Journal of Accounting Business & Management 13 (2006) 69-84

The Power of Celebrity Endorsement in Brand Choice Behavior: An Empirical Study of Consumer Attitudes in Jordan
Sami Alsmadi*
Abstract The main purpose of this study is to explore consumer attitudes towards the role of celebrity endorsement in television advertising in Jordan, and provide guidance to advertising makers and specialists to improve the effectiveness of celebrity-based television advertising. The study was based on an empirical research approach, which used a convenience sample of 450 students, drawn from Yarmouk University campus. The data was analyzed by various statistical techniques, such as Frequency analysis, Descriptive analysis, One Sample t-Test, and One-Way ANOVA. The main findings showed that Jordanian respondents were generally interested in celebrity endorsement in advertising, as the majority recognized its overall attractiveness, though did not find it convincing enough in terms of brand choice behavior. The study suggested to reconsider the way celebrities were projected in advertising, or even chosen, within the context of the Jordanian culture. The study urged further research to explore this issue in greater depth in Jordan. The study made several other recommendations in the light of the findings. Keywords: Brand choice behavior, consumer attitudes I. INTRODUCTION Today, the modern marketing strategy of most business firms rely heavily on creative advertising to promote their products to their target markets. In fact, a central goal of today's advertising strategy is the persuasion of customers, who are becoming increasingly educated, sophisticated and, selective. Competition is also becoming more intense. Having a good product alone is not enough to compete in markets of high standards (Kumar and Reinartz, 2006). Obviously, The changes in markets and consumer lifestyle are driving marketers to focus on more persuasive ways of promoting their products. In today's media driven markets, creative television advertising can promote not only products, but also attractive lifestyles and dreams that are highly valued by consumers (Alsmadi, 2005). Very often, advertising makers use various advertising styles to influence consumers' brand choice behavior. Among the different styles available, celebrity endorsement is becoming a popular choice in the advertising industry. Celebrities like movie actors, television stars, famous athletes are widely used in television advertising to influence consumers' brand choice behavior (Shimp, 2003). Advertisers try to establish a link between their brands and a
*Sami

Alsmadi Chair, Department of Public and Business Administration College of Business Administration University of Sharjah UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

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desirable image or lifestyle of a celebrity (Suegker, 2003). Research and experience show that consumers are most comfortable, and highly ready to spend, when celebrities endorse things that relate to their desired image (Internet World, 2001). The perceived image of celebrities is likely to have a positive impact on product choice behavior (for example, Goldsmith, Lafferty, and Newell, 2000; Mathur, Mathur, and Rangan, 1997). Consumers are likely to take more notice of celebrity advertisements and improve their level of product recall (Bowman, 2002). In fact, the special influence of celebrity endorsement is further enhanced by the obvious features of television advertising. Television provides daily access to thousands of sport athletes, film and television stars, and other celebrities. This makes celebrity-based television advertising (CBTA) an attractive choice by advertising makers. The term CBTA will be used throughout this study to mean television advertising that depends primarily on celebrity endorsement to influence consumer brand choice behavior. The current research investigates this issue within the Jordanian context. Statement of the research problem Because of the complexity of consumer buying behavior, and its variability across cultures, it is virtually difficult to identify advertising approaches that can be universally effective. Yet, it is noticeable that the portrayal of celebrities in television advertising is significantly increasing and becoming more important in the advertising strategy of most business firms across the world. In Jordan, in particular, marketers continue to adopt this universal trend in their advertising strategy. But, it is not clear how Jordanian customers respond to this type of advertising. Specifically, there is no evidence, so far, to suggest that it certainly affects their brand choice behavior. In deed, this is the primary concern of the current research, which investigates consumer attitudes towards celebrity endorsement in television advertising (CBTA) in Jordan, focusing on the following dimensions: 1) Attractiveness of CBTA 2) The effect of CBTA on consumers' brand choice behavior 3) The importance of celebrity-product match up Research objectives The purpose of this study is to explore Jordanian consumer attitudes towards CBTA to understand how consumers respond to celebrity endorsement in television commercials. In particular, the study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How attractive is CBTA to the Jordanian consumer? 2. What is the effect of CBTA on consumers' brand choice behavior? 3. How important is the celebrity-product match up? 4. Do consumer attitudes towards CBTA, with respect to brand-choice behavior, vary by demographic variables (sex and income)? On the contribution side, the findings are expected to help advertising makers improve the effectiveness of their advertising efforts, thus increase advertising persuasion within the Jordanian context.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW

71

The celebrity Concept In a today's dynamic and highly competitive business environment customers are becoming more demanding. Their expectations are continuously rising, with marketers continuing their efforts to meet them. In their creative advertising efforts marketers turn to celebrity endorsement to influence consumer brand choice behavior. A celebrity is a well-known personality who enjoys public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people (Schlecht, 2003). Celebrities (e.g. models, actors, television stars, artists and, sport athletes) are known to the public for their accomplishments in areas other than the product class endorsed (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). They usually enjoy high public recognition, and often have powerful influence upon endorsing products. They appear on television as spokespersons on behalf of the advertised brand, or ordinary users of such brand. In either way they often deliver a convincing message. They help increase awareness of advertised brands and create positive feelings towards them (Solomon, 2002). Eventually, this will positively affect customers' brand choice behavior. But, what are the desired qualities that should be possessed by effective celebrities? Next section will deal with this. Endorser attributes Research has shown that effective celebrities must be assessed against five essential attributes, usually referred to as 'TEARS' model (Shimp, 2003): 1. Trustworthiness: honesty, integrity, and believability of an endorser. It reflects the extent to which audience members trust and believe what celebrities say regarding the advertised brand. 2. Expertise: knowledge, experience, and skills of an endorser regarding the advertised brand. For example, a sport athlete is considered to be an expert when he/she endorses sport related products. 3. Attractiveness: all characteristics that make an endorser attractive to audience members (e.g. physical look, personality properties, attractive lifestyle, etc.). 4. Respect: refers to the quality of being admired or esteemed due to endorser's overall accomplishments. 5. Similarity: represents the extent to which an endorser matches target audience on characteristics related to the endorsement relationship (sex, age, lifestyle, etc.).

The TEARS model describes the essential qualities of celebrities that are important in determining their effectiveness in endorsement. But this does not say much about the selection criteria used by marketers and advertising makers. Next section will cast light on this issue. Endorser selection criteria The decision to select celebrity endorsers in television advertising is very important, at least partly, due cost consideration. Marketers and advertising makers use variety of selection criteria. Below is a list of the most important ones (Erdogan, Baker and Tagg, 2001; Miciak and Shanklin, 1994): 1. Celebrity/audience match up: compatibility between an endorser and the target audience. It represents the extent to which the target market relates positively to the endorser.

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2. Celebrity/brand match up: compatibility between an endorser and the image desired for the endorsed brand. Several research studies stressed the importance of this type of match up (for example, Till and Busler, 1998; Martin, 1996; Till and Shimp, 1998). 3. Celebrity Credibility: (discussed in the TEARS model). 4. Celebrity Attractiveness: (discussed in the TEARS model). 5. Cost consideration: the cost of acquiring a celebrity's services is an important issue in the advertising industry. Often, marketers have to pay top celebrities huge amounts of money for their endorsement services. For example, The famous golfer Tiger Woods was estimated to earn $54 million annually from endorsements (Ferguson, 2000). To put this in perspective, a person with a relatively high annual income (say $200,000) would have to work (270) years to earn as much as Tiger Woods' income in a single year from endorsements only. 6. Working ease/difficulty: represents how easy/ difficult is to deal with an endorser. Some celebrities are arrogant, tough, noncompliant or inaccessible. Many brand managers prefer to avoid the 'hassle' of dealing with them. 7. Saturation factor: refers to whether an endorser is overexposed to the media (multiple brand endorsement). If a celebrity endorses several brands, his/her perceived credibility will suffer. 8. The trouble factor: refers to the evaluation of the likelihood that a celebrity will get into troubles after an endorsement (e.g. Drugs, rape, child-molestation etc.). Due to these unfortunate incidents, coupled with the high cost of endorsement, many brand managers and advertising makers consider celebrities as high-risk endorsers. (Blakeley, 2001). Some avoid celebrity endorsement altogether, while others conduct thorough and careful scrutiny in selecting celebrities.

Power of celebrity endorsement Many people aspire to share values and lifestyles of celebrities as models of success. Often, they seek to imitate, emulate, and even impersonate celebrities' behavior to enhance their self-esteem, through identification with certain desirable images. Such behavior includes imitating the way celebrities speak, dress, communicate, and most importantly, the brands they choose. This process says more about what people hope to become than it does about what they already are. This simply reflects the power of celebrity endorsement, which is behind the main reason for employing celebrities to promote almost all kinds of products (Fraser and Brown, 2002). This power is viewed in three aspects: attention, which breaks through the advertising clutter and makes the endorsed brand more noticeable to target audience; credibility, which conveys a sense of trust for endorsed brands; and persuasion, which sends a persuasive message to target audience to adopt the endorsed brand. One specialist maintained that appealing to youth and other consumer audiences through celebrities could be a powerful marketing strategy (Cuneo, 2002). Previous research Many studies described the positive effects of celebrities on consumer buying behavior, such as the adoption of clothing styles, product choice, and health behaviors (for example, Brown and Basil, 1995; Hoffner and Cantor, 1991). Research evidence revealed that the perceived image of celebrity endorsers had a positive impact on product buying behavior (for example, Goldsmith, Lafferty, and Newell, 2000;

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Mathur, Mathur, and Rangan, 1997, Ohanian, 1990). One study indicated that people of all ages emulated the appearance and behaviors of media celebrities they admired (Hoffner and Cantor, 1991). One study by Howard (2002) showed that female respondents in the U.S.A. were more responsive to celebrity endorsement (20%) than male respondents (16%). Frazer and Brown examined how audience members identified with celebrities, and how this affected their personal lives. They concluded that people selectively integrated the perceived values and behaviors they saw in celebrities they admired and adopted them into their own lives (Frazer and Brown, 2002). Pappas (1999), who examined the value of star power in an endorsement, indicated how a well-designed advertising helped celebrities convert their star power into brand equity. One study stressed the advantage of celebrity endorsement in enhancing product recognition and recall. The study maintained that consumers were likely to take more notice of celebrity advertisements and improve their level of product recall (Bowman, 2002). On the downside, many studies were critical about the use of celebrity endorsement. One study examined the potential risks of overshadowing endorsed products. The study explored the common concern that consumers would focus their attention on the celebrity and fail to note the endorsed brand itself (Erdogan, Baker, and Tagg, 2001). Wells and Prensky (1996), who examined the issue of credibility, indicated that many consumers were skeptical of celebrities who were paid to provide positive information about endorsed brands. Several other studies criticized the credibility of celebrity endorsement (for example, Shanahan, 2001). One specialist put it this way "A product pitched by a celebrity is a tale told by an idiot" (Feuer, 2002). Other studies explored the issue of negative publicity associated with celebrity endorsers (For example, Till and Shimp, 1998). One study showed an evidence that a company's stock price declined when negative publicity hit a celebrity who endorsed one of its brands (Louie, Kulik, and Johnson, 2001). One critical study urged companies to stop using celebrities to drum up media coverage in the absence of a solid story. Instead, the study recommended to use celebrities to intensify an already strong issue-oriented message (Pepe, 2004). One critique, who commented cynically on this view, had this to say "if you don't have anything meaningful to say, get a celebrity to say it" (Grimm, 2001). One study examined the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement. The study concluded that, ultimately, the appeal and effectiveness of the celebrity within the advertising was still going to be determined by the quality of the creative idea behind the advertising message (Iddiols, 2002). Similar other comments were made along this line (for example, Howard, 2002). Clearly, the issue of celebrity endorsement in advertising has received a significant attention in the literature, particularly from a western perspective. As revealed in the literature review above, many studies showed an overwhelming support of the use of celebrity endorsement in advertising, while some studies were cautious as they expressed some concerns. Obviously, the literature did not show consistence among research findings on this issue. At least, partly, this can be justified by cultural differences as well as variations in the measuring instruments used. Theoretically, at least, the universal role of CBTA is mainly to elicit consumers' attention and ultimately persuade them to buy endorsed products. In deed, one may enjoy the attractive appeal of advertisements, which feature models and other types of celebrities, but not necessarily make the purchase or switch his/her loyalty upon endorsement. Despite

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the universal trend of using celebrities in advertisements, however, the literature showed little reflection of how these advertisements were perceived by consumers across cultures. To the best knowledge of the author, no previous studies were conducted on this specific issue within the Jordanian culture, in particular. This makes the current research the first of its nature to focus attention on the specific issue of CBTA in Jordan. In that, it is considered an extension to previous research in other areas of television advertising in Jordan. In genera, few studies explored the issue of television advertising in Jordan, focusing on different other issues. For example, Alsmadi (2004) found that television advertising was generally inconsistent with consumer culture in Jordan due to the use of unfamiliar vocabulary and unacceptable women portrayal. Other studies supported these findings (Alsmadi, 2005, Mansour, 1998). One comparative study between the Arab world and the U.S. examined the effects of cultural differences regarding the advertising material. The study found that as high as 83% of Arabic advertisements featured women decently compared to only 29% of U.S advertisements (Kiran and Fahad, 2000). Research hypotheses The current study draws on the literature and explores CBTA from the perspective of the Jordanian consumer, focusing on different aspects (indicated earlier). Based on the nature of the current research problem, given the findings indicated in the literature, the following hypotheses are formulated: H1: Jordanian consumers are likely to consider CBTA as an attractive advertising. H2: CBTA is likely to have a positive influence on consumers' brand choice behavior. H3: Jordanian consumers are likely to believe that the celebrity-product match up is important. H4:There are no significant differences in consumers' brand-choice behavior (0.05), which is influenced by CBTA, due to demographic characteristics (sex and income). III. RESEARCH DESIGN Study population This study is based on a field work, of which population included all Yarmouk University students who were enrolled in all BA programmes. Other student categories were not included in the study. According to the latest statistics, Yarmouk University has (17726) students in all BA programmes (Department of Development and Planning, 2005). This population is generally considered homogeneous in terms of age group and education level. That is, respondent age and education were assumed relatively fixed within this population. This paved the way to focus on other demographic variables in this study, such as sex and income. Sampling procedures This study used a convenience sample of 450 students contacted at the university campus. Originally, 500 copies of a questionnaire were distributed to respondents, using drop-off approach (Aaker et al, 2004). According to this method, the data collection team interviewed students, who showed an interest to participate in the study, and briefed them about the purpose of the study. Afterwards, they hand delivered the questionnaires to them to fill out, followed by an arrangement to collect the completed questionnaires. The usable sample was 450 respondents after the

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process of data editing and cleaning. Accordingly, the response rate was (90%). Table (1) shows the distribution of the sample according to sex groups and income brackets. Table 1 Distribution of the study sample according to demographic characteristics (sex and income) Variable Variable level Count Percentage (%)

Sex

Total Income (JD)

Total

Male Female --250 or Below 251-500 501+ ---

280 170 450 260 131 59 450

62.2 37.8 100 57.8 29.1 13.1 100

n=450 Research instrument To collect the required data, a self-administered questionnaire was designed to measure consumer attitudes towards CBTA. The questionnaire included three main sections relevant to the dimensions of the study. The first section was intended to measure consumer attitudes towards the attractiveness of CBTA (Dimension 1). The second section was designed to assess the influence of CBTA on consumers' brand choice behavior (Dimension 2). The third section was prepared to measure consumer attitudes towards the celebrity-product match up (Dimension 3). The questionnaire also contained questions on the demographic characteristics of respondents (sex and income). Appendix A shows the three sections with the relevant statements which measure each dimension. A five-point Likert scale was used for measurement. The scale consisted of five levels of agreement, running from strongly disagree up to strongly agree (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree and, 5=strongly agree). The measurement logic was based on the fact that the higher the attitude mean score the more favorable the attitude, and vice versa. The questionnaire (Arabic version) was validated through a pilot study, which included academics, specialists and, advertising practitioners. Their comments were considered in the final version. The reliability of the measuring instrument was evaluated by Cronbach Alpha analysis. The test output of reliability analysis revealed a correlation value of ( = 0.84). Statistical treatment Several statistical techniques were used at the analytical stage, including Frequency analysis, Descriptive analysis, and Analysis Of Variance (One Sample tTest, One-Way ANOVA). The first three hypotheses were tested by One Sample tTest, based on the value of (3) [scale midpoint]. The higher the value the more favourable the attitude, and vice versa. The fourth hypothesis was tested by One-Way ANOVA to explore mean differences among sex and income sub-groups. The testing for mean differences was based on (0.05) significance level as a decision rule (0.05). We accept statistical differences if the significance level is (0.05 or less), and vice versa.

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IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Research findings in Tables (2 through 4) show descriptive analysis (mean scores and standard deviations), and agreement levels for attitude statements regarding the three dimensions of the study, respectively. The findings also show results of One Sample t-Test for each dimension, taken as a whole. The test value was (3), which is the scale midpoint (five-point Likert scale). Further analysis (Tables 5 and 6) examine differences among respondent demographics (sex and income), using IndependentSamples t-Test and One-Way ANOVA. Attraction of CBTA (Dim. 1) The research findings for the first dimension (Table 2) revealed that Jordanian respondents were interested in CBTA, as the majority believed that it was generally attractive. The analysis in the Table revealed that the overall attitude mean score of respondents, which measures this dimension as a whole, was above the scale midpoint (3.87), with the standard deviation showing little dispersion around this mean. Further, the analysis of agreement scores showed that the majority of respondents (75.94%) had positive attitudes towards CBTA, in terms of its overall attractiveness. They believed that it was eye-catching (94.9%), enjoyable (58.5%), popular (88.3%), attractive (76%), and encouraging to pay more attention to the details of endorsed product (62%). As shown in the Table, all statements for this dimension had mean scores above the scale midpoint, which clearly indicated positive attitudes towards attractiveness of CBTA. These results were further substantiated by One Sample tTest, which revealed that the overall mean difference, for the dimension as a whole, was statistically significant ( =0.000), at (0.05), with high t-value (t=28.46). This means that the mean score of Jordanian respondents, who agreed with the attitude statements as a whole, was significantly different from that for those who disagreed. These findings support the first hypothesis of the study (H1), which states that Jordanian consumers are likely to consider CBTA as an attractive advertising. Therefore, we can accept this hypothesis. Many previous studies, however, supported these findings. For example, one study concluded that people selectively integrated the perceived values and behaviors they saw in celebrities they admired and adopted them into their own lives (Frazer and Brown, 2002). Table 2 Descriptive analysis, agreement levels, and t values (One Sample t-test) of attitude statements regarding Dimension 1 of the study Mean Std. t Sig. Disagree N Agree Dim. 1: () * (%) (%) * (%) attraction of CBTA score Dev. value

1-Television advertising, which uses celebrities, attracts my attraction. 2-Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is popular.

4.48

0.72

3.1

2.0

94.9

4.24

0.85

6.8

4.9

88.3

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Dim. 1: attraction of CBTA 3-Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is more attractive. 4-Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is enjoyable 5- Attractive celebrities in television advertising make me pay more attention to product details Dim. 1 as a whole

77

Mean score
4.00

Std. Dev.
0.97

t value

Sig. ()

Disagree * (%) 10.2

N (%) 13.8

Agree * (%) 76.0

3.63

1.00

13.4

28.2

58.5

3.57

1.22

24.4

13.6

62.0

3.87

0.65

28.46

0.000

11.58

12.5

75.94

n=450 * For analysis purposes, disagree and strongly disagree were regrouped into "Disagree", and also agree and strongly agree into "Agree". Influence of CBTA on brand choice (Dim. 2) Dimension (2) measures the influence of CBTA on consumers brand choice behavior. The research findings for this dimension (Table 3) unveiled that CBTA did not seem to have much influence on Jordanian consumers in terms of their brand choice behavior, despite their positive view of CBTAs attractiveness indicated in the analysis of the first dimension. The results in the Table revealed that the overall percentage of disagreement on this dimension (43.98%) was greater than that of agreement (30.08%). Obviously, the majority of respondents appeared to have negative attitudes towards the role of CBTA in brand choice behavior. Further analysis of attitude mean scores, showed low mean score values (below scale midpoint) for most statements. For example, CBTA was likely to increase acceptance of endorsed brands (2.66), improve awareness of such brands (2.79), and help make buying decisions (2.58). However, CBTA was powerful enough to remind consumers of endorsed brands during shopping (3.27), though did not help much in other aspects of brand choice behavior, as indicated above. The resulting overall mean score value was below scale midpoint (2.82), with the standard deviation showing little dispersion around this mean. However, the analysis of One Sample t-Test showed that the overall mean difference, for the dimension as a whole, was statistically significant ( =0.000), at (0.05), with relatively high t-value (t=-4.89). This means that the mean score of Jordanian respondents, who disagreed with the attitude statements as a whole, was significantly different from that for those who agreed. In that, these findings do not seem to support the second hypothesis (H2), which states that CBTA is likely to have a positive influence on consumers' brand choice behavior. Therefore, we can not generally accept this hypothesis. Although many previous studies stressed the advantage of celebrity endorsement in enhancing product recognition and recall (Bowman, 2002), some studies were critical about the use of

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celebrities in advertising as consumers would focus their attention on the celebrity and fail to note the endorsed brand itself (for example, Erdogan, Baker, and Tagg, 2001). Table 3 Descriptive analysis, agreement levels, and t values (One Sample t-test) of attitude statements regarding the dimension 2 of the study Mean Std. t Sig. () Disagree* N Agree* Dim. 2: Influence score Dev. value (%) (%) (%) of CBTA on consumers' brand choice behavior 1-CBTA helps me 2.58 0.95 52.9 28.4 18.7 make the buying decision 2-CBTA helps me remember the 3.27 1.07 24.2 28.9 46.8 endorsed brand during shopping 3-CBTA increases 2.66 1.06 51.6 25.1 23.3 acceptance of endorsed brands 4-CBTA increases my awareness of 2.79 1.13 47.2 21.3 31.5 endorsed brands. 43.98 25.93 30.08 Dim. 2 as a whole 2.82 0.77 -4.89 0.000

n=450 * For analysis purposes, disagree and strongly disagree were regrouped into "Disagree", and also agree and strongly agree into "Agree". Celebrity-product match up (Dim. 3) The analysis of the third dimension (Table 4) revealed that Jordanian consumers were likely to appreciate the importance of match-up between celebrities and the products they endorsed in television advertising. The figures in the Table showed that the overall attitude mean score of respondents, which measures this dimension as a whole, was (3.45), with the standard deviation indicating little dispersion around this mean. Obviously, the majority believed that the character of a celebrity in television advertising was likely to have an influence on the image of the endorsed brand (3.79) and that the more meaningful the match-up between the celebrity and the endorsed brand, the greater the trust in the brand (3.10). Further, the analysis of agreement scores showed that the overall percentage of agreement on this dimension as a whole (56.65) was much greater than that of disagreement (23.65). Clearly, the majority of respondents seemed to have positive attitudes towards the importance of the perceived relationship between celebrities and the brands they endorsed. These findings were further substantiated by One Sample t-Test, which indicated that the overall mean difference, for the dimension as a whole, was statistically significant ( =0.000), at (0.05), with relatively high t-value (t=6.86). This indicated that the attitude mean score of respondents, who agreed with this dimension as a whole, was significantly different from that for those who disagreed. These findings support the third hypothesis (H3), which states that Jordanian consumers are likely to believe that

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79

the celebrity-product match up is important. Therefore, we can accept this hypothesis. These findings were, however, consistent with conclusions of many previous studies. For example, Kamins (1990) emphasized the importance of considering the appropriate match on an attractiveness basis between a celebrity and product type. Further, the study explained that the characteristics of a celebrity were likely to interact with the nature of the advertised product. Shimp (2003) also shared similar views on this issue. Table 4 Descriptive analysis, agreement levels, and t values (One Sample t-test) of attitude statements regarding the dimension 3 of the study t Sig. Disagree N (%) Agree* Dim. 3: Celebrity- Mean Std. () * (%) (%) product match up score Dev. value

1-The character of a celebrity 3.79 1.05 14.6 14.2 influences the image of the endorsed brand 2-The more meaningful the match up between the celebrity and 3.10 1.11 32.7 25.1 the endorsed brand, the greater the trust in the brand Dim. 3 as a whole 3.45 0.87 6.86 0.000 23.65 19.65 n=450 * For analysis purposes, disagree and strongly disagree were regrouped into "Disagree", and also agree and strongly agree into "Agree".

71.1

42.2

56.65

Demographic variables The analysis in this section explores potential differences in consumers brand choice behavior (D2) due to their demographic variables (sex and income). The purpose of this analysis is to test the fourth hypothesis of the study (H4), which states that there are no significant differences in consumers' brand-choice behavior (0.05), which is influenced by CBTA, due to demographic characteristics (sex and income). Clearly, the analysis focuses on (D2) as it measures the direct effect of CBTA on brand choice behavior. Sex To deal with the fourth hypothesis of the study (H4), mean scores, standard deviations and t-values were calculated to examine differences in consumers' brands choice behavior among male and female groups (Table 5). The findings in the Table show that these differences were statistically significant (=0.000), as the t-value was (4.206) at a testing level of (0.05). This means that males and females were significantly different in their brand choice behavior due to the influence of CBTA.

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According to the mean scores in the Table, male respondents were more influenced by CBTA than females did, as male mean score (2.94) was greater than that of females (2.63). Therefore, we can not accept the fourth hypothesis (H6), in terms of sex. However, the research findings for this dimension (shown earlier in Table 3) revealed that, in general, CBTA did not seem to have much influence on Jordanian consumers in terms of their brand choice behavior. This is reflected in the analysis in Table (5), which indicated that both males and females had mean scores on the unfavourable side of the scale (below 3). Obviously, the statistical difference, noted for sex groups here, was merely in their level of unfavourability. In a relatively conservative societylike Jordan, however, this difference in attitudes can be expected. Table 5 Mean scores, standard deviations and, t-values for respondent attitude scores on (D2) by sex. Sex Percent Mean score Standard deviation t-value Sign. level ()

Male Female

62.2 37.8

2.94 3.63

0.733 0.797

4.206

0.000

n=450 Income To test the fourth hypothesis (H4), in terms of income, mean scores, standard deviations, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to evaluate differences in consumers' brand choice behavior among income brackets of respondent, as shown in Table (6). The research findings, presented in the Table, showed that there were no significant differences in consumers brand choice behavior (=0.206) due to income level, as the F-value was (1.59), which was not statistically significant at the test level of (0.05). Therefore, we can accept the fourth hypothesis (H4), in terms of income. Clearly, the findings indicated that the influence of CBTA on consumers brand choice behavior was relatively similar among the three income groups (low, middle, and high income). That is, the three income groups were consistent in terms of their perception of the effect of CBTA on their brand choice behavior. Table (6) showed that the attitude mean scores for the three income groups were all on the unfavourable side of the scale (2.77, 2.92, 2.84). Obviously, this seems to be consistent with earlier findings (shown in Table 3), that, in general, CBTA did not seem to have much influence on Jordanian consumers in terms of their brand choice behavior.

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Table 6 Mean scores, standard deviations and, F-values for respondent attitude scores on (D2) by income. Income (JD)* Percent Mean score Standard Deviation F-value F-Probability (Sig. level) ()

81

250 or below

57.8

2.77

0.754

251 500

29.1

2.92

0.789

1.59

0.206

501 + 13.1 2.84 0.805 n=450 * Low income: 250 JD or below, Middle income: 251-500 JD, High income: 501+ JD

V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Despite the conflicting results found in the literature on the use of celebrities in advertising, this research revealed that Jordanian consumers were generally positive about many aspects of this dynamic issue in advertising strategy. It is evident from the findings that Jordanian consumers were impressed by the visual attractiveness of advertising messages, which used celebrities to appeal to target audience. They also showed an interest in the relationship between celebrities and endorsed products in an advertising. They seemed to believe in the importance of the match-up between the two. Yet, the majority did not seem to view this kind of advertising convincing enough, in principle, to affect their brand choice behavior. But this should not overshadow the whole view, as nearly one third of respondents were subject to the effect of CBTA regarding their brand choice behavior, and almost one fourth were neutral on this matter (revealed in Table 3). One possible explanation behind this phenomenon could be the way the advertising message was designed. In particular, the way celebrities were portrayed was not, perhaps, convincing enough to appeal to Jordanian consumers. One study, which clearly supported this conclusion, showed that the advertising problem in Asia was not so much the celebrities, but the lack of imagination in the way they were used (Bowman, 2002). Alternatively, the choice of celebrities was not possibly able to match up with consumers expectations. In either way, this may, however, require a rethinking or reconsideration to the way celebrities were projected in advertising, or even chosen, within the context of the Jordanian culture. In principle, this calls for a better understanding of Jordanian consumer behavior, possibly through market research. This will, probably, lead to a more convincing and acceptable form of celebrity endorsement in television advertising in Jordan. It is, therefore, hoped that Jordanian advertising makers and specialists in the advertising industry will draw on these conclusions to maximize the benefits of using celebrities in advertising, taking consumer culture into consideration Recommendations The current research findings suggest that advertising makers and specialists are highly recommended to improve their perception of the role of celebrities in the advertising strategy in Jordan. Obviously, this requires further investigation to understand the extent to which Jordanian consumers believe what celebrities say

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about products, including the perceived credibility of such endorsement. Moreover, it will be helpful if celebrities can be encouraged to participate in decision-making at all levels of the advertising media and provide valuable inputs to the process. Undoubtedly, this will improve advertising effectiveness, and consequently increase potential revenues for Jordanian advertisers. More research will have to be made to explore more specific issues of celebrity endorsement in television advertising within the context of the Jordanian culture. For example, future research will have to re-examine the credibility issue of celebrities from the customers perspective and explore how celebrities are positioned in the consumers mind. Moreover, future research will have to investigate the ideal characteristics that best match desirable celebrities, and consequently make their endorsement more convincing to the Jordanian consumer. Research limitations This study encountered two limitations: 1. In the literature review, the previous studies that specifically addressed the issue of CBTA were all western-based. In Jordan, in particular, no previous studies were found on this specific issue. This makes the current research the first of its nature in Jordan. Even on the general issue of television advertising, only few studies were found. 2. The empirical work was based on a student sample. Clearly, it can be understood that generalization of results is limited to the student population, not the whole market. In addition, the sample size was relatively small (450 students) due to limited resources. Obviously, this adds to the problem of generalization. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aaker, D., Kumar, V. and, Day, G. S. (2004), Marketing Research, 8th edition, John Wiley & sons, Inc., New York, P. 259. Alsmadi, Sami (2004), Consumer Attitudes towards Ethics of Television Advertising in Jordan: the Case of Zarqa, Journal of Al-Manarah, Al-albayt University, Vol. 10, No. 2, PP. 243-268. (in Arabic). Alsmadi, Sami (2005), The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising: An Empirical Investigation of Consumer Attitudes in Jordan, International Journal of applied marketing, Vol.1, issue 2, PP. 1-16. Bowman, Jo (2002), Facing Advertising Reality, Media Asia, Vol. 7, Issue 26, PP. 1415. Brown, W. J. and Basil, M. D. (1995), Media Celebrities and Public Health: Responses to Magic Johnson's HIV Disclosure and Its Impact on AIDS Risk and HighRisk Behavior, Health communication, 7, PP. 345-370. Blakeley, Kiri (2001), Oops, They Did It Again, Forbes, Vol. 168, Issue 8, P. 54. Cuneo, Alice Z. (2002), Retailers Tap Celebrities, Advertising Age, Vol. 73, Issue 30, PP. 4-5. Department of Development and Planning (2005), Yarmouk University in Figures, Yarmouk University, Irbid-Jordan. Erdogan, B. Z., Baker, M. J. and Tagg, S. (2001), Selecting Celebrity Endorsers: The practitioner's Perspective, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41, Issue 3, PP. 39-48.

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Appendix A: Statements measuring the three dimensions D1: Attraction of CBTA

1. Television advertising, which uses celebrities, attracts my attraction. 2. Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is popular. 3. Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is more attractive. 4. Television advertising, which uses celebrities, is enjoyable 5. Attractive celebrities in television advertising make me pay more attention to product details D2:Influence of CBTA on consumers' brand choice behavior 1. 2. 3. 4. CBTA helps me make the buying decision CBTA helps me remember the endorsed brand during shopping CBTA increases acceptance of endorsed brands CBTA increases my awareness of endorsed brands.

D3: Celebrity-product match up 1. The character of a celebrity influences the image of the endorsed brand 2. The more meaningful the match up between the celebrity and the endorsed brand, the greater the trust in the brand