
immediately know that solutions are x = 1 and x = 4
Why?
We are solving = 0 (where = (x1) and = (x4)).
It must be the case that if = 0 then either = 0 or
= 0 (or both).
So either x 1 = 0 or x 4 = 0, so x = 1 or x = 4
The following theorem allows us to do something useful
with this:
THEOREM
Let f(x) be a polynomial function.
(1) If (x a) is a factor of f(x) then f(a) = 0
(2) If f(a) = 0, then (x a) is a factor of f(x)
Can write (1) and (2) together as:
Let f(x) be a polynomial function.
Then f(x) = (xa).g(x), where g(x) is a polynomial function,
if and only if f(a) = 0
Example 7.4.5 Find all factors of f(x) = x
2
5x + 6
Try x = 2: f(2) = 2
2
5.2 + 6 = 4 10 + 6 = 0
So (x 2) is a factor of f(x).
Try x = 3: f(3) = 3
2
5.3 + 6 = 9 15 + 6 = 0
So (x 3) is a factor of f(x).
So f(x) = (x 2)(x 3)
(Could be times a constant, e.g. if f(x) were 2x
2
10x+12 =
2(x
2
5x + 6) = 2(x 2)(x 3))
2
+x 2
Use factoring to solve f(x) = 0. Then sketch:
2
+6x9
Solving real-world problems
Be careful: sometimes, when solving a real-world problem,
one of your answers may not be possible. For example,
lengths or areas probably cant be negative.
Example 7.4.8 Find all right-angle triangles which have
hypotenuse 2 units longer than one side and 1 unit longer
than the other side.
Let shortest side be x. Then hypotenuse is x + 2, and other
side is x + 1. From Pythagoras theorem:
(x + 2)
2
= x
2
+ (x + 1)
2
x
2
+ 4x + 4 = x
2
+ x
2
+ 2x + 1
x
2
2x 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x 3) = 0
So x = 1 or 3 (But x = 1 isnt possible for length!)
So x = 3, and x+1 = 4, x+2 = 5, and the triangle has sides
3, 4, 5. (Only one solution).
Question 7.4.9 Find the dimensions of a rectangle with
perimeter 14 metres and area 12 square metres.
7.5 Composition of functions
Think back to functions, such as f(x).
For example, let f(x) = 2x.
Thus f is a rule which takes any input, and doubles it.
Question 7.5.1 If f(x) = 2x, nd each of:
f(4)
f(10)
f(a)
f(3a)
f(3x)
f(x
2
)
f(x +h)
Pay attention to the last three examples, and compare with the
next three!
Question 7.5.2 Let f(x) = 2x, u(x) = 3x, v(x) = x
2
and
w(x) = x +h. Find each of
f(u(x))
f(v(x))
f(w(x))
These are examples of a special mathematical construct called
composition of functions.
Given two functions f(x) and g(x), we can talk about the
composition, f(g(x)).
As in the examples, we simply substitute g(x) into the
function f, and obtain a new function, called the
composition f(g(x)).
We can also form another composition, g(f(x)). Here, we
substitute f(x) into g.
In general, f(g(x)) is not the same as g(f(x)).
Example 7.5.3 For example, let f(x) = x
2
+ 1 and g(x) =
3x 2, so
f(g(x)) = (g(x))
2
+ 1 = (3x 2)
2
+ 1
= (3x 2)
2
+ 1 = 9x
2
12x + 5
Now try the composition the other way round:
g(f(x)) = 3(f(x)) 2
= 3(x
2
+ 1) 2
= 3x
2
+ 1
Note that f(g(x)) ,= g(f(x)).
Question 7.5.4 If f(x) = 3x
2
4 and g(x) = 2x 1,
nd f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).
7.6 Circles
Just as we can give the mathematical equation of a straight
line or a parabola, we can also give the mathematical
equations for circles.
Consider a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius r. Let (x, y) be a
point on the circle; it is a distance r from the circle centre.
(x,y)
r
x
y
(0,0)
Then Pythagoras theorem gives us: r
2
= x
2
+y
2
.
This equation holds for every point, so (x, y) is on the circle
if and only if it satises that equation.
Equation of a circle with centre (0, 0)

A circle with centre at the origin and radius r has equation
x
2
+y
2
= r
2
.
Example 7.6.1 The circle with radius 5 centred at the ori-
gin has equation x
2
+ y
2
= 25. The points (3, 4), (4, 3),
(3, 4) and (
20,
5) all fall on this circle. (Check by sub-

stituting x and y values.) The point (1, 4) does not.
Question 7.6.2 Do the points (1,
2) and (
3, 0) lie on a
circle centred at (0, 0)? If so, nd the equation of the circle.
Not all circles have their centre at (0, 0).
More generally, take the circle with centre (a, b) and radius
r:
(x,y)
r
(xa)
(yb)
(a,b)
(0,0)
we can nd the equation of this circle in a similar way. The
length of the horizontal side is (x a), the length of the
vertical side is (y b) and the radius is still r.
Equation of a circle with centre (a, b)

A circle with centre at t(a, b) and radius r has equation
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2
.
We usually write the equation of a circle in that form, so it
is easy to nd the centre point and radius of the circle
However, sometimes it will be expanded:
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2
(x a)(x a) + (y b)(y b) = r
2
x
2
2ax +a
2
+y
2
2yb +b
2
= r
2
x
2
+y
2
2ax 2by = r
2
a
2
b
2
.
Just be aware that sometimes the equation might not look
like a circle, but is.
Example 7.6.3
(a) The circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 3 has equation
(x 1)
2
+ (y 2)
2
= 9.
(b) The equation (x + 3)
2
+y
2
+ 2y = 8 can be written
(x +3)
2
+y
2
+2y +1 = 9 or (x +3)
2
+(y +1)
2
= 3
2
,
so is a circle with centre (3, 1), radius 3.
(c) If x
2
+ y
2
+ 1 = 0, there are NO points for which this
equation holds true (because we would need x
2
+ y
2
=
1.)
Question 7.6.4 Write down the equation of a circle with cen-
tre (3, 5) and radius 4.
Question 7.6.5 We sometimes talk about the unit circle,
which is a circle of radius 1, centred at the origin.
(a) What is the equation of the unit circle?
(b) Where does the unit circle intersect the x and y axes?
(c) Where does the unit circle intersect the line y = x?
8 Probability
Probability is an important branch of mathematics.
It is very important in everyday life, and in your later study.
If you do any economics statistics, then youll spend a lot of
time on probability, in much more detail.
Set theory and summation notation are important for
probability.
Of course, probability can be used to study Lotto and other
games of chance.
(Prior to Semester 1 2005 we spent very little time on
probability. The amount of material we cover has now been
increased, as it is heavily used in many other courses)
Introduction to probability
Inclusion/exclusion
Conditional probability
Gold Lotto
8.1 Introduction to probability
In English: given a number of possible outcomes, probability
is concerned with the chance or likelihood of a particular
identied outcome occurring.
Probability of 1 means that outcome is certain (it is
guaranteed to happen).
Probability of 0 means its certain that it wont happen.
Probability of an event is always a number between
0 and 1
Important denitions:
The set of all possible outcomes is called the sample space.
A subset of the sample space is called an event.
Assuming that all outcomes are equally likely, the
probability p of a particular event is given by:
p =
number of ways in which that event can occur
total number of elements in sample space
( =
number of favourable outcomes
total number of possible outcomes
)
We assume that each experiment is fair (so each outcome
is equally likely: eg coins and dice are not biased)
Often use coins, dice or cards to illustrate probability
Say Prob(A) to mean the probability of event A
Example 8.1.1 Coin tossing:
Let H denote a tossed coin coming up as a head, and T denote
a tossed coin coming up as a tail. Assume the coin is fair (so
each outcome is equally likely).
1 toss Set of all possible outcomes = sample space =
H, T.
Clearly, Prob(1 head) = 1/2. Prob(1 tail) = 1/2.
2 tosses Set of all possible outcomes = sample space =
HH, HT, TH, TT
What is the probability of getting one H and one T (in either
order)?
The event of one H and one T occurs in each of the outcomes:
HT or TH.
Thus the identied event occurs in 2 possible outcomes.
So Prob(one H and one T) = 2/4 = 1/2.
3 tosses Set of all possible outcomes = sample space =
HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT.
Prob(at least 2 heads) = 4/8 = 1/2
Prob(precisely 2 heads) = 3/8
Prob(precisely 1 head) = 3/8
Prob(precisely 0 heads) = Prob(precisely 3 heads) = 1/8
Example 8.1.2 A pack of cards has 4 suits (clubs, spades,
diamonds and hearts) and 13 cards of each suit. If a card is
chosen at random:
Prob(heart) = 13/52 = 1/4, Prob(ace) = 4/52 = 1/13
Prob(ace of hearts) = 1/52
Question 8.1.3 Roll two fair dice. What is the probability
that:
(1) Both dice roll a 6?
(2) At least one die rolls a 6?
(3) Neither die rolls a 6?
(4) Both numbers are even?
(5) Both dice show the same number?
First, draw the sample space as a table:
Sometimes the sample space is more complicated, but you can
still list every element in the sample space and count.
Question 8.1.4 Roll two dice, one green (g) and one blue (b).
Let t be the total obtained by adding the scores. If t = 9, roll
again until t ,= 9 (so we know g +b ,= 9).
(1) What is the size of the sample space?
(2) What is the probability that t is even?
(3) What is the probability that t is odd?
(4) What is the probability that t 8?
(5) What is the probability that g = b 1?
(6) What is the probability that g ,= b 1?
Sometimes it may be hard to count all occurrences of some
event. The following easy fact might help:
Let A be any event. Then

Prob(A happens) + Prob(A doesnt happen) = 1
Hence
Prob(A happens) = 1 Prob(A doesnt happen)
Example 8.1.5 Toss a coin 3 times.
Prob(at least one head) + Prob(no heads) = 1.
Thus Prob(at least one head) = 1 Prob(no heads)
= 1 Prob(TTT) = 1
1
8
=
7
8
Similarly, Prob(at least one tail)
= 1 Prob(HHH) = 1
1
8
=
7
8
Question 8.1.6 A random integer is chosen between 1 and
500 inclusive. What is the probability that the number is not
evenly divisible by 100?
Can relate probability to sets and Venn diagrams:
Write sample space as a set. For example, when rolling a
die, S = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Identify outcomes as sets. For example,
A = x[x is even = 2, 4, 6.
If A and B are events then AB means both events A and
B occur; A B means event A or event B occur.
To calculate probabilities:
write elements in correct places on the Venn diagram
count the number of elements in each place
divide counts by size of sample space to get probability
Often, rather than listing all of the elements in each place on
the diagram, just write the number of elements in each place.
Question 8.1.7 In a MATH1040 class, 15 students hate maths
and 18 students pass; 13 students both hate maths and pass.
Every student hates maths or passes (or both).
(1) Write this on a Venn diagram.
(2) How many students are there in the classs?
(3) What is the probability that a randomly chosen student
both hates maths and fails?
8.2 Principle of inclusion/exclusion
If A and B are events then

Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B) Prob(A B).
Question 8.2.1 Use Venn diagrams to justify the principle of
inclusion/exclusion.
Question 8.2.2 A fair die is rolled; what is the probability
that the number is even or is evenly divisible by 3?
Question 8.2.3 Out of 100 MATH1040 students: 83 hate
maths, of whom 37 are female; 17 like maths, of whom 12 are
female. Find the probability that a randomly chosen person:
(1) is female or hates MATH1040?
(2) is male or hates MATH1040?
(3) is male or likes MATH1040?
(4) both likes and hates MATH1040?
Mutually exclusive events

If AB = , then A and B are said to be mutually exclusive.
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then Prob(A B) = 0.
Hence Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B).
'
If A
1
, A
2
, . . . A
n
are all mutually exclusive events (so at most
one of the events can occur), then
Prob(A
1
A
2
...A
n
) = Prob(A
1
)+Prob(A
2
)+. . .+Prob(A
n
)
Question 8.2.4 MATH1040 students have a 15% chance of
receiving a grade of 7, a 15% chance of a 6, 20% chance of 5,
35% of 4, and 5% for each of 3, 2 and 1. If 4 or more is a
pass, and a 3 is a conceded pass, nd the probability that a
randomly chosen student will:
(1) fail the course? (grade 3)
(2) obtain a grade of 6 or 7?
(3) pass the course, or gain a conceded pass?
(4) pass the course, or gain a grade of 7?
Question 8.2.5 What is wrong with this reasoning: in Ques-
tion 8.2.4, the probability of a student getting a grade of 5
is 0.2. Hence in any group of 5 students, the probability of
someone getting a grade of 5 is 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 =
5 0.2 = 1.0, so it is guaranteed to happen. In any group of
6 students, the probability is 6 0.2 = 1.2.
8.3 Conditional probability
Sometimes extra information eectively reduces the size of the
sample space.
Question 8.3.1 A die is rolled. Find the probability that the
number showing is 5. Find the probability that the number
showing is 5, given that the number is odd.
Let A and B be events in sample space S with Prob(B) >

0. The conditional probability that A occurs given that B
occurs is denoted Prob(A[B). A formula for calculating this
probability is:
Prob(A[B) =
Prob(A B)
Prob(B)
.
Question 8.3.2 Use Venn diagrams to justify the rule for
conditional probability.
Question 8.3.3 Referring to Question 8.2.4, nd the proba-
bility that a randomly chosen student will:
(1) obtain a grade of 7?
(2) obtain a grade of 7 given that they pass the course?
(3) pass the course, given that their grade is an even number?
We can rearrange the formula for conditional probability:
Product rule for probability.

If A and B are events, then
Prob(AB) = Prob(A)Prob(B[A) = Prob(B)Prob(A[B)
Question 8.3.4 10% of people have a disease. A medical test
is positive on sick people 95% of the time, but never on healthy
people. What proportion of people are sick but test negative?
Question 8.3.5 Two cards are drawn from a pack, without
replacement. What is the probability that both cards are
aces? (Hint: let A be the event the rst card is an ace, and
B be the event the second card is an ace.)
Question 8.3.6 Repeat Question 8.3.4, but assume the rst
card is replaced before the second is drawn.
Often, two or more events have no impact on each other: one
event occurring does not make the other event more or less
likely to occur.
'
Independent events.
Two events A and B are independent if and only if
Prob(A[B) = Prob(A) and Prob(B[A) = Prob(B)
That is, the probability of A happening, given that B has
happened, is identical to the probability that A happens.
If two or more events are independent, then there is an easy rule
for calculating the probability that they all occur:
Product rule for independent events.

If A and B are independent events, then the product rule
becomes
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) Prob(B)
If A
1
, A
2
, . . . A
n
are all independent events, then
Prob(A
1
A
2
...A
n
) = Prob(A
1
)Prob(A
2
). . .Prob(A
n
)
It is usually easy to see if two events are independent; we
will concentrate on this type of event
examples of independent events include: tossing a coin
twice; rolling two dice; drawing one card out of each of 2
packs; tossing a coin and rolling a die.
examples of non-independent events include: drawing 2
cards from one pack without replacement; rolling a biased
die twice; studying for an exam and passing the exam.
Question 8.3.7 A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the
probability of obtaining a 6 on the die and a head on the coin.
Check your answer by counting outcomes.
Question 8.3.8 A coin is tossed 6 times. Find probability of:
(1) 6 heads in a row.
(2) 5 heads followed by 1 tail.
(3) Exactly 5 heads in consecutive tosses.
(4) 6 heads in a row, given the rst 5 tosses are heads.
Question 8.3.9 Four people each secretly and randomly
choose a number between 1 and 10 inclusive. What is the
probability that they:
(1) All choose the number 5?
(2) All choose an even number?
(3) All choose the same number?
Question 8.3.10 Refer to Question 8.2.5. What is the prob-
ability that in a group of ve random students:
(1) at least one student has a grade of 5?
(2) every student has a grade of 5?
(3) every student passes?
Question 8.3.11 Three people each have a bag of marbles,
with 2 red, 1 yellow and 3 blue marbles per bag. Each person
chooses a marble at random from their bag. What is the
probability that:
(1) All marbles are red?
(2) No marbles are blue?
(3) All marbles are the same colour?
(4) Two marbles are red and one is blue?
Question 8.3.12 (same as Question 8.1.3.) Roll two dice.
Find the probability that: (dont list the sample space)
(1) Both dice roll a 6?
(2) At least one die rolls a 6?
(3) Neither die rolls a 6?
(4) Both numbers are even?
(5) Both dice show the same number?
Question 8.3.13 A famous problem in probability: the Monty
Hall problem. You have won a TV game show, and take home
whatever is behind one of three identical doors; behind one
there is $100,000, behind each of the others there is a goat.
You choose a door, and the host, who knows where the money
is, opens one of the other two doors, exposing a goat. The
host then gives you the option of changing your door choice if
you want to.
Should you change, or not, or doesnt it matter? (Note: as-
sume you want money more than you want the goat.)
working space on next page
Working space for Question 8.3.13:
8.4 Gold Lotto
Wouldnt it be nice....
Lets talk about gold lotto.
This is not examinable, but is probably interesting.
Its also a useful demonstration of probability.
Somewhere I saw a description of gold lotto as a weekly
tax on ignorance: lets see why.
The TV ads say Would a million dollars make a
dierence?, and wouldnt it be nice to win a million.
But they dont talk about your chances of winning, and
what you expect to get back even if you do win.
To win Division 1 in Gold Lotto, you need to correctly
choose six numbers out of a possible 45
It can be shown that there are 8,145,060 dierent
combinations of 6 numbers out of 45
Thus, each time you enter, there is exactly one combination
of numbers which will result in you winning Division 1.
we now know that if you play a single game, the probability
of that game winning is
1
8, 145, 060
= 0.000000122774
this is a very small number!
Most people seem to think that theyll win Division 1
sometime, its just a matter of waiting until they do.
Maybe not this year or next year, but sometime.
Lets put this chance of winning in perspective:
1. if you have 100 games every week, youd expect to win
Division 1 once every 1500 years
2. if you have 150,000 games every week, youd expect to
win once per year. Of course, your entry fees would be
$60,000 per week
3. each year, about 25 Queenslanders win Division 1. Each
year, about 300 Queenslanders die in road accidents.
Very roughly, you are about 10 times more likely to die
in a car crash than you are to win Division 1
4. if you have 75 games per week, then your chances of
winning Division 1 in a year are about 1 in 2000. If you
are a male aged between 15 and 24, then you have about
a 2 in 2000 chance of dying in a given year. If you are a
female in that age bracket, you have about a 1 in 2000
chance of dying in a given year.
If you try to beat the system and put in lots of entries,
then for every $1,000,000 you spend on entry fees, you
expect on average to win back about $500,000. That is,
your expected payouts are only about 50% of what you
spend. The government keeps about 50% in tax.
Every combination of six numbers is equally likely to occur.
If you select the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 then you have exactly
the same chance of winning as does any other combination.
There is nothing you can do to increase your chances of
your number selection coming up.
Even if you happen to win Division 1, the expected prize is
about $250,000. Certainly much less than $1,000,000.
Powerball is much worse: you need to choose 5 numbers
correctly out of 45, plus correctly pick the powerball
Thus you need to choose 5 numbers correctly out of 45,
plus one number out of a dierent group of 45.
Using some probability, it can be shown that if you play a
single game, the probability of that game winning is
1
54, 979, 200
= 0.0000000181887
this is a very very small number!
We can put this into perspective:
1. if you have 100 games every week, youd expect to win
Division 1 once every 10,000 years
2. if you have about 1,000,000 games every week, youd
expect to win once per year.
3. Your odds of winning powerball are almost exactly equal
to this:
the organisers of an olympic marathon select a secret
point somewhere on the course
they then give you a pin, and tell you to go and stick
the pin somewhere on the course.
If the place you stick the pin exactly matches their
secret point, then you have won Division 1.
Have you noticed that in many weeks, there is a powerball
jackpot?
This means that (once again) no-one happened to win.
The TV ads sell this as a good thing!
So why do people play?
Because:
people dont know the true probability.
the advertisements are slick, sexy and appealing.
everyone wants to win a million dollars.
someone has to win; why not me?
the cost of entry is low, so why not try?
there is an entertainment value.
we all believe that somehow, we are inherently luckier than the next person.
we all believe that something bad wont happen to me, but that
something good will.
Is there nothing I can do to improve my chances?
All combinations of numbers are equally likely. You cannot
do anything to increase your chances of winning, besides
playing more games.
However, there is something you can do: try to ensure that
if your selection of numbers comes up, then you are the
only person who wins Division 1. This will ensure that you
dont share your payout with anyone else.
Thus you are just as likely (or unlikely) to win as anyone
else, but if you do happen to win, youll get a big payout.
The way to do this is to choose numbers which no-one else
will choose, or at least are unlikely to be chosen.
Lots of people choose birthdates: try numbers larger than
31. People think patterns are more unlikely to come up (we
know this is false). So choose a pattern of numbers, all
larger than 31.
If I ever was weak enough to enter Lotto, Id choose the
numbers 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.
9 Trigonometry
Angles, degrees, radians, and the trig functions sin, cos and
tan form the basis of geometry, architecture and civil
engineering, physics and surveying.
Trig functions are also used in creating models of
populations and economic cycles.
Fundamental to military applications, navigation and
methods of transport (including planes, boats and
spacecraft).
Well see two ways of measuring angles: degrees and
radians.
Well encounter trig functions and angles less than 90
, then
extend the concepts to angles greater than 90
. Well solve
some practical problems, to see some uses for trig functions.
Well also examine the graphs of the trig functions and
explain their appearance.
In the calculus sections, well return to trig functions.
Introduction to trigonometry
Radians
Evaluating sin, cos and tan
Angles bigger than /2 (90
)
Graphs of the functions sin x, cos x and tan x
9.1 Introduction to trigonometry
You should be familiar with each of the following:
Angles are frequently measured in degrees, for example 90
is a right angle.
The angles in a triangle add up to 180
.
The hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle is the longest
side, opposite the 90
angle.
An acute angle is one less than 90
, while an obtuse angle is

one more than 90
, that is, more than a right angle.

An equilateral triangle has all three sides the same length,
and all three angles are 60
.
An isosceles triangle has two sides the same length, and the
two angles opposite these sides are equal angles.
a
b
c
In a right-angled triangle:
a = hypotenuse
sin =
opposite
hypotenuse
=
b
a
cos =
adjacent
hypotenuse
=
c
a
tan =
opposite
adjacent
=
sin
cos
=
b
c
Notation: For sin x sin x, write sin
2
x
[NOTE: sin
2
x and sin x
2
are quite dierent!! Safer to write
sin(x
2
) for the latter in fact].
Similarly, cos x cos x is written cos
2
x
Refer to previous example. Pythagoras Theorem gives us
a
2
= b
2
+c
2
Have sin
2
x + cos
2
x =
b
a
2
+
c
a
2
=
b
2
a
2
+
c
2
a
2
=
b
2
+c
2
a
2
=
a
2
a
2
= 1
Thus, for any angle x, sin
2
x + cos
2
x = 1
Useful when simplifying expressions involving sin, cos and tan.
9.2 Radians
Clearly, 4 lots of 90
give a full rotation. Thus, a full circle

represents 360
and 1
is 1/360 of a full rotation.

Degrees are simply a unit of measurement for a rotation,
just as cm are a unit of measurement of length.
It is possible to measure length using dierent units: for
example, 12 inches is about the same length as 30cm.
Sometimes, it is useful to use dierent units for angles.
The new unit is called radians. In a circle of radius r, one
radian is dened to be the angle which leads to an arc of
length r on the circumference of the circle.
r
r
1 radian
Can convert from degrees to radians, and vice versa
Circumference of circle is 2r, so there are 2 radians in a
circle. There are 360
in a circle, so
2 radians = 360
, so 1 radian =
360
2
degrees.
Example 9.2.1 Writing some angles as degrees and radians:
360
= 2 radians
180
= radians
90
= /2 radians
45
= /4 radians
60
= /3 radians
30
= /6 radians
1 radian =
360
2
= 57.3
approx.
The conversion rules are:
Convert degrees to radians, multiply by /180

Convert radians to degrees, multiply by 180/
Question 9.2.2 Percival the pieman cuts a piece of pie for his
son Ptolemy. The slice is dened by 1 radian, and the pie has
radius 10cm. Find the surface area of Ptolemys piece?
9.3 Evaluating sin, cos and tan
You will usually need to use a calculator, or a book of
tables, to calculate trig values.
There are however two very useful triangles which can help
to nd some common trig values.
Example 9.3.1 Draw an isosceles triangle with one angle
90
and other angles 45
. For convenience, let the two equal

sides be of length one.
45
45
1
1
Pythagoras theorem gives us the length of the hypotenuse.
c
2
= a
2
+b
2
= 1
2
+ 1
2
= 2
c =
2
From diagram, can work out sin, cos and tan values for 45
sin 45
=
opposite
hypotenuse
=
1
2
cos 45
=
adjacent
hypotenuse
=
1
2
tan 45
=
opposite
adjacent
=
1
1
= 1
Example 9.3.2 Draw an equilateral triangle with all sides of
length 2 and so each angle 60
. Draw line from top of triangle

to centre of base, giving two right angle triangles.
30
60
1 1
2 2
Again using Pythagoras, can nd length of middle line.
c
2
= a
2
+b
2
so b
2
= c
2
a
2
= 2
2
1
2
= 3 so b =
3
We can now nd sin, cos, tan values for 30
and 60
sin 30
=
opposite
hypotenuse
=
1
2
cos 30
=
adjacent
hypotenuse
=
3
2
tan 30
=
opposite
adjacent
=
1
3
sin 60
=
opposite
hypotenuse
=
3
2
cos 60
=
adjacent
hypotenuse
=
1
2
tan 60
=
opposite
adjacent
=
3
1
=
3
In this course, well tell you what you need to know, except
possibly for a very few special cases which you could
reasonably be expected to know.
Question 9.3.3 Lawrence the Lumberjack is standing near
the tallest tree in the world (a Californian redwood), and he
needs to measure the height of the tree. From a point on the
ground 70m from the base of the tree, the angle of elevation
of the top of the tree is 60
. How high is the tree? (Use

tan 60 = 1.73).
Question 9.3.4 Lawrence is going to cut down the tree. His
wife Loretta wants to stand so that when the tree falls, the
top just misses her. How far from the tree should she stand,
and what is the angle between her and the top of the tree
(before it is cut down). Hence deduce the value of tan .
9.4 Angles bigger than /2 (90
)
Thus far, we have mostly looked at angles between 0 and
90
(equivalently, between 0 and /2).

The trig ratios sin, cos and tan have only been dened for
angles in this range.
Of course, it is possible to have angles larger than /2
(remember, these are called obtuse angles).
Given that we can have such angles, it is useful to extend
the denition of sin, cos and tan to the larger angles.
Actually, its incredibly useful to do so. If you do more
maths, youll see that arbitrary functions can be written as
a combination of trig functions.
Angles are measured in the x, y plane, anticlockwise round
from the positive x-axis.
Question 9.4.1 Mark 135
, 180
, 240
,360
, 450
and 30
Having extended angles to larger than 90
, we need to extend
trig functions to angles 90
. Cant use right-angled triangles

any more (as no such triangle has any angle larger than 90
).
Instead, draw a circle with radius 1 centred on the origin. (This
is the unit circle, dened in Section 131.)
Q=(x,y)
P=(x,y)
x
y
Each point P on the circumference in the rst quadrant has

coordinate (x, y) (left diagram).
Draw a right-angled triangle from origin, to (x, 0), to (x, y)
and back to origin. Call the angle at the origin.
lengths of the three sides are x (horizontal), y (vertical) and
1 (hypotenuse; it is the radius of the circle).
Clearly, sin = y and cos = x. Thus these two trig ratios
equal the coordinates of the point. Also, as P is on the
circle, we have x
2
+y
2
= 1
2
, so sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1. Also, we
can dene tan = sin / cos = y/x
This exactly matches the denition of the trig functions
from before, but now we can extend the denition to any
point on the circle (right diagram).
Thus, given any point Q = (x, y) on the circle, we can draw
the angle as above, obtaining any angle between 0
and
360
, and we have sin = y and cos = x

This gives values of the trig functions for points in any
quadrant, and the sign of the trig function value depends on
the quadrant that the angle is in.
Note: values of sin and cos are always in the range [1, 1].
Look at each quadrant, and see where sin and cos are
positive and negative. It is easy to remember which: just
look at the coordinates of points in that quadrant!
There is a quick way to remember which trig values are
positive and where. It is called the CAST method. Draw
a diagram to illustrate:
A S
T C
A in the rst quadrant means that for angles here, All trig
functions (sin, cos and tan) are positive.
S in the second quadrant means that for angles here, only
sin is positive.
T in the third quadrant means that for angles here, only
tan is positive.
C in the fourth quadrant means that for angles here, only
cos is positive.
There is a special relationship between angles in quadrants
2, 3 and 4 and angles in the rst quadrant.
Example 9.4.2 sin

6
= 0.5, cos

6
= 0.866
sin
5
6
= 0.5, cos
5
6
= 0.866
sin
7
6
= 0.5, cos
7
6
= 0.866
sin
11
6
= 0.5, cos
11
6
= 0.866
9.5 Graphs of sin x, cos x, tan x
Weve dened sin, cos and tan for any angles. Thus sin, cos
and tan can be thought of as functions of the given angle.
What will the graphs of sin and cos look like?
range is [1, 1]
they must cycle: that is, sin(x + 360) = sin x, and
cos(x + 360) = cos(x)
they must each be positive and negative in relevant
quadrants
values in each quadrant must match values in other
quadrants (possibly with the signs changed).
Graph of sin x on x [0, 2]:
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
Graph of cos x on x [0, 2]:
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
Graph of tan x on x [0, 2]:
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
y
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
1
0.5
0.5
1
6 4 2 2 4 6
x
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
x
The basic sin and cos functions given above can be modied
and used in conjunction with other functions.
For example, we could plot f
1
(x) = a sin x, f
2
(x) = sin bx or
even f
3
(x) = a sin bx.
Each of these has many properties in common with original
functions.
They dier in their amplitude, which is the vertical
distance between the middle level to the highest (or lowest
point), and in their frequency, which is the number of
complete waves in a given length.
Be familiar with the impact of various values for a and b.
Graph of sin x and 2 sin x on x [2, 2]:
2
1
1
2
6 4 2 2 4 6
x
Graph of cos x and cos 2x on x [2, 2]:
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
6 4 2 2 4 6
x
Graph of sin x and cos x on x [0, 2]:
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
10 Limits
There are two main uses for limits. One is for analysing the
behaviour of certain functions and drawing complicated
graphs, and the other is as a basis for nding the slope of
an arbitrary function at any point.
Until now, most functions and graphs we have considered
are well-behaved. Graphs have been fairly easy to draw,
and everything makes sense. However, there are many
functions which behave strangely in certain regions: we
might want to consider what happens as we get close to a
given point or region.
The other main use of limits is as a basis for calculus.
Limits are used to develop a technique for nding the rate
of change (or slope) of an arbitrary graph.
This is one of the most useful applications of mathematics.
For example, marginal cost and marginal revenue curves
from economics rely on it.
well spend most of the rest of semester using this material.
Introduction to limits
A special limit
Limits and slopes
10.1 Introduction to limits
Think back to the graph of f(x) =
1
x
.
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
y
10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10
x
At most places, this graph is not too hard to draw.
However, if you look at it, funny things happen at the
right-hand and left-hand ends, and at x = 0
As x becomes large and positive, the graph becomes
arbitrarily close to 0. Similarly, as x becomes large and
negative, the graph again becomes very close to 0
We also know that 0 is not in the domain of f (that is, f
cannot be evaluated at x = 0), but what happens as x gets
close to 0?
We want to talk about what happens as we approach
certain values of x.
to do this, we introduce limits.
The notation lim
xa
f(x) = v, pronounced the limit as x
approaches a of f(x) equals v, means that as x becomes
close to the value a, then the value of f(x) becomes
arbitrarily close to the value v.
a can be a specic value, or . If it is , then we are
looking at what happens as x gets arbitrarily large (or large
and negative).
If v is a given value, then we say that the limit exists, and
equals v. If v is , we say that the limit does not exist,
or that it is innite.
If the limit v exists, note that the function need never
actually attain the value v. It just needs to get arbitrarily
close to v.
We study limits informally.
Example 10.1.1 What happens to f(x) =
2x + 1
x 1
as x
becomes arbitrarily large?
(Note: x ,= 1 as we cant divide by 0).
To help solve this, lets draw a table of values and choose some
progressively larger values for x:
x 2 200 400 1000 100 000
2x + 1 5 401 801 2001 200 001
x 1 1 199 399 999 99 999
f(x) 5 2.015075 2.007519 2.003003 2.00003000
It seems likely that the value of f(x) gets very close to 2.
continued...
Example 10.1.1 (continued) This problem could have been
written as: nd lim
x
2x + 1
x 1
.
Plot f(x) to verify that f gets close to 2. (Pay particular
attention to f for large values of x).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
y
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
x
Example 10.1.2 What happens when x is close to 2 in
f(x) =
x
2
4
x 2
. Note: if x = 2 wed have
0
0
which is undened!
x 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 2 2.001 2.1
x
2
1 2.25 3.61 3.9601 4 4.004 4.41
x
2
4 3 1.75 .39 .0399 0 0.004 .41
x 2 1 .5 .1 .01 0 0.001 .1
f(x) 3 3.5 3.9 3.99 ND 4.001 4.1
(Here ND means NOT DEFINED!)
continued...
Example 10.1.2 (continued) Write
lim
x2
f(x)
= lim
x2
x
2
4
x 2
= lim
x2
(x 2)(x + 2)
x 2
= lim
x2
(x + 2) = 4
The previous examples illustrate two types of limit in which
people are interested: limits as x and limits as as
x v, where v is a specic value.
The rst type of limit is useful for deciding how your graph
looks as x becomes innite (positive or negative). We wont
look any more at this type of problem.
The second type is useful in two primary ways: one is to
determine how a graph looks near a particular point, and
the other is in nding slopes of arbitrary graphs at any
point (commonly called dierentiation).
lim
xa
f(x) = means as x gets very close to a
(so x = a + little bit) or x = (a little bit))
then f(x) gets very close to .
Possibly f(a) does not exist!
Example 10.1.3 Find lim
x3
x
2
9
x + 3
Let f(x) =
x
2
9
x + 3
=
(x 3)(x + 3)
x + 3
Here, provided x + 3 ,= 0 (that is, provided x ,= 3), we can
cancel x + 3 top and bottom, and get this equal to x 3
So f(x) is dened for x = 2.999999999...99.. or for x =
3.0000000000000...0001
(Of course, f(x) is not dened at x = 3).
So lim
x3
f(x) = lim
x3
x
2
9
x + 3
= lim
x3
(x 3) = 6
Question 10.1.4 Find the following limits, if they exist.
(1) lim
x0
2x 1
(2) lim
x2
2x + 4
x + 2
(3) lim
x0
x
2
(4) lim
x3
x 3
x 3
(5) lim
x0
2a +x
a
10.2 A special limit
Think back to composition of functions: given f(x) and g(x), we
can nd f(g(x)) by substituting g(x) into f.
Question 10.2.1 If f(x) = x
2
, nd f(2), f(a) and f(x +h).
Now we can use f(x) and f(x +h) to nd the following limit:
Example 10.2.2 Find lim
h0
f(x +h) f(x)
h
when f(x) = x
2
Now f(x +h) f(x) = (x +h)
2
x
2
= (x
2
+ 2xh +h
2
) x
2
= 2xh +h
2
= h(2x +h)
Hence lim
h0
f(x +h) f(x)
h
= lim
h0
h(2x +h)
h
= lim
h0
(2x +h) = 2x
In the next section, well see that this limit has a special use.
10.3 Limits and slopes
Think back to equations of straight lines, y = mx +c; m is
the gradient or slope of the line.
Recall that we dened m to be the change in y values,
divided by the change in x values. In a straight line, the
gradient is constant over the entire length of the line.
Can also look at slope of other graphs. However, in graphs
other than straight lines, slope is not the same over entire
graph: it will vary from point to point.
We need to nd the instantaneous slope of the graph: that
is, what is the slope of the graph at any given point (rather
than nding the average over an interval).
With straight lines, we chose two points on the line (x
1
, y
1
)
and (x
2
, y
2
), and found the lines using:
slope =
change in y
change in x
=
y
x
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
,
2 2
(x , y )
1 1
(x , y )
change in y
change in x
We can use a similar approach for curves other than
straight lines. Again, we choose two points (x
1
, y
1
) and
(x
2
, y
2
) on the curve, and look at the slope of the straight
line joining those points.
This gives an approximation to the slope of the curve. As
yet, it does not give the exact slope.
(x , y )
1 1
(x , y )
2 2
Because we want the instantaneous slope of the function,
we want the points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) to be close together.
Ideally, we want them to be very close together.
Really, we want them to be arbitrarily close together,
without actually being the same point.
Hang on: this sounds like a limit!
Lets combine these two concepts: we want to look at the
change in y divided by the change in x, and we want this
for two points which are arbitrarily close together.
Lets take a point (x, f(x)) on the graph. Call this point
(x
1
, y
1
).
Now take a point which is a little way away from this
point. Lets move on by a small distance h on the x-axis.
Then (x +h, f(x +h)) is a second point on the curve. Call
this point (x
2
, y
2
).
Now we can calculate the change in y and the change in x
between these two points.
The change in y is y
2
y
1
= f(x +h) f(x) and the
change in x is x
2
x
1
= (x +h) x = h
x x+h
h
f(x+h)f(x)
f(x+h)
f(x)
2
(x ,y )
1 1
(x ,y )
2
Thus the slope of line segment joining these two points is
slope =
change in y
change in x
=
y
x
=
f(x +h) f(x)
h
Now lets move the two points arbitrarily close together.
That is, we are letting h 0.
As this happens, the lines slope gets closer and closer to
the slope of the graph at the point x.
In the limit, this gives the exact slope of the graph at any
point on the graph.
More formally, if
lim
h0
f(x +h) f(x)
h
exists, then the slope of the graph at the point x is given by
the limit.
this formula is given on your exam paper.
Make sure you know what is meant by f(x) and f(x +h).
f(x) will always be given.
you can get f(x +h) from f(x) by replacing all
occurrences of x with (x +h) (in brackets!)
To nd f(x +h) f(x), remember to subtract all of f(x).
Question 10.3.1 In each case nd f(x+h) and f(x+h)f(x).
(1) f(x) = 3x
(2) f(x) = 3x + 4
(3) f(x) = 3x 4
(4) f(x) = x
2
(5) f(x) = 1/x
Now we can use the limit formula to nd the slope of a straight
line.
Example 10.3.2 Show, from rst principles, that the slope
of a straight line y = mx +c at any point is m.
Solution: We are given that y = mx + c so f(x) = mx + c.
Then:
lim
h0
f(x +h) f(x)
h
= lim
h0
(m(x +h) +c) (mx +c)
h
= lim
h0
mx +mh +c mx c
h
= lim
h0
mh
h
= m
Using similar techniques:
Question 10.3.3 Find the slope of the graph y = c, c con-
stant, at any point. Explain how this matches what we already
know.
Question 10.3.4 Show from rst principles that the slope of
the graph y = x
2
at any point is 2x. What is the slope at
x = 0, x = 1 and x = 1? Verify, from a rough sketch of the
graph, that these slopes are plausible.
the graph y = 3x
2
+ 2x + 4 at any point is 6x + 2.
Question 10.3.6 What is the slope of the graph y = 3x
2
+
2x +c at any point, where c is a constant.
the graph y = 1/x at any point (x ,= 0) is 1/(x
2
). Find the
slope at the points x = 5, x = 1, x = 1 and x = 5. Find
out where the graph is increasing, and where it is decreasing.
Draw a rough sketch to verify.
11 Derivatives and rates of change
Derivatives provide the ability to nd the slope of an
arbitrary function at any point.
nding slopes of functions is surprisingly important, with
important applications in economics, engineering, physics
and so on. Well discuss some major uses in Section 13.
Weve already seen how limits can be used to nd the slope
of a function. Now we extend this to dene derivatives and
see how to nd them
will solve a number of simple dierentiation problems, then
encounter some rules which allow more complex functions
to be dierentiated
Pay careful attention to all of this material. Most of what
we do from now on hinges critically on this. If you get lost,
youll be in trouble for the rest of semester!
It looks dierent to what we have seen before, and might be
a bit confusing at rst, but its really not at all hard.
Dierentiation and derivatives
Rules for dierentiation
Product rule
Chain rule
Quotient rule
11.1 Dierentiation and derivatives
Finding slopes of functions is a very common task!
Because it is done so often, there are special terms and
notations for describing it. Be familiar with these terms!
Dierentiation
Given a function f(x), the derivative of f(x) at a point x = a
is found by considering
lim
h0
f(a +h) f(a)
h
.
If this limit exists, then we say that f(x) is dierentiable at
x = a. The derived function, or derivative, written f
(a),
is dened by the limit given above. The process of nding the
derivative is called dierentiation.
Sometimes, derivatives do not exist at certain points. For
example, what is the slope of the graph y =
1
x
at x = 0?
For the purposes of this subject, we will assume that the
derivatives do exist whenever we talk about them.
Note that the derivative of f(x) is written f
(x),
pronounced f dashed x, or even the derivative of f.
There is another way of denoting derivatives, based on
approximating slope with a straight line between two
points:
slope =
change in y
change in x
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
y
x
In the limit, as h 0, this approximation becomes closer
and closer to the slope.
is the capital Greek letter delta, which conventionally is
used to mean change in.
For small changes, people tend to use a lower-case delta
instead, namely
Thus the slope is given by
y
x
In the limit, as h 0, we write
dy
dx
instead of
y
x
. This is
to remind us that we are working in the limit.
Then, given a function y = f(x), we can write the
derivative of this either as f
(x) or as
dy
dx
. They both mean
the same thing.
Be careful with the notation
dy
dx
: this is not a fraction.
Instead, it is a single entity. The ds do not cancel, and it is
not dy divided by dx. It is pronounced dy dx, and means
the derivative.
The y means that y is the function being dierentiated, and
the x means that dierentiation is with respect to x.
A similar notation is: if y = 3x
2
+ 2x + 1, we can write
dy
dx
,
or
d
dx
(3x
2
+ 2x + 1)
In summary: the derivative of a function gives the slope of
the function at any point. It can be calculated using limits,
as above.
The derivative is itself a function, so we can calculate slope
at a particular point x
by substituting the value of x
into
the derivative function.
Thus there is a subtle dierence between the derivative of a
function, and the value of the derivative of the function at
a given point: the rst is itself a function, whereas the
second is a value.
Question 11.1.1 Soon we will see that if f(x) = x
2
, then
f
(x) = 2x. (You could show this using limits.) Find f
(0),
f
(1), f
(1), f
(2) and f
(2). Verify that this is plausible

from a rough sketch.
It is vital that you understand the relationship between a
function and its derivative.
Question 11.1.2 The following gure shows the function
f(x) = x
2
+4, and its derivative f
(x) = 2x. Identify which is

which. Then explain the relationships between f and f
when:
(1) f
is 0.
(2) f
is positive.
(3) f
is negative.
(4) f
changes from negative to positive.

6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
f(x) = x
3
+2x5, and its derivative f
(x) = 3x
2
+2. Identify
which is which. Then explain:
(1) What happens because f
is never 0.
(2) What happens to f when f
is positive.
(3) Why f
is never negative and what that means for f.

(4) Why f gets steeper as x becomes large and positive.
20
10
0
10
20
2 1 1 2
x
f(x) = sin x, and its derivative f
(x) = cos x, on x [0, 2].

Identify which is which. Then explain the relationships be-
tween f and f
when:
(1) f
is 0.
(2) f
is positive.
(3) f
is negative.
(4) f
changes from positive to negative.

(5) What is the steepest slope of sin x?
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
11.2 Rules for dierentiation
Finding derivatives is a common task.
Could use limits rule each time a derivative is needed, but
that would clearly be a long and slow process.
Happily, there are a number of useful rules which allow
derivatives to be calculated more easily.
Can prove each of the following rules, using limits.
When asked to nd a derivative, unless the question
specically says using limits or from rst principles, you
can use any of these rules.
SUMMARY: Derivatives of Common Functions
Some of these we have already derived, others you should
believe (eg if f(x) = sin(x) then f
(x) = cos(x)).
f(x) f
(x)
mx +c m
k (constant) 0
x
2
2x
x
3
3x
2
x
n
(n ,= 0) nx
n1
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
That table is very important! Youll use those rules a lot!
Now we are going to see how to nd derivatives easily.
The following rule is extremely important:
If y = x
n
then
dy
dx
= nx
n1
, any real number n ,= 0
Example 11.2.1 Examples of using this rule include:
If y = x
2
then n = 2, so
dy
dx
= 2 x
21
= 2x
1
= 2x.
If y = x
3
then n = 3, so
dy
dx
= 3 x
31
= 3x
2
.
If y = x then n = 1, so
dy
dx
= 1 x
11
= 1x
0
= 1.
If y = x
4
then
dy
dx
= 4x
3
.
If y = x
9
then
dy
dx
= 9x
8
.
If y =
1
x
then y = x
1
so n = 1.
Hence
dy
dx
= 1 x
11
= x
2
=
1
x
2
.
If y = x
2
then
dy
dx
= 2x
3
=
2
x
3
.
If y =

x then y = x
1/2
so n = 1/2.
Hence
dy
dx
=
1
2
x
1/21
=
1
2
x
1/2
=
1
2
x
.
The next rule involves a constant multiplied by a function:
the derivative equals the constant times the derivative of the
function.
d
dx
(y) =
dy
dx
where is any constant
If y = 4x
2
then
dy
dx
= 4 2 x
21
= 8x
1
= 8x.
If y = 5x
3
then
dy
dx
= 5 3 x
31
= 15x
2
.
If y = 7x then
dy
dx
= 7 1 x
11
= 7x
0
= 7.
If y = 6x
4
then
dy
dx
= 24x
3
.
If y =
x
9
9
then
dy
dx
= x
8
.
If y =
4
x
then
dy
dx
= 4 x
11
= 4x
2
=
4
x
2
.
The next rule involves the sum of two functions: to nd the
derivative of the sum of two functions, add the derivatives of
each function. The rule can be extended to the sum of any
number of functions.
d
dx
(y +z) =
dy
dx
+
dz
dx
where y, z are functions
If y = x
2
+ 3x then
dy
dx
= 2x + 3.
If y = 3x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 4x + 1 then
dy
dx
= 9x
2
+ 4x + 4.
If y = 6x + 6x
2
then
dy
dx
= 6 +
12
x
3
.
If y = sin x + 4 then
dy
dx
= cos x.
If y = cos x + 3x
4
then
dy
dx
= sin x + 12x
3
.
The same rule also applies for the dierence of two
functions: to nd the derivative of the dierence of two
functions, subtract the derivatives.
d
dx
(y z) =
dy
dx

dz
dx
where y, z are functions
If y = x
2
3x then
dy
dx
= 2x 3.
If y = x
3
3x
2
then
dy
dx
= 3x
2
6x.
If y = 2x 4
1
x
then
dy
dx
= 2 +
1
x
2
.
You need to be able to nd derivatives very rapidly.
Question 11.2.5 Find
dy
dx
when
(a) y = x
3
(b) y = x
2
+ 1
(c) y = x
2
+ 4x + 3
(d) y = 2x
3
+ 4x
2
+ 3x 5
(e) y = x
2
x +
x
(f) y = 1/x
(g) y = sin x + cos x
(h) y = 4 sin x +x
4
(i) y =
1
x
11.3 Product rule
There are several additional important rules for nding
derivatives.
The rst rule relates to nding the derivative of the
product of two functions.
The answer is NOT just the product of the derivatives!
Product rule
If y = uv, where u and v are themselves functions involving
x, then we dierentiate y as follows:
d
dx
(uv) =
du
dx
.v +u.
dv
dx
.
Another way of writing this is: given functions u and v,
(u.v)
= u
.v +u.v
Example 11.3.1 Here are some functions which must be dif-

ferentiated using the product rule:
y = (3x + 4) sin x (so u = 3x + 4 and v = sin x).
y = sin xcos x (so u = sin x and v = cos x).
y = (3x
2
+ 2x + 4)(2x
4
9) (so u = 3x
2
+ 2x + 4 and
v = 2x
4
9).
Whenever you need to nd the derivative of something which is
the product of two other functions, you need to use the product
rule! It will be given on your exam paper.
Question 11.3.2 Let f(x) = x
3
x
4
.
(a) Find f
(x) by expanding f fully, then dierentiating.

(b) Find f
(x) using the product rule. Verify that your answer

matches Part (a).
(c) Finally, verify that it is not correct to just let the deriva-
tive of the product be the product of the derivatives.
Question 11.3.3 If f(x) = (x
2
1)(2x +1), nd f
(x) in two
ways. First, use the product rule. Second, expand f(x) fully,
then dierentiate. Verify that both methods produce the same
answer.
Example 11.3.4 Let f(x) = x
2
. sin x. Find f
(x).
Let f(x) = u.v, where u = x
2
and v = sin x. So
f
(x) = u
v +uv
=
d
dx
(u).v +u.
d
dx
(v)
= 2x. sin x +x
2
. cos x
Rules for dierentiation we have seen so far include:
1.
d
dx
(x
n
) = nx
n1
2. (f +g)
= f
+g
3. (kf)
= kf
(if k is a constant)
4. (uv)
= u
.v +u.v
(if u, v are functions).

We now introduce two more rules.
11.4 Chain rule
Question 11.4.1 If f(x) = (x
3
+ 1)
2
, nd f
(x) by rst ex-

panding fully. Next, let u = x
3
+ 1 and see what happens.
In this example with f = u
2
and u = x
3
+ 1, does
f
(x) = 2u = 2(x
3
+ 1)? NO!
To dierentiate functions similar to the previous one, we
need a new rule, called the chain rule:
Chain rule
Given y as a function of x, if we write y as a function of u(x),
then
dy
dx
=
dy
du
.
du
dx
This is sometimes called the composite function rule.
Dont be scared of the chain rule: it can be described as
working from the outside, going inwards
Youre given the formula for the chain rule on your exam.
Well only see a few special functions which require the
chain rule. These are functions like:
sin(. . . ), cos(. . . )
(. . . )
power
where . . . means something involving x.
Example 11.4.2
Here are some functions which require the chain rule:
(2x
2
+ 3x + 1)
4
sin(x
3
)
cos(x + 1)
cos(2x + 1)
sin 2x
cos 2x
(also quotient rule; well see it soon).
Example 11.4.3 Find the derivative of y = (x
3
+ 1)
2
.
Solution: Let u = x
3
+ 1.
Thus y = u
2
and
du
dx
= 3x
2
. From the chain rule,
dy
dx
=
dy
du
.
du
dx
= 2u.
du
dx
= 2u.3x
2
= 2(x
3
+ 1).3x
2
= 6x
2
(x
3
+ 1)
We can check this directly:
y = (x
3
+ 1)
2
= (x
3
+ 1)(x
3
+ 1) = x
6
+ 2x
3
+ 1,
so
dy
dx
= 6x
5
+ 6x
2
, which matches above.
Question 11.4.4 Repeat previous example, working directly
from the outside, going inwards.
Example 11.4.5
y = sin(x
3
). Find
dy
dx
.
Put: y = sin u, where u = x
3
. (Can nd
dy
du
.)
So y = y(u(x)) where y(u) = sin u, and u(x) = x
3
.
dy
dx
=
dy
du
.
du
dx
Here,
dy
du
= cos u and
du
dx
= 3x
2
.
So
dy
dx
=
dy
du
du
dx
= (cos u).(3x
2
)
= 3x
2
. cos u
= 3x
2
cos(x
3
).
Question 11.4.6 Find the derivative of cos(3x
2
+ 4)
Question 11.4.7 Find the derivative of (1 + 2x)
28
11.5 Quotient rule
The last dierentiation rule well cover is called the quotient
rule: it allows us to dierentiate functions of the form
f(x) =
u
v
Quotient rule
If u and v are functions of x, then
d
dx
u
v
=
du
dx
.v u.
dv
dx
v
2
(Dierentiate the top, times the bottom, minus the top times
the bottom dierentiated, all over the bottom squared!).
Question 11.5.1 Let f(x) =
(x + 1)
x
. Dierentiate this in
two ways. First, simplify f and dierentiate directly. Second,
use the quotient rule. Verify that you get the same answer
each time.
x
2
x + 1
; nd f
(x)
12 Applications of derivatives
Knowing the slope (derivative) of a function gives a lot of
useful information about the function, including:
where the function is increasing or decreasing
where the function has peaks or troughs
this information can be used in a number of important
practical ways:
nding peaks and troughs allows the function value to
be maximised or minimised, leading to optimal values
useful in many production and economic (prot and
cost) problems
physical problems involving velocity, displacement and
acceleration
We will study a number of applications. All arise directly
from properties of the slope of a function.
Make sure you are quite familiar with dierentiation, as we
will continually apply the skills and rules developed in
Section 12.
Tangent Lines
Physical interpretation of derivatives
Second derivatives
Local maxima and minima
Some practical problems
12.1 Tangent Lines
Given a curve, we can nd a tangent line to the curve at a
given point.
A tangent line has the same slope as the curve at the
given point, and touches the curve at that point.
From a diagram can see that the tangent line touches the
curve at exactly one point near to that point:
curve
tangent line
We can nd the tangent to a curve at a given point by the
following procedure:
Finding tangent lines

1. nd the derivative of the function dening the curve
2. nd the slope of the curve at the given point, by substi-
tuting the given value of x into the derivative
3. the tangent is a straight line: you have the gradient and
a point on the line, so you can nd the equation of the
tangent line.
The last step of the previous process uses techniques which are
familiar: we have been doing that for months!
Question 12.1.1 Roughly sketch the graph of f(x) = x
2
+
2x 4: Find the equation of the tangent line to f(x) at the
point (1, 1). Find the equation of the tangent line at the
point (1, 5). Sketch the tangent lines on the graph.
12.2 Physical interpretation of derivatives
Recall that the derivative of a function gives the slope of
the function.
We commenced talking about derivatives by considering the
change in y values divided by the changes in x values.
Lets plot some physical quantities on a graph.
Question 12.2.1 Delores is driving from Dakabin to Donny-
brook. She draws a graph of the distance she is from her start
point, as a function of time. What does the derivative of this
graph represent? What does it mean when the derivative is
zero? When would the derivative be negative?
distance
time
Often in physics, the term displacement is used to
represent the distance from the start point. Velocity
represents the speed of travel, and acceleration represents
the change in velocity.
There is a special relationship between each of these
quantities.
Recalling that a derivative is the change in y divided by the
change in x:
1. if displacement is considered as a function of time, then
the derivative of displacement is the change in
displacement divided by the change in time: this is the
velocity
2. the derivative of velocity is the change in velocity
divided by the change in time: this is the acceleration.
Question 12.2.2 A well-known formula from Physics is that
if an object is travelling with initial velocity u at time t = 0,
and it has a constant acceleration of a, then the displacement
of the object at time t is given by
S(t) = ut +
1
2
at
2
Using dierentiation, nd the velocity of the object at any
time. Finally, use dierentiation to verify that the acceleration
is a.
So the derivative of displacement is velocity, and the
derivative of velocity is acceleration.
We say that acceleration is the second derivative of
displacement.
If we are given a function, we can (usually) nd its
derivative. We can (usually) also nd the derivative of the
derivative.
Later well discuss useful reasons for doing so.
12.3 Second derivatives
Second derivatives
Given a function y = f(x), its derivative is
f
(x), or
dy
dx
We can nd the derivative of the derivative, called the second
derivative. It is written
f
(x), or
d
2
y
dx
2
Question 12.3.1 If f(x) = 16x + 2, nd f
(x) and f
(x).
Question 12.3.2 If f(x) = x
3
6x
2
+ 3x 4 sin x, nd f
(x)
and f
(x).
Question 12.3.3 If f(x) = 4
2
, nd f
(x) and f
(x).
Example 12.3.4
Big Jim throws a cricket ball vertically upwards into the air
from the ground. It is found that s(t) = 25t 5t
2
, where s
is the distance of the ball above the ground in metres, and t
is the time in seconds.
1. What is the velocity of the ball at any time t?
2. What is the acceleration of the ball at any time t?
3. What is the highest point the ball reaches, and what is
its velocity at that point?
4. When does the ball reach the ground again?
Answer to 1:
The value of
ds
dt
gives the velocity of the ball (that is, the rate
of change of distance of the ball).
So
ds
dt
= 25 10t (metres per second).
Answer to 2:
The value of
d
2
s
dt
2
gives the rate of change of the velocity, or
the acceleration of the ball.
So
d
2
s
dt
2
= 10 (metres per sec per sec).
The negative value for acceleration here means that the ac-
celeration is not in the direction in which s is measured (up-
wards) but in the opposite direction, back to the ground. (Due
to gravity!).
continued...
Answer to 3:
At the highest point the ball reaches, its velocity must be 0
(that is, it has just nished moving up, and is just about to
start moving back down).
So
ds
dt
= 25 10t = 0, which happens when t = 2.5 secs.
At that time, s = 125/4 = 31.25 metres.
In other words, 2
1
2
seconds after the ball is thrown, it has zero
velocity, and reaches its highest point above the ground, of
31.25 metres.
Answer to 4:
When it reaches the ground again, we must have s = 0. Using
the quadratic formula, we can solve 25t 5t
2
= 0, giving t = 0
or t = 5.
And since s = 0 when t = 0 or t = 5, the ball is at ground
level at time t = 0 (when it is initially thrown) and again 5
seconds later, when it returns to ground level.
12.4 Local maxima and minima
At any point, the derivative gives the slope of the function.
If the slope is positive, then the function is getting larger,
or increasing
If the slope is negative, then the function is getting smaller,
or decreasing.
Think about the special case where the derivative is 0.
What does this mean?
Clearly, the slope of the function is 0. Thus, at that point,
the function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Such points are called stationary or critical points.
Hence we have:
positive derivative: function is increasing at that
point
negative derivative: function is decreasing at that
point
zero derivative: that point is a critical or stationary
point.
Question 12.4.1 On the following diagram, identify all re-
gions in which the function is increasing and those in which it
is decreasing. Show all critical points. Also mark all roots of
the function.
Thus we have a rule for nding all critical points of a
function: rst nd the derivative of the function, and then
nd all points at which the derivative is zero.
At these points, the slope is 0 (so it is horizontal). Hence
they are critical points of the function.
Question 12.4.2 Find all critical points of y = 2x
3
+ 3x
2
12x + 4
Rather than just nding the critical points, it is possible to
classify them. This involves identifying them as peaks or
troughs, (some people call them hills or valleys).
in the following diagram, we have a peak, then a trough
At the rst critical point, the function value is larger at
the critical point than at the points nearby.
At the second critical point, the function value is smaller
at the critical point than at the points nearby.
Hence we call the rst critical point a local maximum,
and the second critical point a local minimum.
Be familiar with those terms. A local maximum is a peak,
and a local minimum is a trough. Plural of maximum is
maxima; plural of minimum is minima.
Your task is: given a function, nd local maxima and
minima. This means: nd all critical points, and classify
each one as a local maximum or a local minimum.
Well look at two rules for deciding whether a critical point
is a maximum or minimum.
The rst rule involves the rst derivative, and thinking a
bit about what a maximum or minimum looks like. The
second rule involves using the second derivative.
you can use whichever rule you like. The second may seem
harder, but it involves much less scope for error.
First derivative test for classifying maxima/minima

If f
(a) = 0, and if, close to a,

f
(x) > 0 for x < a

f
(a) = 0
f
(x) < 0 for x > a

then there is a local max at x = a. (f
goes +, 0, ).
If f
(a) = 0, and if, close to a,

f
(x) < 0 for x < a

f
(a) = 0
f
(x) > 0 for x > a

then there is a local min at x = a. (f
goes , 0, +).
Remember, the second derivative is the derivative of the
derivative. Then we have the following general rule:
Second derivative test for classifying maxima/minima

To nd all local maxima and minima of y = f(x):
1) nd the derivative f
(x).
2) nd all values of x for which derivative is 0
3) nd the second derivative f
(x).
4) for each value of x at which f
= 0, evaluate f
at that
point.
If the second derivative value is positive, function has a local
minimum at that point.
If the second derivative value is negative, function has a local
maximum at that point.
If the second derivative value is 0, we can conclude NOTHING
(the test fails!).
Question 12.4.3 Classify the critical points of y = 2x
3
+3x
2
12x + 4
Question 12.4.4 Find and classify all critical points of y =
x
2
2x + 4 Roughly sketch the graph of y = x
2
2x + 4
Question 12.4.5 Find and classify all critical points of y =
x
3
12x, and roughly sketch its graph.
12.5 Some practical problems
Derivatives are useful in problems from construction,
economics, business operations and product design.
Consider the following examples.
Example 12.5.1 A farmer wants to build a rectangular pen
for his sheep. One side is a straight river. For the other three
sides he has 200m of fencing to use. What is the maximum
area of pen he can make?
y
x x
river
Let sides of pen made from fencing be x, y and x. Then
using all 200m of fencing, 2x + y = 200 and so we can take
y = 200 2x. Note that constraints for x (because of the real
situation) are 0 x 100.
Thus area = A = x(200 2x) = 200x 2x
2
So
dA
dx
= 200 4x, and this is 0 when x = 50.
Thus have a local maximum or minimum when x = 50. Need
to check that it is a maximum!
Now
d
2
A
dx
2
= 4, which is negative, so is a local maximum.
Hence at x = 50 the area A is a maximum, equal to 50(200
100) = 5000 sq.m., and the dimensions of pen are 50m 100m.
Question 12.5.2 According to post oce regulations, the sum
of the dimensions (length, width and height) of a rectangular-
prism parcel must not exceed 2m. What is the maximum
allowed volume of a parcel with a square base?
Question 12.5.3 The cost of publishing a book is $12,000 plus
$6.50 per copy. The demand function is p(x) = 25 0.001x,
which gives the price $p which should be charged in order to
sell x copies of the book. If prots are to be maximised, how
many should be produced, and what should the selling price
be? (Graph is on Page 222.)
Question 12.5.4 Find the smallest possible value of the sum
of a positive real number and its inverse. (Graph is on Page
222.)
Graph of (25 0.001x)x 12000 6.5x (Question 12.5.3).
0
20000
40000
60000
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
x
Graph of x + 1/x (Question 12.5.4).
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x
Question 12.5.5 The prot per hectare of a certain crop is
$600. Each tonne of fertiliser costs $200, and the additional
benet of applying x tonnes of fertiliser per hectare is 800
x.
What amount of fertiliser per hectare will maximise prot?
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x
Question 12.5.6 A company sells tour tickets for $100 each.
In a group booking, once the groupsize exceeds 20, the price
for every person reduces by $2 for each person more than 20.
What groupsize maximises tour income?
Question 12.5.7 (All money is in thousands of dollars.) Each
week a machine operates gives 50 prot. After x weeks of op-
eration (x 3), maintenance takes 1 week downtime and a
cost of (x
2
x 3). There are 42 weeks available; produc-
tion and maintenance must each take an integer number of
weeks. Find the optimal number of weeks x of production
before maintenance? (Hint: nd how many productive weeks
there are all up, how many maintenance weeks, and derive a
formula for prot. You may assume your critical point is a
local maximum. Working space is on the next page. For in-
terest, a computer solution using the mathematical package
maple is on Page 226.)
Working space for Question 12.5.7:
Here is a solution to Question 12.5.7 using the mathematical
package maple, which youll see again if you study more maths.
>
P:=x->2100*x/(x+1)-42*(x^2-x-3)/(x+1);
P := x 2100
x
x + 1

42 (x
2
x 3)
x + 1
>
plot(P(x),x=0..42,colour=black);
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 10 20 30 40
x
>
firstderiv:=simplify(diff(P(x),x));
rstderiv := 42
2 x 48 + x
2
(x + 1)
2
>
solve(firstderiv=0,x);
8, 6
>
P(6);
1638
>
secondderiv:=simplify(diff(firstderiv,x));
secondderiv := 4116
1
(x + 1)
3
13 Integration
We have seen that dierentiation allows us to nd the
derivative or slope of the function; this has many uses.
sometimes, the reverse step is useful: given the derivative of
a function, how can we nd the original function?
the reverse process is called integration.
Just as the derivative of a function gives the slope of the
function, there is also a useful geometric interpretation of
the integration: the integral of a function gives the area
between the function and the x-axis.
We dont cover integration in much detail: if you do more
calculus, youll study it in much more detail.
well see a few rules which make the task easier, but mostly
well use smart trial and error.
Introduction to integration
Rules for integration
Initial conditions
Denite integrals and areas
Physical problems
13.1 Introduction to integration
Given a function, we (usually) know how to nd its
derivative. Of course, the derivative if the function is the
slope of that function.
We have a number of rules for nding derivatives.
What about the reverse step? That is, if we are given the
derivative or slope of a function, can we nd the original
function?
It is not hard to see that the answer will sometimes or often
be yes.
Question 13.1.1 If F(x) is an unknown function whose
derivative is 3x
2
, what is F(x)?
If G(x) is an unknown function whose derivative is 4x + 3,
what is G(x)?
If H(x) is an unknown function whose derivative is 4x
3
+3x
2
+
2x + 1, what is H(x)?
This reverse process (that is, given a derivative, nd the
original function) is called integration.
Just as we have special notation for dierentiation, we also
have special notation for integration.
Integration
f(x)dx, pronounced the integral of f(x) with respect to x

is called an indenite integral.
If F(x) =
f(x)dx, then we say that F(x) is an

antiderivative of f(x).
In this notation, f(x) is the function being integrated, the
integral of f(x) is F(x) and the dx means that integration
is with respect to x. (This is similar to the notation used in
dierentiation).
Clearly, if F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then f(x) is the
derivative of F(x).
Integration is much harder to do than dierentiation.
Indeed, some functions cannot be integrated at all (except
possibly using numerical techniques).
The book Introductory Mathematics, by Petocz, Petocz
and Wood, says it nicely on Page 287: Dierentiation has
been described as a science. Using the basic rules we have
studied, almost any function can be dierentiated.
Integration, on the other hand, is more like an art. Skill
and patience are needed to choose the appropriate
technique to integrate a particular function, or to see that it
is one of the functions whose integral cannot be found.
Integration is one of the most important and common tasks
in calculus. In this subject, we will only cover some fairly
basic functions, whose integrals are fairly easy to nd.
The technique we will use can be summarised as: to nd
F(x) =
f(x)dx, make an informed guess as to what F(x)

might be, and then use dierentiation to check your answer.
(3x
2
+ 2x + 4)dx
The following example illustrates an important feature of
integration:
Example 13.1.3 Let f(x) = x
2
+ 4, g(x) = x
2
and
h(x) = x
2
+ 1000000.
Clearly, f
(x) = 2x, g
(x) = 2x and h
(x) = 2x.
Then what does
2xdx equal? Should it be f(x), g(x), h(x),

or even something else? That is, what value should the con-
stant term have?
The answer is: we dont know! The constant could be any
value at all. So when nding an integral, we have to
introduce a constant of integration.
Thus
2xdx = x
2
+C, where C is the constant of
integration, and we dont know an exact value for C.
13.2 Rules for integration
We said before that the main technique we shall use is
guess the answer and check it. In fact, we can do a few
things which help us to improve our guesses.
Look at the following rules: each comes from a rule for
dierentiation.
Rule 1
x
n
dx =
1
n + 1
x
n+1
+C
Rule 2
Kf(x)dx = K
f(x)dx
Rule 3
(f(x) +g(x)) dx =
f(x)dx +
g(x)dx
Rule 4
d
dx
(F(x)) dx = F(x) +C
(That is, if the thing you are integrating is the derivative of a
function, then the integral is the original function).
Any problem you encounter will be solved by using the four
rules in conjunction with guess and check.
(x
3
+ 3x
2
+ x 7)dx. Check your
answer.
(4x 6x
2
)dx. Check your answer.
0dx. Check your answer.

2dx. Check your answer.

(u +at)dt. Check your answer.

(3 sin x)dx. Check your answer.

13.3 Initial conditions
We have seen the constant of integration (which arises
because the derivative of any constant is 0, so when we nd
an integral, we do not know exactly which constant to use).
For example:
3x
2
dx = x
3
+C
In some cases, if we have extra information, we can nd an
exact value for the constant of integration.
The extra information will give a value for the integral at a
particular value of x.
Question 13.3.1 If F(x) =
(2x + 4)dx and F(0) = 1, nd

F(x). If G(x) =
(2x + 4)dx and G(1) = 0, nd G(x).

13.4 Denite integrals and areas
The derivative of a function is the slope of the function.
We have spoken about the indenite integral of a function
as being the antiderivative of the function.
Can also interpret integrals geometrically.
Much of the geometric interpretation is beyond the scope of
this subject, but if you do more maths youll see that we
can interpret integrals in a completely dierent way.
In fact, the integral of a function gives us the area under
the graph of the function (that is, between the graph and
the x-axis).
Consider a geometric interpretation of
x
2
dx:
2 1 3 3 0
x
y
2 1 0
x
y
Clearly, the area under the curve will depend on how far
we go. In the previous example, the area under the curve
from x = 1 to x = 2 is smaller than the area under the
curve from x = 1 to x = 3:
A vital theorem, called the Fundamental theorem of
calculus, shows us how to use the antiderivative to nd this
area under the curve.
So the area under the curve depends on what values we
allow for x.
This introduces a new avour of integral, called the
denite integral.
The denite integral looks very similar to the indenite
integral which we have already covered. The main
dierence is that we now include two limits of
integration, and we do something a bit dierent after we
have found the antiderivative.
As an example: to nd the area under the curve y = x
2
between x = 1 and x = 2, we evaluate the denite integral
2
1
x
2
dx
(This corresponds to the area shown on the left-hand
diagram on the previous page.)
Be familiar with what that notation means!
Then the fundamental theorem of calculus tells us
If

f(x)dx = F(x) +c
then
b
a
f(x)dx = F(b) F(a)
This all sounds (and looks) complicated!
However, in practice its not too bad. You need to
remember how to nd indenite integrals, just as before.
The only dierence will occur if you see limits of
integration, with one at the bottom of the integral sign (say
a), and another at the top (say b).
In any problems like that, you need to solve them as a
denite integral. To do that, you rst nd an antiderivative
as before. Rather than stopping, you now evaluate the
integral at the upper limit b, then again at the lower limit
a, and subtract the second from the rst. The result is your
answer.
1
0
2xdx
Look at what happens to the constant of integration!
Be quite clear on what you have done here, and how it
diers from an indenite integral
2
0
2xdx. Compare with Question
13.4.1.
2
1
(3x
2
+ 2x + 1)dx
1
1
2xdx. Why might your answer be
this?
Example 13.4.5 Find the area under the curve y = x
2
from
x = 1 to x = 2
Area is
2
1
x
2
dx =
1
3
x
3
2
1
=
8
3

1
3
=
7
3
Example 13.4.6 Find the area under the curve y = cos x
from x = 0 to x =

2
Area is

2
0
cos xdx =
sin x

2
0
= sin

2
sin 0 = 1 0 = 1
Example 13.4.7

0
cos xdx =
sin x
0
= sin sin 0 =
0 0 = 0. Why is this? Lets draw a picture!

2
0
=
sin x

2
0
= sin

2
sin 0 = 1 0 = 1
2
=
sin x
2
= sin sin

2
= 0 1 = 1
Integral above the x-axis is positive; integral below the
x-axis is negative. But an area is always positive.
So the area under the curve y = cos x from 0 to =
the area under the curve above the x-axis + the absolute
value of the area under the curve below the x-axis.
Area =
sin x

2
0
+
sin x
= (sin

2
sin 0) +
(sin sin

2
)
= (1 0) +
(0 1)
= 1 +[ 1[ = 2
Note the dierence between the denite integral and
the area under the curve. Always draw a picture.
13.5 Physical problems
Recall that the derivative of displacement is velocity, and
the derivative of velocity is acceleration.
The reverse step of dierentiation is integration. Thus we
know velocity is the integral of acceleration, and
displacement is the integral of velocity.
Thus, given an expression for an objects velocity, we can
work out its displacement at any time
(Note: usually in these problems, we use t instead of x to
represent the independent variable: thus we will integrate
with respect to t).
First, integrate velocity, giving expression for displacement
Often have an initial condition (such as displacement at
time t = 0 is 0). We can use this initial condition to obtain
an exact value for the constant of integration.
Question 13.5.1 A rocket takes o vertically at time t =
0, with velocity v(t) = 2t + 1 metres per second. Find an
expression for the displacement of the rocket at any time t
(assuming the ground represents a displacement of 0).
Question 13.5.2 Using the information from the previous
question, nd how far the rocket travels between time t = 3
and t = 8. Find this answer in 2 ways: (i) by substituting
values for t into the expression found in question 1, and (ii)
by solving the problem as a denite integral.
14 Logarithms and exponentials
In this (the last) section of the course, we move away from
integration and dierentiation (although well still talk
about them a fair bit).
Weve seen polynomial functions (eg linear equations and
quadratics).
Now, we encounter a dierent type of function:
exponentials, which involve the variable x in the power
exponential functions are used for:
modelling population increases and decreases
economic growth and interest return on money
radioactive decay
we discuss exponential functions for growth and decay,
introduce the exponential function e
x
and then nd the
derivatives and integrals of some exponential functions
Introduction to exponentials
Exponential growth
Exponential decay
The exponential function, e
x
Logarithms
Derivatives and integrals of exponentials
Dierentiating ln
Summary
14.1 Introduction to exponentials
Recall, from much earlier on, the power (or index) laws:
RULE EXAMPLE
a
m
a
n
= a
m+n
2
3
2
2
= 2
5
(a
m
)
n
= a
mn
(2
3
)
2
= 2
6
a
m
a
n
= a
mn
2
3
2
2
= 2
32
= 2
1
= 2
a
m
=
1
a
m
2
3
=
1
2
3
=
1
8
a
0
= 1 2
0
= 1
a
1
m
=
m
a 2
1
3
=
3
2
If y = x
n
, then x is called the base, and n is called the
power or exponent.
We have worked a lot with powers. In every case, the
power has been a constant, and the base has been the
variable: for example, x
2
, x
7
and x
1
Now we introduce a new type of function, called an
exponential function.
Such functions involve a variable in the exponent, such as
f(x) = 2
x
, g(x) = 10
x
, h(x) = e
x
2
Compare with polynomial functions, which have x in the
base and constants in the power (eg x
2
+ 2x + 1), whereas
exponentials have x in the power and a constant base.
Exponential functions have many practical uses, such as
radiocarbon dating of fossils
decay of nuclear waste and contamination
growth of money in a bank account
population growth and decay
modelling temperature change of an object
14.2 Exponential growth
Consider an exponential function y = a
x
.
We can use almost any (positive) number a as our base. For
the moment, we restrict ourselves to a > 1.
Question 14.2.1 Let f(x) = 2
x
and g(x) = 10
x
. Create a
table of values for f and g for x 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
Question 14.2.2 At time t = 0 there is 1 bacterium. The
population size P doubles each hour. Find P(1), P(3) and
P(10). Explain why P(t) (t > 0) is (approx.) P(t) = 2
t
.
In the previous examples x was always positive, but this does
not need to be the case.
x
and g(x) = 10
x
. Create a
table of values for f and g for x 4, 3, 2, 1.
x
. Use Questions 14.2.1 and
14.2.3 to sketch a graph of f(x).
x
y
that graph shows many features common to exponential
functions
on the next page, we plot the three exponential functions
2
x
, 3
x
and 4
x
on each of four sets of axes, for dierent x
values. Take time to understand the graphs!
Example 14.2.5 Plots for x [0, 3] (top left), x [0, 5] (top
right), x [3, 3] (bottom left) and x [3, 2].
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
y
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
y
1 2 3 4 5
x
0
10
20
30
40
50
y
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
0
1
2
3
4
y
3 2 1 1 2
x
4
x
3
x
4
x
2
x
3
x
2
x
4
x
3
x
2
x
2
x
2
x
when x is large and negative, y gets very close to 0 but
never equals 0. That is, lim
x
a
x
= 0, a > 1.
when x gets large and positive, the graphs get very large
and positive. That is, lim
x
a
x
= , a > 1.
the graphs grow very quickly.
the graphs all pass through (0, 1).
Exponential growth
Any function which includes an exponential term and which
increases as x increases is said to display exponential growth.
If a > 1 then any function of the form y = a
x
will display
exponential growth.
The functions in Example 14.2.5 represent exponential
growth: they all include an exponential term, and y
increases as x does
Many quantities in business and nature grow exponentially.
To accurately model such quantities, we need a more
general form of the equation for exponential growth.
General form of exponential growth

If a > 1 and C > 0 then any function of the form y = Ca
x
will display exponential growth.
In the general form:
C is a constant representing initial conditions (eg size of
population or quantity). Graph passes through (0, C).
The base a is a constant depending on the problem; a
determines how quickly the quantity grows.
The graph will look like:
(0,C)
x
y
Question 14.2.6 There are four cockroaches in a students
house. The population size P triples every week. Write an
expression for the population size P(x) after x weeks. When
is P rst larger than 200? When is P larger than 1500?
Question 14.2.7 $100 is invested in a bank term deposit,
earning 6% interest per year, compounding annually. Write
an expression for the amount of money M after x years. What
is the account balance after 3 years? How much interest does
the account earn in the third year?
Compound interest
If P dollars are invested at an interest rate of r per time period
for a total of x time periods, then the nal value F(x) of the
investment is given by
F(x) = P(1 +r)
x
.
To use this formula you may need to convert r from a
percentage to a decimal number
Be careful with time units: if r is a rate per annum but the
time units are dierent, then you will need to carefully and
consistently calculate both r and x
Example 14.2.8 An account earns interest at 18% per annum
compounded monthly for 2 years. Then x = 24 (months in 2
years) and r = 0.18/12 = 0.015 (percent interest per month).
Question 14.2.9 $100 is invested in a bank term deposit,
earning 6% interest per year, compounding monthly.
(a) Write an expression for the amount of money after x years.
(b) What is the balance after 3 years? (use (1.005)
36
= 1.197)
(c) Compare your answer to Part (b) with that to Question
14.2.7 and explain any dierences.
(d) If the time for compounding keeps getting shorter, what
will happen to the amount of interest earned?
14.3 Exponential decay
Until now we have only considered exponential functions of
the form y = Ca
x
, where a > 1.
All such functions represented exponential growth.
We can also have 0 < a < 1.
1
2
x
.
(a) Create a table of values for f for x 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
(b) Create a table of values for f for x 4, 3, 2, 1.
(c) Sketch a graph of f(x).
x
y
From the power laws we know
1
a
m
=
1
a
m
= a
m
. Hence:
The function y = b
x
, with 0 < b < 1, can be rewritten as
y = a
x
, where a = 1/b, so a > 1.
Question 14.3.2 A disease kills half the remaining rabbit pop-
ulation each month. There are 10000 rabbits at time x = 0.
(a) Write an expression for the rabbit population R(x) at any
time x (in months), in the form R(x) = Cb
x
, 0 < b < 1.
(b) Rewrite this in the form R(x) = Ca
x
, a > 1.
(c) Approximately how many rabbits are left after 3 months?
The previous examples all include exponentials, but y
decreases as x increases.
These are all examples of exponential decay.
General form of exponential decay

If a > 1 and C > 0 then any function of the form y = Ca
x
will display exponential decay.
On the next page, we plot the three exponential functions 2
x
,
3
x
and 4
x
on each of two sets of axes, for dierent x values.
Example 14.3.3 Plots of 2
x
, 3
x
and 4
x
for x [3, 0]
(left) and x [3, 3] (right).
0
10
20
30
40
50
y
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5
x
0
10
20
30
40
50
y
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
4
x
4
x
3
x
3
x
2
x
2
x
when x is large and positive, y gets very close to 0 but
never equals 0. That is, lim
x
a
x
= 0, a > 1.
when x gets large and negative, the graphs get very large
and positive. That is, lim
x
a
x
= , a > 1.
the graphs decrease (decay) very quickly.
the graphs all pass through (0, 1).
There are many relationships between exponential growth and
exponential decay.
Be clear on the similarities and dierences between the two
Understand why a positive power leads to growth, and why
a negative power leads to decay
(it may help to remember that if f(x) is an exponential
decay function, then you can nd an exponential growth
function g(x) such that f(x) =
1
g(x)
, and vice versa.)
Many phenomena display exponential decay, including decay of
a radioactive substance , the lingering eects of advertising
campaigns and the eects of ination on purchasing power.
Question 14.3.4 You win a lottery prize which gives you
$10,000 each year for 50 years.
(a) If ination is 3% per annum, what is the value in todays
money of your prize in the last year? (Use 1.03
50
= 4.4)
(b) What if ination is 6%? (Use 1.05
50
= 18.4)
Question 14.3.5 Radioactive Carbon 14 decays over time,
with half of it decaying every 5730 years. Animal bones con-
tain an amount A
0
of Carbon 14 at time of death, and at
any time t after death the amount of Carbon 14 remaining is
A(t) = A
0
2
t/k
, where k is the half-life of Carbon 14. Ar-
chaeologists discover a bone in which A/A
0
= 1/8. What is
its approximate age?
14.4 The exponential function, e
x
We said that we can have any number as the base. Is any
choice better than other choices?
Example 14.4.1 You borrow $1000 from a loan shark, who
charges 100% interest for a month. What is the amount A you
owe at the end of the month if interest is compounded:
each month?
Answer: In each case, A = 1000(1+r)
n
, where A = 1000,
n is the number of time periods and r is the interest rate
per time period, expressed as a decimal number.
Here, n = 1 and r = 1, so A = 1000(2)
1
= $2000.
each day? (Assume 30 days in the month.)
Answer: Here, n = 30 and r=1/30, so A = 1000(1 +
1/30)
30
= $2674.32.
each hour?
Answer: Here, n = 30 24 = 720 and r=1/720, so A =
1000(1 + 1/720)
720
= $2716.40.
each minute? Answer: A = $2718.25.
each second? Answer: A = $2718.28.
It seems likely that as the time for compoundings gets shorter
and shorter, the nal amount will not keep getting indenitely
larger: it looks like we are approaching some limit!
The mathematical constant, e

The mathematical constant e is dened by
e = lim
n
1 +
1
n
n
2.71828 . . . .
e is irrational (like ), so it cannot be written exactly as a
decimal or a fraction
e is the most frequently used base for exponential functions
There will probably be a key on your calculator labelled e
x
(or possibly exp(x)).
It may seem strange (and it certainly is complicated) to use
an irrational number as the base: it is easy to calculate
2
2
, 2
3
, 2
4
and so on, but much harder to calculate e
2
, e
3
, e
4
.
However, e occurs in many vital places, with interesting and
useful properties, so is worth the extra eort
e is so important that we call e
x
the exponential function.
We can draw a plot of f(x) = e
x
. Of course:
as e > 1, this graph will display exponential growth.
as e > 2 and e < 3, the graph will lie between 2
x
and 3
x
.
the graph will pass through (0, 1).
0
5
10
15
20
25
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
3
x
e
x
2
x
Similarly, we know that e
x
must represent exponential decay:
0
5
10
15
20
3 2 1 1 2 3
x
e
x
Because e
x
is so important, from now on we will almost
exclusively use e as the base.
We can write any exponential function using e.
Example 14.4.2 Rewrite y = 2
x
with e as the base.
Answer: Let a be the number such that 2 = e
a
. (In fact,
a 0.693147.) Then y = 2
x
= (e
a
)
x
= e
ax
.
(soon we will see that if 2 = e
a
, then we nd the value of a
using a special function called a logarithm.)
General form of exponential functions

The general form of an exponential function is y = Ce
kx
,
where C and k are constants, k ,= 0 (and usually C > 0). If
k is positive the function gives exponential growth, and if k is
negative the function gives exponential decay.
Example 14.4.3 If $P is invested at an annual interest rate
of r, compounding continuously, then the amount of money
at any time x is given by F(x) = Pe
rx
.
Example 14.4.4 A certain radioactive substance decays ex-
ponentially. At time x the amount of material remaining is
M(x) = Qe
kx
,
where Q is the initial quantity and k is a constant depending
on the substance.
Example 14.4.5 The worlds population is growing at about
2% per annum; assume this rate continues indenitely. If the
current population at time x = 0 is 6 billion, then the popu-
lation at any time x will be approximately
P(x) = 6000000000e
0.02x
.
The left graph shows the worlds population from 1650 until
2000. The right graph shows the above equation plotted from
time 0 (the year 2000) until time 50 (the year 2050). In each
case, the y axis represents population in billions.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x
14.5 Logarithms
Given values for a and x, it is (often) not too hard to
evaluate y = a
x
.
Question 14.5.1 In each case, evaluate a
x
:
(a) a = 2 and x = 5
(b) a = 10 and x = 3
(c) a = 1/2 and x = 2
Often, the reverse step is useful: given y and a, can we nd
x such that y = a
x
?
Question 14.5.2 In each case, nd x such that y = a
x
:
(a) y = 100 and a = 10
(b) y = 81 and a = 3
(c) y = 4 and a = 16
the reverse step (or inverse function) of an exponential
function is called a logarithm
Logarithms
For a > 0, a ,= 1, we say x = log
a
y (pronounced x is the log
to base a of y) if y = a
x
.
Question 14.5.3 Rewrite your answers to Question 14.5.2 in
logarithm form.
can take logarithms to any base a > 0, a ,= 1. The most
common bases are 10 and e, giving log
10
and log
e
.
your calculators probably have keys for both of these.
Natural logarithms
Logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms, and the
natural logarithm of x is written as ln x.
Question 14.5.4 Show how natural logarithms can be used
to rewrite y = 10
x
using the base e.
Question 14.5.5 If ination is 4% per annum, compounding
continuously, how long does it take for an item costing $100
at time x = 0 to cost $200? (Use ln2 = 0.693147.)
Question 14.5.6 The intensity of earthquakes is measured
using the Richter scale, which is a log
10
scale. If an earthquake
has intensity I, then its magnitude on the Richter scale is given
by R = log
10
I
I
0
, where I
0
is a minimum intensity used for
comparison (representing a very mild tremor).
(a) Rewrite the formula, making I the subject.
(b) The 2004 tsunami came from a quake measuring 8.9. How
many times larger than I
0
is this? (Use 10
0.9
= 7.943.)
(c) In 1996, there was a magnitude 2.9 quake in Brisbane.
How many times larger than this was the 2004 quake?
(d) The largest quake ever recorded (Chile, 1960) measured
9.5; how many times larger than the 2004 quake was this?
(use 10
0.6
4.)
(e) An increase of 1 in the Richter magnitude results in 30
times more energy released. If magnitude 1 equals 10kg
of TNT exploding, what does a magnitude 8.9 represent?
Note that logarithms are functions (like square root or sin),
so ln x is a function which acts on the value of x.
Sometimes it is written with brackets to make it clear what
is happening: for example, ln(x + 2) represents the natural
logarithm of (x + 2).
We have said that ln is the inverse function of e
x
: if y = e
x
,
then x = ln y.
Because ln is a function, we can nd its domain and range
Look at the range of e
x
: it is always greater than 0.
Because ln x is the inverse function of e
x
, the domain of
ln x must be the same as the range of e
x
.
Thus the domain of ln x is (0, ).
Similarly, the domain of e
x
is (, ), so the range of
ln x must also be (0, ).
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
y
1 1 2 3 4 5
x
e
x
ln x
Logarithms are a major source of study in their own right. For
example, for hundreds of years mathematicians used logarithm
tables to greatly simplify mathematical operations (before
calculators were invented). We wont spend much time on logs.
14.6 Derivative of e
x
and e
kx
A fundamental feature of e
x
is its derivative.
At any point on the graph of y = e
x
, the slope of the graph
equals the value of the graph
Derivative of e
x
If y = e
x
then
dy
dx
= e
x
.
Think about what this means! When the function value is
1, its slope must also be 1. When function value is 2, the
slope must be 2, and so on.
Understand this on the following graph.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
y
1 1 2 3
e
x
is the unique (non-zero) function for which this is true
(that is, no other non-zero function satises this property).
thus, dierentiating e
x
is easy: it stays unchanged
we can also dierentiate exponentials in which the power is
more complicated than just x
Derivative of e
u(x)
If y = e
u(x)
, where u(x) is a dierentiable function of x, then
the chain rule tells us that
dy
dx
=
dy
du

du
dx
= e
u
du
dx
'
As a special case, if y = e
kx
where k is a constant, then
dy
dx
= ke
kx
Question 14.6.1 Find y
and y
in each of the following cases.

(a) y = e
x
(b) y = e
x
(c) y = e
2x
(d) y = e
3x
+ 4
(e) y = x
2
+ 4x +e
x
(f ) y = 3e
x
+ 4e
2x
+ 6
(g) y = e
x
2
(only nd y
)
Question 14.6.2 If f(x) = xe
x
:
(a) Find f
(x).
(b) Solve f
(x) = 0.
(c) Find f
(x).
(d) Classify all local maxima and minima of f(x).
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
1 2 3 4 5
x
f(x) = xe
x
Recall that if k is a constant and y = e
kx
, then y
= ke
kx
.
We can also easily integrate some exponential functions.
Integral of e
kx
If y = e
kx
, where k is a constant, then
y dx =
e
kx
dx =
1
k
e
kx
+C
y dx in each of the following cases.

(a) y = e
x
(b) y = e
x
(c) y = (4x +e
x
)
(d) y = e
2x
+ 3
(e) y = 4e
2x
+ 3e
5x
1
0
(2x +e
x
) dx.
1
1
(e
x
+ 2) dx.
14.7 Dierentiating logarithms
We have seen how to dierentiate e
x
.
Now we see how to dierentiate ln x; the answer might
surprise you
Recall the integration rule:
x
n
dx =
1
n + 1
x
n+1
+C
This rule does not work when n = 1 (as we would have a
division by zero!).
That is,
x
1
dx =
1
x
dx =???
The following rule allows us to do this.
Integrating 1/x and dierentiating ln x.

For positive x,
1
x
dx = ln x +C.
Conversely, if y = ln x then
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
(e
x
+x
1
+x
2
) dx (x positive)
e
1
(x
1
+ 2x) dx
14.8 Summary of logs and exponentials
There is a lot more to logs and exponentials than we have
done. If you are lost or confused, then here is a summary of
what you need to know:
e
kx
gives exponential growth if k > 0 and exponential
decay if k < 0
e
kx
is always greater than zero (never equal 0).
if y = e
x
then x = ln y.
any exponential y = a
x
, a > 0, a ,= 1 can be rewritten
using e
Be able to solve certain practical problems like those in
the lecture notes
d
dx
(e
x
) = e
x
e
x
dx = e
x
+C
d
dx
(e
kx
) = ke
kx
e
kx
dx =
1
k
e
kx
+c
d
dx
(e
u
) =
d
dx
(u) e
u
(u is a dierentiable
function of x)
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
1
x
dx =
x
1
dx = ln x +C
(x positive here)
And a small sob of sorrow passes round the room. Thats
the lot! Farewell to MATH1040!
See you next semester?
Index
(. . . , . . . ), 48
<, , 50
>, , 50
[. . . , . . . ], 48
, 57
, 57
, 55
. . . , 76
. . . , 76
ln x, 261
| |, 35
\, 57
, 56
, 82
{}, 55
e
x
, 256
x-intercept, 70, 89
y-intercept, 70, 89
N, 8
Q, 8
R, 9
Z, 8
absolute value, 35
acceleration, 208
acute angle, 155
amplitude, 167
angle, 155
antiderivative, 229
area under curve, 235
axis, 64
base, 19, 245
BEDMAS, 11
ceiling, 76
chain rule, 199
circles, 129
classify critical points, 216
coefficient, 23
coin, 134
common factor, 15
composition of functions, 127
compound interest, 250
conditional probability, 141
constant of integration, 230
coordinates, 64
cos, 155
cos, graph, 164
critical point, 213
cubic, 112, 120
decimal expansion, 9
decreasing, 212
definite integral, 235
degrees, 155
denominator, 16
dependent variable, 67
derivative, 185
derivative of e
x
, 264
dice, 135
Differentiating ln x, 268
differentiation, 185
differentiation rules, 191
displacement, 208
distance, 100
domain, 80
earthquake, 262
element, 55
elimination, 108
empty set, 55
equation, 34
equation of line, 93
equilateral triangle, 155
equivalent fraction, 16
expand, 26
exponent, 245
exponential decay, 252
exponential function, 245
exponential growth, 246
exponents, 43
expression, 22
factor, 14
factor theorem, 124
factorise, 28
first derivative test, 215
floor, 76
formula, 30
fraction, 16
fractional power, 44
frequency, 167
function, 78
Fundamental theorem of
calculus, 235
269-1
Gold Lotto, 150
gradient, 89
graph, 64
graph in one dimension, 63
graph in two dimensions, 64
HCF, 15
higher order root, 39
Highest Common Factor, 15
hypotenuse, 155
inclusion/exclusion, 139
increasing, 212
indefinite integral, 229
independent events, 144
independent variable, 67
index, 19, 43
inequalities, 50
initial conditions, 234
integers, 8
integration, 228
integration rules, 231
intersecting lines, 103
intersection, 57
intervals, 48
inverse, 16
isosceles triangle, 155
like terms, 23
limits, 170
limits and slopes, 176
linear, 71, 92, 116
local maximum, 214
local minimum, 214
logarithm, 260
mutually exclusive, 140
natural logarithm, 261
natural numbers, 8
negative powers, 19
number line, 35
numerator, 16
obtuse angle, 155
origin, 64
parallel, 99
perpendicular, 99
piecewise linear, 75
polynomial, 112
power, 43, 245
prime number, 14
probability, 133
product of primes, 14
product rule, 196
product rule for probability,
142
Pythagoras theorem, 100
quadrants, 66
quadratic, 112, 114, 117
quadratic formula, 121
quadratic, solving, 121
quotient rule, 203
radians, 156
radioactive decay, 255
range, 80
rational numbers, 8
rationalising the denominator,
41
real numbers, 9
recurring decimal, 9
relatively prime, 15
Richter scale, 262
right angle, 155
roots of a polynomial, 115
second derivative, 210
second derivative test, 216
set, 55
set-theoretic difference, 57
sigma notation, 82
simplest form, 16
simplify, 24
simultaneous equations, 103
sin, 155
sin, graph, 164
slope, 89
solving an equation, 34
solving quadratics, 121
solving simultaneous
equations
graphically, 104
equations using
elimination, 108
equations using
substitution, 107
square root, 38
stationary point, 213
step function, 75
straight line, 92
subject, 30
substituting into formulae, 31
substitution, 107
surd, 39
tan, 155
tan, graph, 164
tangent line, 206
transposing formulae, 32
triangle, 155
trigonometry, 154
union, 57
unit circle, 131
variable, 22
velocity, 208
Venn diagram, 58

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MATH1040

MATH1040, 2005. Section 1.7. Page 25

(1) The same quantity may be added to, or subtracted from,

a is undened for positive a

7 are all irrational.

1. The same quantity can be added to, or subtracted from,

(1) [ x [< a means a < x < a (ie a < x and x < a)

1. the intersection of A and B, A B:

MATH1040, 2005. Section 4.0. Page 77

Consider the following expressions:

In general, sigma or summation notation is written

Linear equations have the general form y = mx + c, where

Given two points (x

In a right-angled triangle with sides of length a and b and

2 km, then due north for 10

The roots of an equation are those values of x for which y = 0.

Equation of a circle with centre (0, 0)

5) all fall on this circle. (Check by sub-

Equation of a circle with centre (a, b)

Let A be any event. Then

If A and B are events then

Mutually exclusive events

Let A and B be events in sample space S with Prob(B) >

Product rule for probability.

Product rule for independent events.

, while an obtuse angle is

, that is, more than a right angle.

give a full rotation. Thus, a full circle

is 1/360 of a full rotation.

Convert degrees to radians, multiply by /180

and other angles 45

. For convenience, let the two equal

. Draw line from top of triangle

. How high is the tree? (Use

(equivalently, between 0 and /2).

Having extended angles to larger than 90

. Cant use right-angled triangles

Each point P on the circumference in the rst quadrant has

, and we have sin = y and cos = x

by substituting the value of x

(x) = 2x. (You could show this using limits.) Find f

(2). Verify that this is plausible

(x) = 2x. Identify which is

changes from negative to positive.

is never negative and what that means for f.

(x) = cos x, on x [0, 2].

changes from positive to negative.

Example 11.3.1 Here are some functions which must be dif-

(x) by expanding f fully, then dierentiating.

(x) using the product rule. Verify that your answer

(if u, v are functions).

(x) by rst ex-

Finding tangent lines

First derivative test for classifying maxima/minima

(a) = 0, and if, close to a,

(x) > 0 for x < a

(x) < 0 for x > a

(a) = 0, and if, close to a,

(x) < 0 for x < a

(x) > 0 for x > a

Second derivative test for classifying maxima/minima

f(x)dx, pronounced the integral of f(x) with respect to x

f(x)dx, then we say that F(x) is an