Cartography and Geomatics

Cartography: The art, science and technology of making maps Map:A two dimensional scaled representation of a planetary surface
(includes onscreen displays)

Geomatics: An umbrella term for disciplines that acquire, manage and manipulate spatial data for mapping.

Types of maps and data

There are traditionally two main types of map and data categories: a. General purpose (topographic) These show the visible features of the landscape such as relief, water bodies, and roads, e.g. base maps, relief maps, city maps.

b. Special purpose (thematic) Emphasis is placed on a particular element e.g. climate, geology, soils, population density, industrial production.

Spatial data: location and attributes

In GIS mapping, features encode two different types of information:

a. Geospatial location (where is it) b. Attributes (what is it)

these data are in a single layer (but multiple files in GIS) e.g Roads as a shapefile roads.shp roads.dbf roads.shx

Scale
Scale represents the amount of reduction compared to the distances on the earth's surface. Without a scale, it is a diagram, (not a map) Scale can be given in 3 ways:

a.

Verbal statement For example, 1 cm to 10 km, 1 inch to 1 mile Verbal statements are simple to understand

b. Scale bar
Graphic, units can be stated in kilometres (metric) or miles (imperial) A scale bar is most useful for graphic reproduction as it scales automatically with printing.
The left end of the bar can be subdivided in smaller units in order to provide easier estimation of precise distances. This practice is only appropriate for topographic maps.

c. Ratio or representative fraction

This states the amount of reduction as a fraction or ratio
(e.g. 1/100,000 or 1:100,000)

It is free of specific units (metric or imperial) It can describe map series (e.g. 1:50,000) 1:20,000 is a larger scale than 1:50,000 1 cm to 1km is the same as ratio = 1:100,000; If ratio = 1:250,000 Scale = 1 cm to 2.5 km.

Conversion between a statement and a representative fraction

Get each side of the scale into same units, for example: To convert 1 cm to 1 km into ratio: 1 km = 1000m = 100,000 cm So 1cm to 1km is the same as 1:100,000 To convert 1:250,000 to a statement: 1 cm to 250,000 cm = 2500m = 2.5 km Scale is 1 cm to 2.5 km
Topo 101: map scales

General scale categories

Large > 1:70,000 (e.g. 1:20,000, 1:50,000, 1:63,360) Medium = 70,000 to 400,000 (e.g. 1:125,000, 1:250,000) Small < 1:400,000 (e.g. 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000)

Very small: Cadastral:

< 1,000,000 (atlases, world maps) > 1:10,000 (city property mapping)

Map projection
How do we convert a 3D world to a 2D display .. ? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Azimuthal Conic Cylindrical Miscellaneous Polyconics Pseudoconics Pseudocylindrical

What is a Map Projection?

ug_importdata.html#mapprojection

http://earth.google.com/userguide/v4/

Map projection: a mathematical expression representing the 3D surface of the earth on a 2D map.

1.

3D Earth 2.Mercator Projection This process always results in distortion to map properties, such as area, scale, shape, or direction. hundreds of projections have been developed to best suit a particular type of map.

Map projections and Greenland:

http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/mappage.htm

ArcGIS supported projections

Literally projecting the globe onto a map

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System

http://topomaps.usgs.gov/drg/mercproj/index.html

o The TM projection is the basis for the (Universal) UTM system in many countries o Each UTM zone is 6 degrees of longitude wide, each Central Meridian is a standard line. o The UTM system consists of 60 TM projections (UTM is a system of projections) o Polar areas use the azimuthal stereographic projection

Projection Terms a. Scale Factor (SF)

SF = scale at any location / divided by the 'principal scale'

e.g. if actual scale at a point = 1:2 million and principal scale = 1:1 million then SF at that point = 1 / 2 million divided by 1/1 million = 1/2 (0.5)

b.

Developable surface:
Conic

A two dimensional surface onto which globe is projected

Cylindrical

Azimuthal (planar)

Distortion increases with distance between the globe and the surface c. Standard Line: The standard line is a line along which the scale factor equals 1 (often the point / line of contact)

d.

General shape of the four groups

Azimuthal Cylindrical

Conic

Pseudo-cylindrical

e. Distortion: compared to the graticule:

Lines of latitude are 'parallel' and evenly spaced.

Meridians converge at the poles, half at 60 degrees.

All grid lines cross at right angles.

Scale factor is 1 in all directions.

Great circles are straight lines e.g. meridians, equator, 'straight' flight lines

Shape
A projection that maintains shape is conformal or orthomorphic. For example a 2x2 square becomes a 1x1 or 4x4 square. Stretching in one direction is matched by stretching in the other: that is, the scale factors are equal at a point in the two directions (i.e. there is 'equal-stretching').

Thus preserving area and shape are ..

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE

c. Distance
Distances can be correct in one direction from a line, usually a standard line or distances can be correct in all directions from a point. In these cases, the projection is termed equidistant (but only N-S)

d. Direction (azimuth)
Azimuths can be maintained in all directions only from one point these projections are called azimuthal
(by geometry, these are also the projections based on a single point of contact)

Contours
Accurate surveying of elevations in Canada was developed in the 19th century, but elevation heights were more common in the 20th century. A contour is an isarithm: line of equal elevations (values)

http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/asl/maps/cat/images/contours-spot.jpg

Contours

http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/topo101/elevation_e.php Exploring Earth website - visualising contours Contours are mapped from stereo-photography

NTS Contour Interval: (Normal, Hilly, Steep)

1:50,000 = 10, 20, 40m ; 1:250,000: 50m, 100m, 200m

Contour interval (the distance between contour lines) depends on terrain and map scale Index contours are symbolized as wider lines and usually every 5th contour.

Kechika 94L 1:250,000 ->

Prince George, 93G15 1:50,000

Advantages of contours it is the most quantitative method easy to store elevations it is the origin for most other techniques, and is familiar to many users. Disadvantages it is abstract (there are no lines on the ground); poorly suited to small scales less visual but depends on: contour interval, landscape type, and experience.
These disadvantages were recognized early on and led to other methods being developed

1:50,000 Horseshoe Bay

1:250,000 Banff

SYMBOLISATION

..how do we choose design options?

Goal: fast and easy communication

Visual Design Variables

Shape: the detail or outline of a point Pattern: regular repetition of shapes Texture: variation of tones or lines Orientation: direction of symbol Size:size in a point, or width of a line Tone:shade of gray (printing = % of black) Colour:Has three 'dimensions' hue:"the visual sensations from wavelengths of light " (e.g red, blue) chroma: saturation or intensity = tints
e.g. pale v solid blue

value:purity or lightness = shades,

Image interpretation

http://airphotos.nrcan.gc.ca/photos101/photos101_info_e.php

Shape: the form of an object on an air photo helps to identify the object. Regular uniform shapes often indicate a human involvement;

Pattern: similar to shape, the spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops vs. pasture) is also useful to identify an object and its usage;

Shadow: a shadow provides information about the object's height, shape, and orientation (e.g. tree species);

Texture: the physical characteristics of an object affect texture (e.g. calm water has a smooth texture; a forest canopy has a rough texture);

Size: a measure of the object's surface area (e.g. single-lane vs. multi-lane highways);

Time: temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be helpful in determining the historical change of an area (e.g. looking at a series of photos of a city taken in different years can help determine the growth of suburban neighbourhoods;

Association/Site: associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it to its environment, can help identify the object (e.g. industrial buildings often have access to railway sidings;

Tone/Colour: the colour characteristics of an object, relative to other objects in the photo (e.g. sand has a bright tone, while water usually has a dark tone; tree species can be determined by the colour of their leaves at certain times of the year); Monochrome (panchromatic) air photos are used more frequently as colour photography costs twice as much.