SDYC 2011 Academic Booklet

S U S TA I NA B L E D E V E LO P M E N T YO U T H C O N V E N T I O N
ACADEMIC BOOKLET 2 011
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FOREWORD
Every year, world leaders convene to address the pressing issues brought about by unsustainable development. During these discussions and debates, decisions are made and resolutions are crafted and implemented. Today, as participants of the Sustainable Development Youth Convention 2011, you will be given the opportunity to participate in a similar discussion setting. We hope this learning journey will allow you to broaden your knowledge and further your interest in sustainable development. Sustainable development can be applied to a plethora of fields - from issues in society, to the environment, and the economy. But at the very heart of sustainable development, lies the concept of balance and compromise. It is a balance between economic growth and environmental conservation. It is a compromise between fulfilling each partys agenda and serving the greater good. During the course of the debates and discussions, it is our hope that you will learn to understand each others roles and purposes, and ultimately craft a solution which best aligns the respective parties gains with sustainable development. This year, SDYC will cover four scenarios of sustainable development carbon emissions, deforestation, food production and resource depletion. These topics were selected as they span the three critical aspects of sustainable development - the economy, the environment and the society. While this guide will provide you the basic information on each of the four topics, we would like to emphasise that it is merely a platform on which you should build your knowledge base. Before attending the 3 day convention, do some research and develop opinions, perspectives and ideas which you can contribute during the committee sessions. Lastly, we would like to stress that sustainable development is more than just any one scenario. It is the underlying principle that should steer our decisions as leaders of tomorrow.
Overexploitation of Mines
Mines are the source of nearly all our metals and minerals - vital cornerstones of our modern world. However, large-scale mining activity has caused lasting damage to the environment, society and economy. How can we maintain essential mining activities while minimising further damage?
Carbon Futures
Carbon dioxide emission is a major contributor to climate change and a nemesis to our environment. How can we regulate carbon emissions to prevent further damage to our climate and environment?
Food Sustainability
Humans cannot live without food. Currently, agriculture struggles to provide for nearly 7 billion human beings, a number which is increasing exponentially. How can we overcome rampant inefficient practices and wastage so that we will not be threatened by starvation and sky-high food prices?
Deforestation
The decimation of the pristine forests of the world is occurring at a rapid, and ever accelerating pace. However, the livelihoods of millions depend on the land space for agriculture and economic purposes. How can we save our forests without sacrificing economic and societal progress? How can a compromise be reached?
With that, we hope that SDYC 2011 will be an insightful, enriching and all round awesome experience for all of you!
Christopher Thng & Qu Tian Lu Academic Committee Chairpersons Sustainable Development Youth Convention 2011
TABLE
OVEREXPLOITATION OF MINES
OF
CONTENTS
Key Question 1 Scenario 1 Key Concepts and Definitions 2 Links to Sustainable Development 3 Some Initiatives Taken 4 Key Issues 5 Stakeholders 8 Food for Thought 27
CARBON FUTURES
Key Question 28 Scenario 28 Key Concepts and Definitions 30 Links to Sustainable Development 31 Some Initiatives Taken 31 Stakeholders 32 Food for Thought 49
FOOD SUSTAINABILIT Y
Key Question 50 Scenario 50 Key Concepts and Definitions 52 Links to Sustainable Development 53 Some Initiatives Taken 54 Key Issues 56 Stakeholders 57 Food for Thought 80
DEFORESTATION
Key Question 81 Scenario 81 Key Concepts and Definitions 82 Links to Sustainable Development 82 Some Initiatives Taken 83 Key Issues 84 Some Possible Solutions 87 Stakeholders 89 Food for Thought 98
APPENDICES
Appendix A 99 References Appendix B 106 Further Reading
OVEREXPLOITATION MINES
OF
KEY QUESTION
How can countries implement its policies so as to achieve a balance between the short-term benefits of poorly regulated mining and the long-term benefits of safe and sustainable mining?
SCENARIO
In South Africa, 100 years of gold mining has resulted in massive environmental consequences such as acid water seeping and corroding the foundation of buildings. In Humberstone, Chile, what was a booming town in the 1920s is now deserted after the mine was depleted. This left the town with polluted and toxic land. Such incidents are not limited to the above-mentioned countries and have occurred in other parts of the world from Poland to Papau New Guinea. However, many of the offenders are not local mining companies but companies from the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The involvement of multinational corporations in the matter makes this a transnational issue. Under these circumstances, the United Nations has organised a session where countries and companies are invited to discuss issues related to poor mining practices. This session focuses on the feasibility of a global set of regulations to manage mining, how countries should implement policies to regulate domestic mining and the diversification of developing countries economy from mining profits.
S U S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T Y O U T H C O N V E N T I O N 2 011
KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or coal seam. The nature of mining processes could have potential negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and years after the mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Sustainable Mining is all about developing procedures, regulations, and enforcing them to ensure that mining practices do not result in environmental, financial or social harm which could in turn affect current and future generations. This can only be brought about through the concerted enforcement of certain regulations mutually agreed upon by mining corporations, the government and NGOs. While it is clear that some regulation is necessary, the extent of this regulation is open to discourse. EITI (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative) increases transparency over payments by companies to governments and to government-linked entities, as well as transparency over revenues by those host country governments. It was announced by Tony Blair, the then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in September 2002. Ghana, Nigeria and Azerbaijan piloted the EITI approach. Artisanal mining is mining not done by mining companies, but by independent people, mining or panning for gold using their own resources. Mining done in such a manner is hard to regulate. The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is composed of 18 mining companies and works with local communities and governments to find ethical means to discover and extract metal ore from the earth. Land Reclamation is the process of returning the land in a given area to some degree of its former state, after some process (industrial, natural disasters etc.) has resulted in its damage.
ACADEMIC BOOKLET
LINKS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1 Map of mining operations throughout the world. Mining is an economic activity that happens in many countries all over the world and is a huge economic contributor to many countries gross domestic product. However, the nature of mining negatively impacts the environment both during and after the mine is closed. This impact can be mitigated by strict regulations that force mining companies to clean up the surrounding area after the mine is depleted. However, the process is not perfect and much of the environmental damage weathered during the mining process is irreversible. Problems such as heavy metal runoff and surface mining destroy local ecosystems which might cause endemic species to go extinct. The environment becomes uninhabitable for not only wildlife, but also humans. Land improperly reclaimed is unsuitable for agricultural or residential uses, and might be fit only industrial use. This poses a huge problem when the mine is depleted and the surrounding area is unable to be used productively. If measures are not put in place to minimise environmental damages, arable and habitable land will be lost - a consequence that future generations will have to bear. However, any money spent on implementing safety measures and technology is profit lost and might be unjustifiable to shareholders. A balance between the two must be reached in order to develop sustainably.
SOME INITIATIVES TAKEN
THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL
ON
MINING & METALS (ICMM)
ICMM brings together 20 of the world's leading mining and metals companies as well as 31 national and regional mining associations and global commodity associations to address the core sustainable development challenges faced by the industry.
Their members include: African Rainbow Minerals, AngloAmerican, AngloGold Ashanti, AREVA, Barrick, BHP Billiton, Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, Goldcorp, Gold Fields, Hydro, JX Nippon Mining & Metals, Lonmin, Minerals and Metals Group, Mitsubishi Materials, Newmont, Rio Tinto, Sumitomo Metal Mining, Teck, Vale and Xstrata. They come from countries such as US, Canada, China, Brazil, Japan and South Africa, and work together on projects called work programs. These work programs aim to tackle issues related to sustainable mining such as climate change, socio-economic problems, the environment and materials stewardship.
On the front of climate change, ICMM members have committed towards establishing a comprehensive and rigorous climate change management program of policy principles. This allows policy implementations to be flexible to suit a nation-targeted approach. For example, member companies have taken steps to comprehend a mining operations water balance, and then act appropriately on it.
The ICMM understands that there are socio-economic aspects to mining operations. They have written a paper on responsible mine closure practices. The paper is available online at http:// bit.ly/qcNWWG/.
ACADEMIC BOOKLET
KEY ISSUES
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE Water pollution often results from mining. Large amounts of water used in mine drainage, cooling and aqueous extraction (for uranium and water soluble metal compounds) have to be processed carefully in order to avoid contaminating the surrounding ground and surface water. In addition, toxic chemicals used in the mining process might be washed away and seep into the groundwater. Exposed topsoil could lead to soil erosion into surface waters, decreasing its quality. The acidic Rio Tinto River with its high heavy metal concentrations is a key example of how mines can pollute surface water if measures are not taken to prevent it. In order to tackle this issues, technologies such as water diversion systems, containment ponds, groundwater pumping, subsurface draining systems. Currently, only the United States and a few other countries force companies to implement some of these measures. Deforestation results from surface mining, where the topsoil and associated flora and fauna are removed to provide access for mining. Although the area removed is small compared to the forest cleared for agricultural purposes, it might cause the extinction of endemic species. Sub-surface mining could be conducted at the cost of the first few meters worth of resources. Tailings are materials left over from the process of separating ore from the uneconomic fraction of soil which might contain other ore. In heavy metal mining operations, improper disposal and processing of tailings can lead to serious environmental damage. Tailings are often stored in a dam or pool. However, failure of the dam wall (Ok Tedi, Buffalo Creek Flood and the Baia Mare cyanide spill) or wind might cause tailings to spread to the surrounding environment, causing serious environmental damage. Processing of tailings is mandatory in developed nations but not in developing countries. Release of methane into the environment is an unavoidable consequence of coal mining. Methane is 22 times more potent as a greenhouse gas and is a main contributor to climate change. Storage of methane underground is a possible but costly solution to the problem. More can and should be done in the regulation of methane storage.
5
THE COST
AND
COMPLEXITY
OF
REGULATION
While widely acknowledged that some form of regulation can reduce the environmental, social and financial consequences of mining operations, both companies and governments are resistant to forms of regulation which could burden them economically. From the perspective of companies, compliance to regulation involves spending on technology and manpower that will reduce profits in the short term. As a result of regulatory measures, mining corporations are forced to cut into their profit margins which could affect shareholders and its employees. Forced to choose between profit and environmental consequences, corporations often forgo the latter, resulting in unsustainable practices. From the perspective of the government, more manpower and infrastructure is needed to enforce newly legislated regulations. This means an increase in budget for that department, a move that the current political party might not wish to spend political capital on. In addition, countries that have corrupt governments benefit from corporations by promising not to pass laws that affect the companies business. As a result, there is inertia on both sides preventing the mining industry from being regulated. The only motivator, which has had a measure of success, is public pressure. This led to the formation of the ICMM.
EFFECT
OF
REGULATION
ON THE
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Many countries depend heavily on mining to supplement their domestic economy. Mining provides many jobs in developing nations and imposing regulations might scare off potential investors. In addition, the government can use the money saved by reducing mining regulation to improve the infrastructure and the lives of the citizens. The promise of money in the short term is perceived to outweigh the loss of useful land in the future. Hence, for many countries fighting to survive in the present, environmental issues are at the back of their minds.
ACADEMIC BOOKLET
C O M P E T I T I O N B E T W E E N M I N I N G C O M PA N I E S The profit from a mine depends not only on the amount of ore in the mine, but also from the cost of setting up a mine in that country. Different countries have different regulations that force companies to protect the environment. These costs cut into a companies profit margin, and affect the companies ability to decrease prices. As a result, companies operating in countries with tighter regulations have no choice but to sell at higher prices and are less competitive than countries operating without any restrictions. Companies extensive lobbying against regulation has resulted in a stagnation of regulatory efforts.
SOCIAL ASPECTS During the initial setup stages of a mining operation, large amounts of resources and human capital are directed to the area around the operation. A town is usually founded, funded from the wages of miners. Businesses and services sprout up to service the miners and their families, and such towns can last for generations. However, mines are not an infinite resource, and eventually mines run out of ores. As the mining operation winds down, the money that used to fund the businesses and services stops flowing and the towns die out. This is evident in many countries which industrialised in the 1900s. America, for example, is home to many abandoned mining towns.
Nevada, one of the youngest and wildest states in America, is strewn with ruins that seem as gray and silent and time-worn as if the civilisation to which they belonged had perished centuries ago. Yet, these ruins are the result of mining efforts made during the 1900s and contain abandoned houses, furnaces and machinery.
In order to prevent such towns from littering the landscape of a country, governments have a responsibility to diversify the services of the mining towns in order to prevent their collapse should resources run out.
STAKEHOLDERS
GENER A LLY FO R
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South Africa is one of the world's and Africa's most important mining countries in terms of the variety and quantity of minerals produced. It has the world's largest reserves of chrome, gold, vanadium, manganese and South Africa PGM's. The country's mineral industry can be broken down into five broad categories: Gold, PGM, Diamonds, Coal and Vanadium. It has encouraged much immigration into the country. The mining industrys relative contribution to South Africas GDP has declined.
Countries
The United States produces a wide variety of commodities from gold to coal. It has a land area of over 9.6 million square kilometers, 19,924 kilometers of coastline, and a population of over 298 million people. It uses 25% of the worlds energy reserves and USA spends more on maintaining its military might than most other country's entire GDP. It is the world's second largest producer of copper and gold, exports over US$26 billion worth of minerals and material produced from minerals each year and its mining industry employs over 3 million people directly and indirectly.
ACADEMIC BOOKLET
CATEGORY
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Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning organisation that acts to change attitudes and behaviour, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace. Greenpeace is present in 40 countries Green Peace across Europe, the Americas, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept donations from governments or corporations but relies on contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants.
Nongovernmental Organisations
The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), which comprises 20 mining and metals companies as well as 31 national and regional mining associations and global commodity associations, has as its aim the ICMM improvement of sustainable development performance in the mining and metals industry. ICMM engages with a broad range of stakeholdersgovernments, international organizations, communities and indigenous peoples, civil society and academiain order to build meaningful relationships.
CATEGORY
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Headquartered in London, UK, Anglo American plc engages in mining platinum, diamonds, coal, base metals, iron ore, metallurgical coal, and thermal coal in Africa, Europe, South and North America, Australia, and Asia. It mines, processes, and refines platinum group metals, such as platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium; and copper, Anglo American manganese, and nickel metals. In addition, the company produces heavy building materials, including crushed rock, sand and gravel, asphalt, ready-mixed concrete, and concrete products; rolled steel and alloy iron
Corporations
castings, cast alloy iron and forged steel grinding media, chain, steel wire rope, and strand and wire products; phosphate fertilizers and phosphoric acid; and zinc and niobium. Gold Fields is one of the worlds largest gold exploration and development companies and ranks as South Africas #2 gold producer, after AngloGold Ashanti. Production in the Gold Fields country represents well more than half of Gold Fields total sales. The company, having possession of, and access to, a reservoir of 80 million ounces of gold, produces about 3.5 million ounces of gold a year at mines in Australia, Ghana, Peru, and South Africa.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
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This state-controlled French company is involved in every step of nuclear power production. AREVA mines uranium and enriches it (under the trade name AREVA NC), and it builds nuclear reactors and services them. The company also treats and AREVA recycles used fuel. Subsidiary Canberra makes radiation detection equipment. AREVA is also developing a broad portfolio of clean energy plants (using wind energy, bioenergy, solar power, hydrogen power and other renewable sources) to complement its nuclear energy activities.
Corporations
A diversified natural resources company that has just recently acquired Athabasca Potash Incorporated and Petrohawk Energy Corporation, BHP Billiton Limited operates nine customer sector groups: petroleum, aluminium, base metals (including uranium), diamonds and specialty products, stainless BHP Billiton steel materials, iron ore, manganese, metallurgical coal and energy coal. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 2010, the Company realized an annual production volume of 158.56 million barrels of oil equivalent; and produced 1.2 million tonnes of aluminium, 13.9 million tonnes of bauxite and 3.8 million tonnes of alumina.
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CATEGORY
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Goldcorp is a leading gold producer engaged in gold mining and related activities including exploration, extraction, processing and reclamation. The Companys operating assets include the Red Lake, Porcupine and Musselwhite gold mines in Canada, Goldcorp Peasquito, Los Filos and El Sauzal mines in Mexico, the Marlin mine in Guatemala, the Marigold mine (67% interest) and Wharf mine in the United States and the Alumbrera mine (37.5%) in Argentina. Over 64% of Goldcorps reserves are in low political risk NAFTA countries.
Corporations
Rio Tinto is a diversified, British-Australian, multinational mining and resources group with headquarters in London and Melbourne, and is among the world leaders in the production of many commodities, including aluminium, iron ore, copper, uranium, coal, and diamonds. Although Rio Tinto primarily focused on extraction of minerals, Rio Tinto also has significant operations in refining, particularly for refining bauxite and iron ore. The company has operations on six continents but is mainly concentrated in Australia and Canada, and owns gross assets valued at $81 billion through a complex web of wholly and partly owned subsidiaries.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
CATEGORY
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Headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, Teck Resources Limited operates as a diversified mining, mineral processing, and metallurgical company. The company engages in a range of activities related to mining, including exploration, development, smelting, refining, safety, environmental protection, product stewardship, recycling, and research. It produces copper and
Corporations
Teck
metallurgical coal; zinc, lead, and molybdenum concentrates; specialty metals comprising cadmium, germanium, and indium; precious metals consisting of silver and gold; advanced materials, such as low alpha lead, high purity copper plating anodes, and indium powder for semiconductor and integrated circuit, thermal interface, solar panel, and next generation technology applications; and chemicals and fertilizer products.
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GENER A LLY NEUTRAL CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION
IN
Australias thriving resources sector (comprising minerals and petroleum) is the countrys largest single export sector, and over 80 percent ofof its output in 2006-2007 was exported, accounting for approximately 49 per cent of total goods and services exports. During that period, the minerals and petroleum industries produced over eight per cent of Australias GDP and accounted for 63 per cent of Australias
Countries
Australia
merchandise export earnings. Some facts are especially telling: Australia has the worlds largest deposits of recoverable brown coal, lead, rutile, zircon, nickel, tantalum, uranium and zinc, and ranks second in the world for bauxite, copper, gold, ilmenite and silver; her reserves of industrial diamonds are ranked third largest in the world and reserves of manganese ore are ranked fourth; and she is the worlds largest exporter of alumina, black coal, iron ore, lead and zinc
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
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Canadas mining industry is a major driver of Canadian prosperity, contributing $32 billion to GDP in 2009 and employing 306,000 workers in mineral extraction, processing and manufacturing. Canada remained the top destination for global exploration in 2009, attracting 16% of world spending. The industry accounts for 19% of Canadian goods exports. The industry places
Countries
Canada
a high priority on corporate social responsibility (CSR) issues in Canada and abroad, as reflected by sector initiatives such as the Mining Association of Canadas Towards Sustainable Mining program, by the fact that the government unveiled a CSR framework in 2009 and by company actions in developing countries such as helping to pay for schools, roads, electrical grids, hospitals, clinics, community halls, and child ealth and nutrition programs
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CATEGORY
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The mineral industry of Russia is one of the world's leading mineral industries and accounts for a large percentage of the Commonwealth of Independent States' production of a range of mineral products, including metals, industrial minerals, and mineral fuels. In 2005, Russia ranked among the leading world producers or was a
Countries
Russia
significant producer of such mineral commodities as aluminum; arsenic; asbestos; bauxite; boron; cadmium; cement; coal; cobalt; copper; diamond; fluorspar; gold; iron ore; lime; lithium; magnesium compounds and metals; mica, sheet, and flake; natural gas; nickel; nitrogen; oil shale; palladium; peat; petroleum; phosphate; potash; rhenium; silicon, sulfur; titanium sponge; tin; tungsten; and vanadium.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
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With more than 70% of the country underlain by Archaean terrane, Sierre Leone holds enormous exploration potential. Diamonds and rutile play major roles in Sierra Leone's mineral production. However, several foreign companies have suspended operations due to civil unrest in the country. Mining production has virtually ceased, with artisinal production being smuggled out.
Countries
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone has gold and bauxite potential, with several companies carrying out exploration prior to the war. However, all mining permissions have been suspended since January 2000. Even though, civil war has greatly disrupted the mining industry in the country, mining has been paramount to its export trade. Sierra Leone's main resources are diamonds, gold, rutile bauxite and platinum. African Rainbow Minerals develops and operates mines in South Africa in the ferrous metals, platinum group metals, coal, and gold sectors. The mining company has a 50%
Corporations
African Rainbow Minerals
holding in Assmang Limited, which mines ferrous metals including iron ore, manganese, and chrome ore. Formerly Anglovaal Mining, African Rainbow operates the Modikwa and Two Rivers platinum mines, among others.
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CATEGORY
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AngloGold Ashanti Limited, which has a strategic alliance with Thani Dubai Mining Limited and as of December 31, 2010 had proved and probable gold reserves of 71.2 million ounces, primarily engages in the exploration and production of gold. It also AngloGold Ashanti produces silver, uranium oxide, and sulfuric acid. The company conducts gold-mining operations in South Africa; continental Africa, including Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Namibia, and Tanzania; Australia; and the Americas, which include Argentina, Brazil, and the United States. Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.
Corporations
engages in the exploration, mining, and production of mineral resources. The company, which primarily explores for copper, gold, molybdenum, silver, and cobalt deposits, holds interests in various properties located in North and South America; Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Grasberg minerals district in Indonesia; and Tenke Fungurume minerals district in the Democratic Republic of Congo. As of December 31, 2009, its consolidated recoverable proven and probable reserves luminiu 104.2 billion pounds of copper, 37.2 million ounces of gold, 2.59 billion pounds of molybdenum, 270.4 million ounces of silver, and 0.78 billion pounds of cobalt.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
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JX Nippon Mining & Metals (formerly Nippon Mining Holdings) is involved in the development and mining of non-ferrous metal resources, and the smelting, refining, and marketing of non-ferrous metals, such as JX Nippon Mining & Metals copper, gold. And silver. The company also recycles non-ferrous metals. In 2010 Nippon Mining merged with Nippon Oil to form JX Holdings, one of the worlds largest energy companies; accordingly, JX Nippon Mining & Metals is currently a subsidiary of JX Holdings. The worlds third largest primary platinum producer, Lonmin possesses mines in South
Corporations
Lonmin
Africa from which ore is mined and concentrated before being processed through smelter and refineries to deliver finished metals to the market. It engaged around 24,000 full time employees for the year ending 30 September 2010. With a history dating back to 1590, Sumitomo Metal Mining, a part of the Sumitomo keiretsu, refines copper along with gold, nickel, and zinc. Metals-related Sumitomo Metal Mining refining and processing operations account for more than half of SMMs sales. The company has smelting and refining operations, plus mining resources, in Japan, the US, Australia, Peru, Philippines, and Chile.
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CATEGORY
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Members of the Minmetals Resources Limited group of companies (HKEx: 1208); MMG owns and operates a portfolio of world-class base metal mining operations, development projects and exploration fields. Minerals and Metal Group The group is one of the worlds largest producers of zinc as well as a substantial producer of copper, lead, gold and silver. The group currently has mining operations located in Australia and Asia and a large portfolio of advanced and early stage exploration projects through Australia, Asia and North America. With operations in copper, cement, and
Corporations
luminium, Mitsubishi Materials is steeped in materialism; the companys Metals segment smelts copper and makes copper products (billets, cake, wire, balls), and other divisions include Cement (cement, concrete, and other building materials), Aluminum Mitsubishi Materials (beverage cans and other luminium products), Advanced Materials (sintered auto parts and cutting tools) and Electronic Materials (electronic components, chemicals). Mitsubishi Materials is also involved in precious metals, recycling-related products, real estate, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy-related services. The company is part of the Mitsubishi keiretsu.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
CATEGORY
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Newmont Mining Corporation is one of the worlds largest producers of gold, with active mines in Nevada, Indonesia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Bolivia, Mexico, Ghana, and Peru. As of December 31, 2006, Newmont produced approximately 5.9 Newmont Mining Corporation million equity ounces of gold annually and held reserves of about 94 million of those equity ounces. Production in the Americas accounts for about 70% of the companys equity ounces, but even so, Newmont, employing 15,000 people worldwide, is the largest gold mining company in Australia.
Corporations
Headquartered in Zug, Switzerland, Xstrata plc operates as a diversified metals and mining company in Switzerland and internationally. It primarily explores for copper, coal, ferrochrome, nickel, vanadium, and zinc metals; platinum group metals; and gold, cobalt, iron, lead, and silver deposits. Xstrata The companys operations and projects span various countries, including Canada, the United States, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Spain, Norway, Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Tanzania, Mauritania, the Republic of Congo, Australia, the Philippines, New Caledonia, and Papua New Guinea.
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CATEGORY
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Also holding investments in the solar and hydroelectric power industry, Norsk Hydro ASA, headquartered in Oslo, Norway, Norsk Hydro Asa supplies luminium and luminium products, as well as produces energy in Europe and internationally. It operates in five segments: Primary Metal, Metal Markets, Rolled Products, Extruded Products, and Energy. Vale Limited (formerly Vale Inco), whose
Corporations
mining operations are located in Indonesia and Canada, turns nickel into gold. No surprise there, given that the world's #2 producer of nickel (after Russia's Norilsk Vale Nickel), which is used to manufacture stainless steel and batteries. It makes nickel battery materials and nickel foams, flakes, and powders for use in catalysts, electronics, and paints, the byproducts of such manufacturing processes being sulphuric acid and sulphur dioxide. The Springvale Colliery is located just off the Castlereagh Highway in eastern New South
Mines
Springvale Colliery
Wales, a distance of about 120km westnorthwest from Sydney. At about 921m above sea level, the Springvale Colliery is one of the higher mines in New South Wales.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
GENER A LLY AGAINS T
CATEGORY
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Brazil is trying to attract new investment and to diversify its mining industry. Having consolidated its position among the world largest producers of iron ore, bauxite, alumina and aluminum, niobium, nickel, zinc and soon also copper, Brazil is willing to Brazil stimulate new external investment to develop extensive geological resources. The challenge it has to face is the small number of areas available to exploration with quality geological data. They are usually controlled by a few large companies and data on extensive areas of the country are scarce. Jamaica is recognised for its tourism and bauxite industries. Jamaica is the worlds fourth largest bauxite producer, after Australia,Brazil and Guinea.There is considerable potential in parts of the industrial mineral sector. Jamaica's calcium Jamaica carbonate resources include 152,000 Mt of recoverable limestone, 350 Mt of recoverable marble, and about 350 Mt of high purity, high brightness ground calcium carbonate (GCC) or whiting appropriate for filler-grade material. GCC is now the second most important mineral exported from Jamaica after bauxite.
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CATEGORY
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China, which has latterly held the China Mining Congress & Expo 2011, has seen a burgeoning mining industry, as it surpasses China the US as the top energy user. Mining accidents are not an infrequent occurrence and it remains to be seen how companies can embrace CSR and solid safety measures. DR Congo is estimated to have $24 trillion (equivalent to the combined Gross Domestic Product of Europe and the United States) worth of untapped deposits of raw mineral ores, including the worlds largest reserves of cobalt and significant quantities of the worlds diamonds, gold and copper. The major ores extracted throughout the DRC Democratic Republic of Congo are cobalt, diamonds, gold and copper.Much of the resource extraction is done in small operations, known as "Artisanal and SmallScale Mining" (ASM), which are unregulated in the DRC. Recently, more money is being invested into the extraction and refining of some of the ores found in the DRC, primarily copper and cobalt, which may help regulate the extraction and reduce environmental impacts.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
CATEGORY
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The mineral industry of Botswana has dominated the national economy since the early 1990s. Diamond has been the leading component of the mineral sector since largescale diamond production began 25 years ago. Most of Botswanas diamond Botswana production was of gem quality, which resulted in the countrys position as the worlds leading producer of diamond by value. Copper, gold, nickel, and soda ash production also has held traditionally significant, though smaller, roles in the national economy. The mining industry has been the economic and social backbone on Zambia since the first major phase of exploitation of the Copperbelt's Cu-CO deposits commenced in the early 1930's. Since that time a wide Zambia spectrum of other metalliferous and nonmetalliferous resources have been discovered in Zambia and although exploitation of these has been limited, they clearly demonstrate the considerable opportunities for further exploration and mining.
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CATEGORY
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Intex Resources ASA is a diversified mineral exploration company, based in Oslo, Norway. The company discovers and develops mineral INTEX Resources deposits for commercial exploitation by mining companies. Its largest resource is the world class Mindoro Nickel project, located on the island of Mindoro in the Philippines. TVI Pacific Inc. is a publicly-traded resource company focused on the production, development, exploration and acquisition of resource projects in the Philippines. TVI produces copper concentrate from its TVI Pacific Inc. Canatuan mine, is developing the Balabag gold property for anticipated production in late 2012, and is initiating an exploration program at its high-impact Tamarok property. TVI also has oil interests in various stages of discovery, drilling and exploration in Alaska, Niger and off-shore Philippines. Barrick Gold Corporation, which made a couple of significant acquisitions last year, is principally engaged in the production and sale of gold and related activities, such as exploration and mine development. The Barrick company also produces copper, and holds interests in oil and gas properties located in Canada through its oil and gas subsidiary, Barrick Energy. Its producing mines are concentrated in three regional business units in the Americas, as well as Australia Pacific.
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FOOD FOR THOUGHT

1.
To what extent should regulation be implemented, taking into account both corporations and governments grievances against regulation?
2.
How can regulations be enforced under an international framework so as to make mining a sustainable activity?
3.
How can existing organisations such as the ICMM and EITI be roped in to regulate the mining industries?
4.
Can mining industries set up a timeline for action in order to spread out the cost of sustainability measures?
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CARBON FUTURES
KEY QUESTION
What feasible methods and conditions must be implemented in order to ensure the efficient reduction of carbon emissions for the future?
SCENARIO
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions mainly released from the burning of fossil fuels, but also from the destruction of carbon sinks are a significant factor in global climate change. It is imperative for carbon emissions to be reduced in order to mitigate the extent of climate change and prevent further degradation of the environment. One critical aspect of sustainable carbon management is the maintenance of carbon sinks, which include natural sinks like forests. Environmentalists have tried to replenish carbon sinks through forest carbon projects, as well as artificial sinks like underground carbon reservoirs. In
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considering carbon sinks, not only must governance and management be taking into account, but so must the potential impact of carbon leakage and the cost-benefit ratio of investing in creating new sinks. Another tool to secure carbon futures involves green taxes imposed by the state to curb current emissions and to fund mitigatory measures. However, these could backfire because they create large new costs and hence major inflationary consequences that somehow have to be absorbed (Giddens 2008, p.13). Government regulation is essential to ensuring efficient reduction of carbon emissions and the adoption of effective mitigatory action, yet it may become financially and politically costly in its deterrence of foreign investment and corporations. Furthermore, enforcement of regulation and government involvement in research and development require resources too. The legal aspect of government management, technology and energy commitments must figure in evaluating the role of government in regulating carbon. Critically, climate change mitigation is carried out primarily by governments while technology research and development is spearheaded by corporations. The role of the latter is compounded by the fact that corporations have little incentive to develop such technology, and given their protectiveness of industry secrets even less motivation to share the benefits of such technology or to allow competitors to create alternatives. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC also cautions that technological mitigation can only be used in conjunction with other existing measures that take into account the socioeconomic situation on the ground. Additionally, it has been argued that the standard market-based environmental policy tools of cap-and-trade and emissions taxes cannot provide credible incentives [] because there is a problem of dynamic inconsistency between what governments will announce as a future policy and what governments will be subsequently be motivated to adopt (Montgomery and Smith 2005, p.1). Creation of a sustainable carbon future therefore necessitates international cooperation between governments, and also collaboration with industries heavily reliant on carbon.
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Carbon Colonialism refers to the profitable exploitation of third-world country carbon emission reductions by Economically More Developed Countries (EMDCs) through carbon credits. EMDCs invest in non-polluting development infrastructure in lesser-developed nations to earn carbon credits from these countries. This allows for more developed countries to simply fill their quota of carbon credits to offset their own emissions, without any reduction in the volume of their actual emissions. Carbon Credits are tradable permits or entitlements for a nation or organisation to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in greenhouse pollutants. In other words, one carbon credit represents the reduction or removal of one ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent from the environment. Carbon Leakage occurs when one countrys carbon emissions increase as a result of another countrys increase in stringency on climate policies. When a countrys climate policies cause local prices to rise, due to more stringent rules and checks on production with lowered emissions, another country with a more relaxed policy may increase their production of the same commodities due to their comparatively cheaper prices. As a result, the reduction of emissions would be negated. Carbon Sinks are a reservoir where carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide or any other form, is stored for an indefinite amount of time. Types of sinks include natural sinks, which include photosynthetic terrestrial plants, the ocean and mineral sequestration. There are also artificial sinks, which include man-made landfills. However, as emissions worldwide increase due to human activity, the efficiency of natural sinks has declined, necessitating more artificial sinks today to keep up with the increased carbon output. Forest Carbon Projects aim to sequester carbon through planting trees, hence creating a natural carbon sink. These projects take place largely in the economically less developed nations, in order to create opportunities for agricultural careers for the impoverished people of these nations, therefore also benefitting the country on an economic level.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET

Aspects of planning for sustainable carbon management and use in the future must include consideration of technological developments and the role of governments and corporations. Long-term carbon sequestration and maintenance of current natural carbon sinks not only afford a means of storage but prevent the environmental damage caused by carbon leakage.

The voluntary nature of international accords makes them difficult to be applied. With the imminent expiry of the Kyoto Protocol an international agreement that was not signed by the United States of America, a leading carbon emitter, and an agreement that took eight years to become legally enforceable a successor is urgently needed. The Copenhagen Accord which was marked by international disputes was not a legally binding instrument. Although it was designed to work toward a more conclusive agreement at Cancun, the Cancun Agreements were inconclusive. Voluntary agreements cannot stand alone because of the difficulty in enacting and enforcement. The different standing of countries relative to one another is also a concern. This is manifested in debates over carbon colonialism where wealthier nations or corporations may use their economic and environmental power to complicate their involvement in economically less wealthy countries (e.g. debt-for-nature swaps).
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STAKEHOLDERS
For the purposes of this convention, the stakeholders have been classified into three generalised blocs with reference to their stances:
1. 2. 3.
Generally FOR Generally NEUTRAL Generally AGAINST
GENER A LLY FO R Stakeholders who fall in this bloc have taken concrete steps towards preserving carbon sinks, mitigating carbon emissions or seeking alternative energy sources. They have invested in ecologically-friendly technologies and facilities, implemented policies which are beneficial for the environment or expressed views and honoured international agreements to such effect. Countries represented in the proactive towards carbon futures bloc are relatively open to adopting green initiatives. These include many in the European Union and numerous developed countries. Germany has been drastically cutting carbon emissions since 1990 due to reduced dependence on lignite (brown coal). However, it will likely face an uphill challenge in maintaining its track record while encouraging economic growth. France has been investing heavily in alternative forms of energy after the energy shortage triggered by the 1973 oil embargo by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries. As for Costa Rica, besides its long-standing claim of sustainable development and carbon neutrality, it has recently legislated an all-out ban on open-pit metal mining which would protect carbon sinks in the form of forests. Nongovernmental and intergovernmental organisations which are proactive towards carbon futures advocate carbon sink projects, facilitate intergovernmental cooperation on carbon
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issues, advise member or non-member states to take specific action, or contribute guidelines for the furthering of cooperation on research. The Plan Vivo Foundation focuses on using the Plan Vivo System to make sustainable development possible. Such nongovernmental initiatives may be viewed as having too narrow a scope and hence may not be able to singlehandedly make a significant impact on carbon problems. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, having evolved from being a vestige of the Marshall Plan for a Europe recovering from World War II, has become more forward-looking and instead aids some of the most developed countries in streamlining their efforts against climate change. The World Bank, on the other hand, is devoted to enabling developing countries to benefit from the investments of developed countries in alternative energy sources which pave the way towards sustainable development. Corporations like Royal Dutch Shell are keen on rebranding to distance themselves from negative perceptions of them as a profit-hungry oil company. While Shell has previously expressed enthusiasm for developing renewable energy, it has tipped its priorities towards shale gas, which it controversially labels as an alternative green fuel in response to improvements in the extraction efficiency of shale gas.
CATEGORY
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Supports a shift from dependency on oil to shale gas as energy source, which could Corporations Royal Dutch Shell allow carbon capture and storage effectively. (N.B.: the long-term sustainability of shale gas is controversial.)
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CATEGORY
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In the last decade the annual CO2emissions in Germany have been reduced considerably (more than 15% since 1990) mainly due to the breakdown of eastern Federal Republic of Germany lignite energy supply. The annual rate of CO2 reduction has, however, continuously decreased and in the last years stabilised close to zero. German politicians have pledged to halve emissions by 2030. Imposed 3.5% carbon tax on fossil fuels in 1997; has Payment for Environmental Republic of Costa Rica Services (PSA) programme; strives to achieve carbon neutrality before 2030; currently produces 90% of electricity through renewable resources. A site for forest carbon projects. France is committed to reducing dependence on oil following an energy crisis in 1973. It invests in building efficiency and public transport. With French Republic regard to private vehicles, the government extends financial incentives for the technological development of bio-fuels and also taxes high-horsepower cars. 80% of the country's electricity is produced via nuclear power.
Countries
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CATEGORY
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DISCUSSION
Canada has implemented regulations pertaining to the use of biofuel as a replacement for petrol in transport Canada vehicles. The government invests heavily in green infrastructure, with $10 billion spent since 2006, and provides financial support for economically less wealthy countries more vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The UK government has committed to creating legislation like the 2008 Climate United Kingdom of Countries Great Britain and Northern Ireland Change Act with curbs on carbon emissions in the country. Industry capand-trade taxation is also in the works, with auctioning of carbon credits allowed. Since 1 July 2010, a nation-wide carbon tax on coal has been in place, to finance a National Clean Energy Fund; voluntarily targets to reduce amount of carbon Republic of India dioxide released per unit of gross domestic product by 25% from 2005 levels by 2020. India is both an economic power with a huge demand for natural resources, as well as home to significant forest land area.
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CATEGORY
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Sweden is very dedicated to reducing carbon emissions, not only purchasing carbon credits in accordance with the Kingdom of Sweden Kyoto Protocol, but also creating a national wind power network and investing in bio-gas and solar cell technology not yet available on the market. Japan is committed to curbing industry emissions through heavy financial Countries Japan penalties enforceable by law. Japan is also a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and a leader in low-emission transport technologies by manufacturers. The Netherlands is a heavy investor in carbon credit purchases in eastern Europe under Dutch law. The Netherlands Netherlands gains carbon credits from its use of renewable energy such as hydroelectric generation instead of traditional fossil fuels.
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CATEGORY
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South Africa supports independence from international donor organisations, preferring instead to make use of the country's existing natural and research resources to create an adaptation strategy under the National Climate Change Republic of South Africa Response Strategy and Framework for Sustainable Development. It favours an overhaul of current climate forestry measures which would involve countries tying their estimates of climate change progress to current carbon levels in order to prevent gaming the system in the Countries global carbon credits trade. Mexico seeks to develop a model for delivering technical assistance from the project coalition, and income from investors seeking potential GHG reduction benefits, to farmers increasing United Mexican States carbon sequestration. It also is developing protocols for the administration, monitoring, and evaluation of larger-scale land use sequestration programmes for low-productivity lands in southern Mexico, through its strong research and monitoring components. Also was the site of Cancun summit.
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CATEGORY
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The Plan Vivo System is a framework for developing and managing communitybased land-use projects where communities generate long-term carbon, Nongovernmental Organisations livelihood and ecosystem benefits. Project Plan Vivo Foundation participants are smallholders, also known as small farm owners, and forestdependent communities in developing countries. Plan Vivo encourages government and NGO collaboration to protect carbon sinks. The OECD works closely with member governments, chief of which are economically more developed countries, to assist them to identify and implement least-cost policies to reduce GHG Organisation for Intergovernmental Organisations Economic Cooperation and Development emissions in order to limit climate change, as well as to integrate adaptation to climate change into all relevant sectors and policy areas. As OECD countries are the major international donors, OECD has a critical role in tracking climate finance, and in examining how public finance can be scaled-up and best targeted to help leverage private financial flows.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
CATEGORY
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The 53-member AU has called for carbon-emitting nations to cut pollution regardless of whether or not they are parties to the Kyoto Protocol. African African Union countries are concerned about the impact of climate change on poverty and social issues and call for member nations to integrate their governments' economic policies with environmental planning. ASEAN favours regional collaboration that would foster scientific development Intergovernmental Organisations Association of Southeast Asian Nations and protect against forest degradation; has called on less wealthy nations to implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions with the support of financial aid from wealthier countries. Created the Clean Energy Investment Framework to support the development of appropriate technology to support World Bank economically less wealthy countries while offsetting costs, increasing information access and research, and facilitating market-based instruments while tapping on the resources of the private sector.
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GENER A LLY NEUTRAL Stakeholders labelled as such cover mostly nongovernmental organisations that do not have enforcement rights over countries and regions, but rather play advisory roles. Thus, they may not have to explicitly state their stands; or even if they do, it may not play a large role in influencing the decisions of countries. Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, environmental advocacy groups, are supportive of fair solutions to the carbon crisis. Yet, they take a cautious approach, choosing not to jump on every bandwagon of projects claiming to help the environment. Instead, they examine such projects holistically, examining factors such as equality among wealthier investing countries and less wealthy recipient countries as well as actual impact on locals, before pledging their support. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change aims to be an objective and neutral advisory authority on scientific research conducted on climate change which is inextricably linked to carbon futures. It bases its stand solely on sound scientific research and part of its work is to analyse data and conclusions of scientists to determine their credibility. Corporations such as the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management may profit from increased awareness about carbon issues since they serve to measure the carbon emissions of corporations, which may be used to determine the amount of carbon credits required to achieve so-called carbon neutrality or simply for the sake of assessing carbon footprint. CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION
IN
Works towards mitigating tropical deforestation, land depletion and rural poverty through improved agro-forestry Nongovernmental Organisations World Agroforestry Centre systems; aims to initiate and assist in generation and dissemination of appropriate agro-forestry technologies to resource-poor farmers and other land users.
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Argues that economically wealthier nations owe an 'ecological debt' that Friends of the Earth must be paid off as reparations to economically less wealthy nations for climate justice.
COHA promotes inter-American collaboration between the USA and Council on Hemispheric Affairs Latin America on transnational issues, but is opposed to what it perceives as excessive USA intervention in Latin Nongovernmental Organisations American affairs. A proponent of the 'Energy Revolution' switch to 80% renewable energy and an Greenpeace 80% cut in energy industry emissions by 2050, Greenpeace is against both coal and oil sands petroleum extraction. The Katoomba Group addresses key challenges to developing markets and payments for ecosystem services, from Katoomba Group enabling legislation through establishment of new market institutions, strategies of pricing and marketing, and performance monitoring.
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CATEGORY
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EREC is composed of several renewable European Renewable Energy Council energy associations lobbying for renewable energies and providing relevant information and consultancy to decision-makers. Nongovernmental Organisations World Resources Institute WRI is an international think-tank that involves itself chiefly in transnational negotiations at environmental conferences and seeks to achieve a balance between environmentalism and governance. Intergovernmental body which reviews Intergovernmental Organisations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and assesses scientific research conducted on climate change and publishes special reports relevant to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Commercial provider of emission Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management assessments for corporate activities, product supply chains and terrestrial ecosystems; founded by University of Edinburgh scientists.
Corporations
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GENER A LLY AGAINS T Stakeholders deemed as passive towards carbon futures display inertia and unwillingness to change unsustainable current practices. They usually have vested commercial interests safeguarded by the continuity of these ventures. They have been revealed to hinder the uptake of policies geared towards reduction of dependence on carbon, development of green technologies and even refuse to take their share of the responsibility for carbon dilemmas. Examples of countries in this bloc are the United States of America and China, world powers driven by capitalism and oil. The United States, being a highly influential global player, has drawn flak for refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol while China is expected to emit ever more greenhouse gases should its growth and development continue unabated. As for nongovernmental organisations, the American Farm Bureau represents the interests of farmers and ranchers, functioning as an agricultural trade union. For the sake of maintaining the status quo of their livelihoods and current farming practices, it opposes emission restrictions. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the League of Arab States are intergovernmental organisations with the agenda of retaining demand for oil so that oil prices remain high. They do not favour the rise of alternative energy sources and may use their economic clout to prolong the dominance of oil. The Group of 77 or G-77, composed of developing countries, cries foul that they should bear the brunt of the already developed countries past mistakes. They believe in their right to develop their economies without undue restrictions which were not present before and they think they have no obligation to contribute to costly, low-yield research for technological solutions. Corporations who stand to lose customers as the world inches away from carbon may take a hard line against any such threat, thus appearing backward and stubborn. Exxon Mobil Corporation is in denial of the adverse effects of climate change and continues to advocate the use of oil, in line with its commercial interests, and to prevent legislations unfriendly to its business. It contributes less to research for alternative energy than other leading oil companies. In juxtaposition, Shell was reported to yearly set aside 80 times Exxon Mobils annual investment with regard to renewable energy.
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CATEGORY
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Highest carbon dioxide output worldwide; contributes to 22.30% of total global carbon dioxide emissions (from burning of fossil fuels and Peoples Republic of China cement manufacture, not from land use such as deforestation), with increased emissions expected and defended, as countrys affluence increases. Rising economic superpower, with much influence over international markets. Second highest output of carbon dioxide worldwide, contributing to 19.91% of total global carbon dioxide Countries emissions (from burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, not from United States of America land use such as deforestation). Economic superpower, with much influence over international markets. The current political climate is hostile to USA intervention in global climate issues due to a resurgence of American exceptionalism, despite the prointervention Democratic government. Carbon tax has been drafted but not Republic of Indonesia yet implemented; infamous for forest fires due to 'slash and burn' agriculture practice.
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CATEGORY
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One of the biggest carbon emitters in the EU, Italy has faced major spending problems of late, and argues that it Italian Republic cannot be held to post-Kyoto reduction standards because its industries cannot absorb the costs associated with regulation, taxes, and emissions targets. The DRC is very protective of its logging industry and recently signed a deal with McKinsey & Co. where it would be paid to retain forests based on economic value if they were cleared at a Democratic Republic Countries of the Congo higher rate by logging companies. It insists that this is a cost-effective and sustainable method of reducing emissions as this grants it eligibility for foreign development aid. Deforestation is a major environmental issue in the DRC, as its rapidly-depleting forests are important carbon sinks. Russia has had traditionally low carbon emissions since the fall of the Soviet Union, and hence hoards carbon Russian Federation credits. Scepticism on the reality of climate change is high. Politicians in fact welcome a slight temperature increase as being favourable to living conditions and agricultural yields.
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CATEGORY
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Saudi Arabia produces 1.1% of the world's global emissions with 0.4% of world population; opposes caps on both carbon and methane emissions. The kingdom worries about the economic impact of moving away from oil as an energy source, and will not Kingdom of Saudi Arabia reduce its dependency without foreign provisions for the development of solarenergy technologies. 'Other Saudi demands from the U.N. talks include a re-vamping of fossil fuel taxes in industrialized countries to focus on carbon rather than energy, which may Countries benefit oil because it emits less of the greenhouse gas compared to coal.' The Philippines is opposed to the Republic of the Philippines Copenhagen Accord and concerned that climate change strategies are economic burdens for less wealthy countries like it. Most vehicles run on leaded gas and Tehran is amongst the world's most Islamic Republic of Iran polluted cities. Iran is pursuing a nuclear programme purportedly for energy reasons, but is opposed significantly by global superpowers like the USA.
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CATEGORY
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The government of Australia has delayed the Garnaut Climate Change Commonwealth of Australia Report and Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme due to economic concerns and is hesitant about its commitment to implementation of Countries carbon tax schemes. Highly vulnerable to the deleterious Peoples Republic of Bangladesh effects of climate change, Bangladesh constantly calls for greater action by economically wealthier countries while unable to curb emissions itself. Strongly opposed to cap-and-trade on the USA agriculture industry, which is Nongovernmental Organisations American Farm Bureau a key carbon emitter, despite potential carbon offset revenues, for fear of negative impact on its members in terms of fuel, fertiliser, and operations costs. OPEC denies that oil is to blame for climate change, opposes reduction of Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries oil consumption, and prefers mitigatory and adaptive approaches to dealing with climate change. It favours the sole involvement of oil consumers, rather than suppliers, in tackling climate change.
Intergovernmental Organisations
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A group of economically less wealthy countries at the UN, the Group of 77 and China reiterates that the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change is, and should remain, the primary comprehensive framework for Group of 77 addressing climate change. They r e q u e s t t h a t , i n s t e a d o f G - 77 Intergovernmental Organisations governments channelling their own resources toward climate change mitigation, the UN provide them with the necessary technology for clean and affordable energy. Many Arab countries have built their wealth on oil exports and are loath to League of Arab States see the world's dependence on oil reduced, due to the economic and political cost for them. Has funded climate change denialist Corporations Exxon Mobil Corporation lobbies in order to reduce pressure for it to curb greenhouse emissions from its role in the petrochemical industry.
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ACADEMIC BOOKLET
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
1.
Taking into consideration the fact that developed countries did not face emission restrictions previously and that the blame for current carbon problems can be mostly attributed to them while developing countries have yet to enjoy the fruits of unconfined development, what is a just method of capping carbon emissions?
2.
What sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their crafting of carbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision? What sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their crafting of carbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision?
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FOOD SECURITY
KEY QUESTION
With resource constraints on expanding food production, significant wastage in many parts of the world, and a growing global population set to consume even more, how can we ensure that there remains sufficient food for everybody?
SCENARIO
Droughts throughout Chinas Yellow and Yangtze River basins, as well as the Mekong region, have compelled China to ban all grain exports and northern ASEAN states to halve their rice exports. China will see an estimated 13-million-metric-ton drop in wheat production (-11% of total), a 19-million-metric ton drop in rice production (-10%), and at least 15 million metric tons of lost corn production (-10%). China will have to import additional corn and livestock feed to maintain its current meat production levels, which are also under threat from the drought. ASEAN states including Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand have reported losses of almost 8 million metric tons of rice (-10%). The droughts are the result of unusual heat and low rainfall attributed to climate change, and overuse of water in the heavily populated and industrialised cities of the North China Plain. Thai, Lao and Vietnamese officials have accused Chinese dams in Yunnan of withholding water to pre-empt drought in Chinas southwest, prompting the Mekong to dry up drastically. These weather conditions, coupled with the historical phenomenon of droughts occurring annually within Chinese territories, pose a serious threat to food security in East Asia.
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As rural poverty and unemployment worsens, millions of jobless peasants in China, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam are migrating to over-crowded urban areas to find jobs to secure incomes for their households. Lack of proper, affordable housing and jobs with decent pay mean that these rural migrants mainly live under unacceptable conditions. These cities are facing burgeoning slum populations and crime levels. The resulting spike in urban food demand might also rob rural markets of food supplies as these get diverted to large cities. Inflation rates flare up across Asia as food markets see sharp swings in grain commodities prices. Asian states and regions highly dependent on grain imports from these sources, like Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are hard hit by the food supply shortages. As national stockpiles run out in grain-importing nations, governments have further subsidised food prices to mollify citizens, who have begun rioting in major cities like Manila and Jakarta. Prices of white rice, noodles and bread have risen substantially, pushing up poverty levels, malnutrition and popular discontent. Beijing, fearing destabilising riots due to its failure to curb the yuans longstanding inflation and seriously high food prices, has pledged RMB 100 billion to alleviate the condition of Chinese farmers and consumers. The shortage of East Asian grain has compelled Asian states to buy more from other sources. China has inked deals for more Kazakh and Russian wheat, and will buy corn from the US, with which it has a substantial trade surplus. Heavy importers like South Korea and Japan will likely follow suit. This has led to fears that the hole in Asian food supplies might travel abroad and hit the Mideast and Africa, both of which are big consumers of US wheat. This market competition for grain might in turn drive up grain prices in the Mideast and Africa. The world still cannot feed everyone even with decades of growth in yields (amounts of crops raised per unit area of land) and productivity; the UN FAO estimated 925 million victims of hunger in 2010. Hunger and malnutrition will intensify as the global population marches towards 9 billion by 2050. Growth in staple crop yields is now 1% compared with 3% in the 1960s food production has to go up by 70% from current levels to feed the world in 2050, according to FAO estimates.
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Urban demand for meat is expected to increase more than that for grains and cereals. By 2050, the FAO estimates that meat demand would double to 470 million metric tonnes from current levels as the percentage of meat, dairy and oils in diets moves to 29% from 20% in 2000. Demand for soybeans to feed livestock is expected to reach 515 million metric tonnes. This burgeoning demand for meat will mean more land, water, and food crops, among other resources, have to be poured into raising livestock for slaughter. Livestock-raising causes serious problems such as water scarcity and greenhouse gas emissions. It would seem reasonable to divert resources to crop cultivation from livestock-raising, which would supplement the grain deficiency, reduce livestock-raisings environmental impact, and free up food crops to feed humans directly instead of feeding livestock. Biofuel issues will become significantly more pertinent in light of this crisis. Biofuels industries in Brazil and the US consume much sugarcane and corn respectively, directly competing with hungry consumers needs and thus pushing up food crop prices. Criticism has been levelled at the amount of money, time and resources required to grow enough crops to supply limited amounts of biofuels. Brazil has cut down much forest to grow sugarcane. The US heavily subsidises its farmers, a practice long defended by the Republican Party, to cover the actual cost of growing corn for biofuels. These events call for a global conference on how to tackle our underlying food problems: the misguided use and overuse of resources in food production, the inefficiency of food distribution by global food markets, and worldwide hunger and malnutrition. The hope is that a Kyoto Protocol for food might emerge from these discussions to move the world towards better food security.

Livestock refers to any or all of the following: Poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, and Beasts such as cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.
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The types of meat/egg/dairy products in discussion include: (Un)processed foodstuffs derived from the flesh, bone or organs of livestock, Eggs from hens and ducks, and Milk from cattle or goats or sheep, as well as processed foodstuffs derived from milk, such as various types of butter and cheeses and condensed milks and creams These livestock and meat/egg/dairy products are all produced and traded for profit by commercial enterprises of sufficiently large scale (production and processing of these goods are not home-based or conducted by an individual household).

The motion for the debate is to scale down livestock to conserve potable water and feed where these are deficient (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa, China), while preventing further woodland from being razed to make way for cattle herds, and preserve natural biodiversity, and hence mitigate the environmental destruction caused by excessive livestock production. The idea behind these measures is to Progress towards the elimination of under-nutrition and food insecurity of the significant part of the population of developing countries Safeguard the productive potential and broader environmental functions of agricultural resources and the worlds biodiversity for future generations, the very core of sustainability, while satisfying food and other needs. The importance of these issues was emphasised by the major international conferences of recent years: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the FAO/WHO International Conference on Nutrition (ICN). While most countries recognise these issues as pertinent to sustainable development, many fear the economic repercussions of cutting back on their livestock sectors. To what extent is this effective towards achieving the above-mentioned sustainable development goals and who should undertake the burden of downgrading, or the economic endowment of fortifying their livestock industry amid a strong, and increasing global demand for animal-derived products?
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MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS) The MDGs are eight international development goals that all 192 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organisations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They include eradicating extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development. Relevant to this issue however, is Target 1.C, which is to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger in terms of,
1. 2.
Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption
REDUCTION OF MEAT CONSUMPTION BILL (RIKSDAG OF SWEDEN)

The Swedish Parliament has passed a bill with the goal of reducing meat consumption by 25 per cent from the current total by year 2020.
Action plans for reduced consumption Phase-out of EU subsidies to the meat industry Incentives for reduced meat consumption Increasing price of meat from the start to the end of the production line. i.e, from the slaughterhouse to the dining table Before that, a public inquiry into the feasibility of economic incentives for reducing the climate and other environmental impacts of the entire chain of food production should be conducted.
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Vegetarian Mondays Modelled after the Belgian city of Ghent (Vegetarian Thursdays) Also provided by the city are large numbers of free maps indicating the locations of vegetarian restaurants. Residents are taught how to prepare vegetarian dishes, and reduced meat consumption is promoted in a variety of ways.
Green public procurement Altering public sector purchasing provides an excellent means to influence national consumption patterns, and that sector should be encouraged to purchase more fruit and vegetables, less meat.
SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL BILL (PARLIAMENT
OF
NEW ZEALAND)
The New Zealand parliament has passed a biofuel bill designed to stimulate sustainable alternative transport fuels. The legislation introduces a biofuels obligation so that oil companies will have to make up 0.5% of their sales with biofuels this year. The target will rise 0.5% per year to 2.5% in 2012. The bill also outlines sustainability criteria for the biofuels, which must emit significantly less greenhouse gases over their lifecycle than fossil fuels, must not have a negative impact on food production or adversely affect local species or conservation areas. This legislation allows for an increasing proportion of New Zealands transport fuel to be produced locally, from by-products of the dairy or beef industry, and in the future from wood and grasses grown on marginal land, or from algae from sewage ponds, says Energy Minister David Parker. The introduction of biofuels is a forward-looking move which will start to free New Zealand from the tyranny of the international oil market, and may even reduce the cost of fuel to consumers, he adds.
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FOOD SECURITY BILL (INDIA) A National Food Security Bill was formulated whereby each below poverty line (BPL) family would be entitled by law to get 25 kg of rice or wheat per month at Rs 3 a kg. Related Concepts Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), Mid Day Meal Scheme (MDMS)
KEY ISSUES
Although developed nations like Japan, Russia and Europe are seeing low birth-rates, the spike in Africa, Asia and South America will cause the world population to reach 9 billion by around 2050 by moderate estimates. There is a perceived overuse of resources in producing food for a growing global population. With such low efficiency of resources, how much more arable land, water and manpower can be put to use to produce more food? Such resources are finite and most have been overtaxed; and importantly, the same area of arable fields will yield diminishing returns even as more resources like fertilisers and manpower are invested within the same area of land. The inefficient distribution of food in global markets can be split into two key issues; food wastage and rising affluence. The former is generally attributed to the poor infrastructure for storage, and dilapidated distribution networks and affluent consumers in developed countries over-purchasing food and/or then not consuming them in time. There is growing demand for meat from newly affluent citizens of developing nations. Worldwide hunger and malnutrition should also be treated as part of the challenge to feed more people in the not-so-distant future. There is already significant hunger in Asia and Africa; UN FAO estimated 925 million hungry people worldwide in 2010. While there are larger reasons for hunger, including insufficient land in the afflicted areas for people to grow their own food, and lack of money to purchase food, the focus is on optimised management and use
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of resources in food production to generate maximum yields. Another point of importance includes reworking the current systems in place regarding the global production and distribution of food to make it more equitable for all persons to be fed adequately.
STAKEHOLDERS
What do the stakeholders think about diverting resources away from the livestock sector? The stakeholders can be broadly split into three distinct categories;
1. 2. 3.
Generally FOR Generally NEUTRAL Generally AGAINST
In general developed EU nations might stand in favour of the proposed reforms. Food ethics groups are expected to lend their support, as well as regional and global health organisations. However, in contrast, highly populated nations like China, India and the US might oppose the reforms because of their populaces demand for meat and dairy goods, but may see it as a viable and positive choice due to the increased food yields and decreased costs of resources and ill effects from large-scale livestock-raising and meat consumption. Countries with unsuitable climate conditions for crops might oppose the plans, along with fast food giants and multinational restaurant chains like McDonalds and KFC. Nations which are not as dependent on their own crops or livestock industry, such as small island nations, will likely stay neutral about the issue, and serve as observers.
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GENER A LLY FO R Reasons for these stakeholders stances are mainly a desire to stimulate national agricultural sectors to become highly productive, highly efficient parts of national economies capable of feeding citizens effectively and earning more foreign exchange through increased food production and export. CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Second largest African state behind Algeria following South Sudans secession. Possesses second-lowest global ranking of nominal per-capita GDP. Malnutrition and poverty widespread. 55% of GDP relies on agriculture; Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) produces staples like cassava and yam, plantains, rice and maize, and cash crops. Domestic food production is insufficient - the DRC depends on food imports; dilapidated transportation systems Countries continue to cripple agricultural growth and development of an effective national urban food-supply network. Founding ASEAN state and globally important port. Heavily dependent on food from neighbouring states and other Singapore regions like East Asia, due to near-total urbanization and limited local food production. Increased food production around the world would improve its food security.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
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DISCUSSION
Developing G-20 nation with 1.3 billion people. Worlds largest producer and consumer of food. Only 10-15% of total land is arable; agricultural needs compete with issues like urban development, soil degradation, and desertification, for arable land. Faces problems with water pollution; lack of advanced mechanization; and floods, drought and erosion. Produces much rice; a major exporter of wheat, corn, barley, potatoes, soybeans, Countries China vegetables, oilseed, pork and more. Livestock sector burgeoning due to demand from increasingly affluent Chinese citizens. Agriculture employs 300 million workers and contributes ~13% of GDP, much smaller than before. In light of severe food inflation and food insecurity due to speculation and weather problems, China would want to boost crop cultivation, which would augment farmers income and perhaps help citizens by lowering food prices.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
A G-8/G-20 member state, Germany is Europes largest economy. Dependent on imported resources and energy, it possesses enormous productivity in its service and high-end sectors. Its agriculture, forestry and mining industries occupied only 0.9% of GDP in 2008; however, Germany derives 90% of Germany its food from domestic production, relying on imports for the last 10%; it mainly produces potatoes, wheat and barley, and some fruits. Germany could also serve as a role model for nations Countries seeking self-sufficiency in food with a crop-based, mechanized agricultural sector occupying a small section of the economy. Tanzania depends heavily on its agriculture for export earnings and employment of its workforce. It constitutes over 25% of GDP and 80% Tanzania of employment. Only 4% of its land is cultivated. Poor cash flow to farmers and large losses of food in transit pose as tremendous obstacles to Tanzanias agriculture.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
As a G-20 nation, India has the worlds 2nd largest farm output. India produces much of the worlds fruits and spices, as well as vegetables and grains. Indias livestock products include meat and dairy goods. Indias agriculture has recently stagnated, and agricultures share of GDP is declining. Nevertheless, agriculture and allied sectors employ half of Indias India workforce. India is mostly self-sufficient for foods like cereals and pulses and already produces many crops in large amounts. It needs its livestock industry to furnish Countries dairy goods to Indians. Cattle-raising is too entrenched in Hindu religion and culture for its role to be diminished. However, Indians consume little meat (less than 3.5 kg per person per year in 2007) due to widespread vegetarianism. Important geopolitical entity and G-8/ G-20 nation. Small agricultural component of GDP, but with high United Kingdom productivity due to mechanization agriculture employs a smaller fraction of the workforce than the proportion of the GDP it contributes toward the UKs economy.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Ranked 1st in Africa for its agricultural sectors portion in its GDP. Agriculture employs 70% of Nigerian labourers. Out of a total of 91 million hectares, 82 million hectares are arable, by a 1990 study - most of it still unused for farming. Small individual land plots are the predominant units of production; large commercial farms are rare. Agriculture is Nigerias most important economic Nigeria sector. Poor governance has damaged Nigerias agricultural productivity; its yearly cocoa exports fell to 180,000 tonnes from Countries 300,000 tonnes 25 years ago. Poultry output by commercial enterprises is 18 million birds yearly, down from 40 million birds previously. Nigerias population growth has outstripped its increases in agricultural productivity; it now imports food to feed itself. Swedens stance, i.e. to reduce meat consumption and promote vegetarianism, has already been Sweden established in a number of Swedish Parliamentary bills. Nevertheless, as an EU member state, it still adheres to the EU Common Agricultural Policy and accordingly helps to subsidize farmers.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
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DISCUSSION
A leading Eastern European nation. According to the CIA World Factbook, Polands agricultural sector contributed the smallest fraction among all sectors to its GDP, 3.9%, but employed 17.4% of its workforce, implying major Poland inefficiencies. The country produces more crops than meat and dairy goods. Poland could contribute its experience as a nation having a large agricultural workforce, limited use of mechanized farming implements, small family-run farms, and significant food exports to neighbouring states. Countries A G-20 nation with 49 million citizens, South Koreas mountainous terrain limits its usable agricultural space. Its production of rice, vegetables and fruits is insufficient and South Korea depends on food imports to feed itself and its livestock industry, which churns out Republic of Korea meat and dairy goods for increasingly affluent Koreans. Its agricultural sector now hires about 7.3% of workers and produces 3% of GDP, in tandem with its urbanization and abandonment of its historical agriculture-based economy. Increased global food production would secure its food supplies.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
A centrally coordinated economy mostly reliant on oil profits, Saudi Arabia has limited agricultural contributions to GDP and employment. It produces wheat, barley, tomatoes, melons, dates; mutton, chickens, eggs, and milk. It has extensive irrigation to provide water for Countries Saudi Arabia farming purposes. Saudi Arabia is import-dependent; it imported US$8 billion of food in 2008. Imports will likely grow in proportion to its population expansion; it would undoubtedly benefit from better availability/affordability of imported food thanks to the reforms. A UN agency with 191 member states. The Food and Agriculture Organisation is the preeminent global organisation Intergovernmental Organisations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) dealing with food issues. It aims to achieve food security for all, raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better the lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
A G-8/G-20 nation and an important agricultural state, Italy has a major North-South economic divide. The more developed North produces primarily corn, rice, sugar beets, soybeans, as well as meat and dairy products, whereas the South generates wheat and citrus fruits. Countries Italy Italy supplies the world with olive oil and wine. Most farms in Italy averaged 5 hectares in 2000 and were family-run; farm numbers have been declining greatly over the past two decades. 37.5% of Italian agricultural land was used to raise livestock (from the last Agricultural Census) predominantly cattle, swine and sheep. The World Food Programme is expected to endorse in principle and lend its support to the proposed plans here, which will in theory substantially free up the large amounts of resources previously Nongovernmental Organisations World Food Programme (WFP) annexed by meat and dairy production for more efficient employment in the production of cereals, fruits and vegetables. This expected rise in global food production would permit the WFP to send out larger volumes of food aid to countries and populations in need of food during times of famine and disaster.
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GENER A LLY NEUTRAL Main reasons for nations maintaining a neutral stance include an uncertainty about the effectiveness and viability of the proposed reforms, as well as the possibility that their own agricultures would not see much change following the reforms. CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION
IN
Well-known for its coffee exports. It also produces rice, potatoes, corn, vegetables, as well as cash crops like tobacco and bananas. It mostly grows its food crops at 0-1000m elevations. It only has a limited Colombia expanse of agricultural land, and even less of it is irrigated. Large tracts also go into producing narcotics like tobacco, coca, and opium. It imports food from regions like the US and exports fruits and flowers for agricultural earnings. Countries Israeli agriculture is highly developed thanks to its past innovations of the kibbutz & moshav (differing forms of cooperative farming communities) during and before its foundation years; a Israel remarkable feat, considering that the Levant is not naturally conducive to agriculture. While agriculture contributes only around 2.5% of GDP, 3.6% of exports and employed 3.7% of Israels workforce, Israel supplies 95% of its own food requirements).
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Major Arab political and economic power; agricultural land is limited to the Nile strip and the Delta to the north. Nevertheless, cropping occurs multiple times a year, and it produced over 8 million tonnes and nearly 6 million tonnes of wheat and corn respectively in Egypt 2007, importing 7 million tonnes and 4 million tonnes of the same, respectively, from the US. Fruits are also produced in Egypt, like dates. Cattle-raising in Egypt goes towards mainly milk production. Egypts consumption of red meat is low; however, Egyptians consume much Countries poultry. A developed G-20 nation and trading partner of the US and the EU, Mexicos agriculture occupies a tiny slice of its economy. Mexico is the 4th largest global corn producer, producing 20 million tonnes of corn annually. Mexico Mexico produces more sugar than it consumes; sugar production marked by high costs and lack of investment. Mexican beef and veal production has settled at ~ 1.8 million tonnes per year as of 2010. Mexico buys many food items from the US; a result of NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement].
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
A small Caribbean nation, Jamaica produces moderate quantities of cash crops yearly. It also exports sugar. Rice and such staple crops are for local Jamaica consumption. Jamaica could work with other small, neutral nations as mediators and contributors of ideas to stimulate debate and broker resolutions between rival factions. Having one of the most stable economies Countries in the world, Switzerland, a non-EU state, is highly protective of its agriculture, imposing high import tariffs and domestic subsidies (twice as much as Switzerland in the EU) to protect its farmers and indigenous products. Swiss production fed ~60% of its food needs in 2007. It was nearly 100% self-sufficient in its potato, beef, and veal, pork and milk products in 2007, reflecting its high emphasis on its livestock sector. Leading global supplier of genetically modified seeds for crops. Controversial for terminator technology, this prevents Corporations Monsanto farmers from using their crops to grow any subsequent crop generations, forcing them to purchase further seeds from the company.
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GENER A LLY AGAINS T These stakeholders are in this category for various reasons: nations like Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand are dependent on selling meat and dairy exports for earnings; the United States, in addition to being one of the largest producers and consumers of meat and dairy products, may also find itself held at gunpoint by the paid spokesmen of livestock farmers and traders unions and other corporations who serve in its Congress; other nations like Argentina and South Africa produce much meat for national consumption, and may not want to become possibly reliant on other nations for meat/dairy goods; others already produce much crops and do not see the need for their own countries to further strangle their own livestock sectors. However, they may encourage other nations to implement the downscaling of their livestock sectors. CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION
IN
G-20 nation; major Latin American agricultural powerhouse. Generates much beef, corn, soybean and wheat for export. Its sizeable biofuels industry competes with food needs for corn and sugarcane to produce ethanol. Produces much animal feedstock (e.g. soybean) for Countries Brazil export and domestic use. Emits much greenhouse gas due to mass deforestation in central and Amazonian Brazil for agricultural needs and cattle-raising. While plans to shift to crop cultivation to better serve human needs might arguably benefit Brazil, its agricultural policies are currently headed in the opposite way.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
G-20 nation; major producer and exporter of processed and unprocessed agricultural goods like animal feed, flour, vegetable oils; and soybeans, wheat, Argentina maize, cereals, and beef. Famous for beef products. Trades much with the rest of Latin America, China and the US. Has very high per-capita meat consumption. Argentina would favour the retention of its livestock sector. 27th largest economy. Semi-industrialized Countries nation. Agriculture generates 23% of GDP and employs 44% of Pakistani workers. Among top 15 producers of wheat, rice, and fruits [FAOSTAT]. It cultivates 25% of its land and irrigates Pakistan thrice as much land as Russia. Livestock generates half of agricultures GDP share, more than crops do; over 500 million birds are produced yearly, and over 130 million beasts are kept by livestockraisers. 5th largest milk producer in the world.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
G-20 nation; per-capita GDP outranks the US; sparsely populated, and has mostly arid terrain. Heavily dependent on livestock-raising, which produces Australias profitable agricultural exports Australia of beef, mutton, pork, dairy products (including eggs, milk, and confectionery items) and wool. Also generates grains and wine. Livestock-raising is deeply rooted in its history, economy and culture. Exports food to mostly Pacific Rim nations (e.g. Japan, US, ASEAN). Countries Turkey churns out a large global share of fruits, vegetables and others agriculture products. Turkey has been self-sufficient in food production since the 1980s. Its agricultural sector employs less than 30% of its workforce. Turkey has recently Turkey reduced farming subsidies, and begun building dams and irrigating over 1.8 million hectares in Anatolia. Turkeys livestock sector has grown less than other agricultural subsectors, but generates half the worth of its agricultural produce and provides essential meat and dairy goods to Turkish consumers.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
One of the most northerly EU states, Finlands small agricultural sector works with 1/3 to 1/2 of each year on agricultural activities while the seasons Finland permit. Small family-run farmsteads are predominant; some grains and horticultural products, cattle and pigs are produced by farms. Up to 1/3 of Finns live in the countryside. Kenyas agriculture produced around 24% of GDP from 2000-5; 3/4 of Kenyans depended directly or indirectly on agriculture in 2005. Kenyas stable political system attracts investment in its Countries livestock sector, which produces meat and dairy goods for neighbouring states, and hides and leather for Europe. Its livestock sector contributed 3.3% of Kenya GDP in 2003. Cattle, sheep and goats are raised by pastoralists like the Maasai and Turkana; poultry and swine are raised by commercial enterprises. While the worth of Kenyas livestock products have risen, major problems include poor quality and high cost of feed; frequent drought; high transport costs; and lack of nutrition for livestock. Nevertheless, the pastoralists will oppose any attacks on their traditional mode of life.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
G-8/G-20 country; worlds second-largest exporter of foodstuffs. France exports wheat, beef, pork, poultry and dairy products. It exports food to other EU states as well as Africa. Central and France western France produces mainly meat and dairy products, including beef and its world-renowned cheese. The French government is strongly protective of indigenous agriculture and farmers welfare, and will oppose reforms antagonistic to its farmers. Countries A knowledge- and technology-based economy, Irelands agriculture produced 2% of GDP and employed 5% of its workforce in 2009. Irish agriculture is grass-based and utilises nearly 80% of Ireland land; beef and milk (60% of agricultural produce) are exported mostly to the UK. Agriculture is insignificant as an income source; many farmers do off-farm work, and most farmers are above 35. Nevertheless, agri-food products made up 8.5% of exports.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
G-20 nation and 3rd largest economy. Farming under great constraints in the mountainous archipelago; limited arable land available. Japan satisfies half its food needs by farming on less than 56,000 km2 of land. Japan is mostly selfJapan sufficient in rice and wheat, but must import foodstuffs from the West; Japan is highly protective of its farming industry. It exported only 677 metric tonnes of beef in the fiscal year of 2010; livestock is a small component of Countries Japanese agriculture. ASEAN member state and agrarian nation. 2nd largest rice exporter in the world; produced over 35 million tonnes of rice in 2007. 29.3% of total land under cultivation [FAO]. Livestock Vietnam earnings made up less than 19% of total agricultural contributions to GDP, which was 7.5 billion US dollars [FAO, 2005]. Poultry is the fastest growing livestock subsector, followed by sheep-, goat- and cattle-raising.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
ASEAN state and developing economy, containing 27.5 million people. Rice is a staple food. 2nd-largest producer/exporter of palm oil as biofuel and food ingredient. Produces around 4/5 of its Malaysia rice consumption; imports remainder. Fruits and vegetable produced for mostly local consumption. Agriculture produces ~ 10% of GDP and employs ~ 13% of workers as of now; these proportions are Countries expected to slip further. The Netherlands agricultural export value is 3rd globally, behind the US and France. It grows horticultural items like flowers; it also produces crops like Netherlands tomatoes (25% of world supplies), cucumbers and chilies (one-third of global supplies). It makes some 11.5 million tonnes of milk powder yearly, and produced over 700,000 tonnes of cheese in 2008.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
A highly developed Pacific Rim nation, it exports large quantities of livestockrelated products, like wool and milk; it is heavily reliant on trade earnings and is vulnerable to global conditions. Its dairy New Zealand cow numbers doubled in 1990-2007; milk is now New Zealands top export earner New Zealand derived US$9.1 billion, or 21% of its export earnings, from milk in 2009. Other exports include meat (13.2%) and fruit (3.5%) Countries [2009]. G-8/G-20 nation and major food exporter forest fires in 2010 forced Russia to ban wheat exports, critically affecting global food prices. Agriculture produced 4% of GDP and employed Russian Federation 10% of a workforce of around 75 million [2010]. Insufficient utilization of resources, poor logistics and damage wrought by Soviet rule mean that Russias full agrarian potential has not yet been attained.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Largest economy in the world. Agriculture is a major sector, but generates a tiny amount of GDP. 2.2 million farms spanned 373 million hectares (922 million acres) [2007 census], the average size being 170 hectares. The US produced as much as 256.9 million tonnes of corn in 2003, over 11.7 million tonnes of beef, and United States of America over 78 million L of cows milk. A net food exporter, it also consumes much food. It has some of the highest percapita consumptions of meat in the world has major problems with adult and child obesity. It exports much meat to other nations, alongside its other food exports. Large animal raisers unions, food corporations and their sponsored Congressmen will work hard to oppose any moves that might threaten livestocks position in the US.
Countries
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Agriculture still plays a large part in this rapidly urbanizing G-8 nation. Agricultural goods occupy a small but significant proportion of its exports. Countries South Africa Commercial farming is expanding. South Africa produces wine, sugar, and fruits like grapes. It produces around 85% of the meat it consumes yearly. Its dairy industry supports up to 100,000 workers. Largest US dairy farm, centred in Oregon; proponent and practitioner of green farming practices, including water Three-mile Canyon Farms conservation, organic farming, waste recycling, and habitat preservation. Produces potatoes, onions and milk, and also organic compost and methane gas for consumers use. Worlds pre-eminent fast-food chain. Corporations McDonalds relies on livestock sectors to furnish chicken, eggs and beef in large quantities it serves around 58 million customers daily. It will represent food McDonalds and beverage companies cases, illustrating to governments how the proposed reforms might critically damage national food and beverage sectors. McDonalds is expected to argue against the downscaling of livestock industries.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
The largest confectionery and food & beverages company in the US, it has Kraft Foods operations in 155 nations; 11 of its brands earn over 1 billion each year. Dependent on dairy products for its business. Worlds largest pork producer and processor. Based in Virginia, SF operates across the US, Brazil, China, France, Smithfield Foods Mexico, Poland, and others. Generated 5.9 billion pounds of pork and 1.4 billion pounds of beef in 2006. Infamous for disputes with unions. Reported for Corporations animal cruelty and unhygienic practices. A well-known producer of ice-cream products in the US and abroad, based in Vermont. Supports environmental protection and minimal environmental impact due to its operations. Involved in activism since its inception. Opposes Ben and Jerrys having to downscale livestock sectors operations to accommodate increased crop cultivation, which might affect its dairy supplies. It may push for alternative measures to boost food productivity, while calling for greener livestock industry practices.
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FOOD FOR THOUGHT

1.
Which nations should carry out these reforms, and what if they should not have enough funds or resources to do so? Who should be held responsible for supervising these agricultural reforms?
2.
Should there be division of labour between nations in implementing reforms, and how should this be done?
3.
How, and to what extent might domestic economies and consumers be impacted by the downscaling of livestock sectors, and would this impact be acceptable?
4.
Is it possible to deliver at least the same amount of nutrients and the same balance in consumers diets with a downscaling of livestock sectors, which would decrease nutrient intake from meat and dairy goods?
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DEFORESTATION
KEY QUESTION
Is Project REDD+ the most viable option in curbing the problem of deforestation?
SCENARIO
Deforestation, second to only industrial energy production, exists as one of the worlds largest sources of greenhouse gas emission. The worlds forests alone contain more carbon than what the atmosphere can hold; deforestation can account for approximately 20% of human-induced greenhouse gas emission. According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), 32 million acres of forest disappear annually, and this phenomenon is most prominent in the tropics. The primary reason behind such large-scaled forest clearing activity has not changed for 10,000 years as much as 80% of the time is to clear land and make way for more practical purposes, such as agriculture. However, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has recently warned that if nothing more is done to help curb this, almost 60% of the great Amazon Rainforest could be decimated by year 2030. In view of this, The United Nations Forest Forum (UNFF) has organised a session to discuss and come up with a resolution to avoid excessive degradation, and eventually achieve zero net deforestation by year 2020.
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Deforestation is the permanent, long-term conversion of an intact forest into land intended for another purpose. Deforestation is threatening the health and quality of Earth to potentially catastrophic levels, as trees and forest ecosystems are vital for a healthy planet. Zero Net Deforestation It is acknowledged that some forest loss could be offset by forest restoration. Zero net deforestation is not synonymous with a total prohibition on forest clearing. Rather, it leaves room for change in the configuration of the land-use mosaic, provided the net quantity, quality and carbon density of forests is maintained. It recognises that, in some circumstances, conversion of forests in one site may contribute to the sustainable development and conservation of the wider landscape. Forests encompass any natural and self-sustaining community, characterised by the presence of woody large single-stemmed vegetation (or trees). Each forest community can be subjected to outside stress and influences such as rainfall, glaciation, seismic activity, introduced biodiversity and etc. Forest systems are dynamic in nature. Forest Degradation is a process whereby areas of natural forest are gradually transformed into degraded land or replaced by other land uses. Managing forests to avoid degradation is often a key strategy in preventing deforestation. Carbon Reservoirs refer to any carbon-storing natural features which may participate in carbon exchange with other reservoirs. Examples include forests and land masses.

The consequences of climate change and its impact on our world can no longer be ignored. Even if fossil fuel usage was cut and emissions reduced, the 20% of emissions that can be attributed to deforestation has to be considered when dealing with climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states in its Fourth Assessment Report that reducing or preventing deforestation is the mitigation option with the largest and most immediate carbon stock impact in the short term.
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The high utilities of deforested land could serve as powerful incentives for man to continue deforestation activities, noting that in the short run, the benefits of deforestation outweigh potential environmental damage. The situation of natural forest loss has exacerbated as civilizations expand outwards, for deforestation is crucial in sustaining the economies of many developing countries.
In the Amazon rainforest, trees are cleared mainly for cattle ranching and soy bean plantations, which are the two leading causes of deforestation in that area. Brazil is the worlds largest exporter of beef, and as such its economy depends heavily on the cattle farms in order to meet demands for beef from foreign countries such as the United States and Europe. In Indonesia and Malaysia, the profitable palm oil industry has led to mass burning of forests in order for more oil palm plantations. However, not only countries deforest.
Forests are also threatened by illegal loggers as well as multi-national corporations (MNCs) seeking to make a profit. Many a times, such MNCs disregard forestry laws that might have been put in place in order to maximize returns. In the Congo Basin, Congolaise Industrielle des Bois (CIB) manages 13000 square kilometers out of 2 million square kilometers of the entire Congo Basin forest. It was consumer pressure that drove CIB to relook at its forestry management practices and to comply with the standards set by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).

Project REDD+: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is one means of placing a financial price-tag on the carbon stored in forests, thus offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions due to deforested lands while beginning to invest in low-carbon paths towards sustainable development. REDD+ is an initiative that reaches beyond the problems of deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
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KEY ISSUES
LOGGING Logging is almost single-handedly responsible for the clearing of acres of forest land. Lacking in stringent laws, many developed countries have not only wiped out their own forests for timber, an important structural material, but have also indiscriminately cleared forests from their colonies or poorer countries. At present, logging is the most prominent and direct threat to forest regions all over the world. Under severe circumstances, logging also reduces the forests capacity to regenerate itself besides forest degradation.
A G R I C U LT U R E An alarming rate of forest land is being converted into agricultural land and plantations to sustain a large population in terms of supply of crops and presently, bio-fuel. With forests being cleared, growth in agricultural land is becoming a major cause of increasing net carbon emissions. Cleared patches of forest land when used for growing subsistence crops degrades the soil's fertility after the first few years of its use, forcing farmers to clear more land, eventually clearing out an entire forest.
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U R B A N S P R AW L With uncontrolled population growth, and few measures to curb it, space is needed to accommodate expanding populations thus prompting the clearing of forest land. Construction together with the need for building material, furniture and paper products are eating into the dense forests. Many new cities now stand where great forests once stood.
MINING Forests are not only home to precious biodiversity, but also precious minerals that we humans desire. Such desire to dig deep into the Earth to acquire them, especially from poor or developing countries in lieu of monetary aid and technical know-how, has resulted in loss of forest land.
LACK
OF
POLITICAL WILL
Most environmental damage stem from weak or an indifferent attitude towards a way of life in which we fail to understand. Most forest protection laws are not passed or are followed to the hilt, because more are interested in making profits, or fulfilling favours.
ECONOMICS One of the underlying causes identified by the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) behind the clearing of forest land is economic driven. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the major reason behind logging is for palm oil production. In the Amazon rainforest, the main reasons were to clear land for cattle ranching because cattle was a highly liquid asset which required low maintenance, as well as soy bean farming. Overpopulation and poverty in developing countries compounds the problem of deforestation. Slash and burn methods, adopted by the farmers that occupy the deforested land, has far-reaching and devastating effects. If developing countries are able to receive funding, they could use the money to preserve the forests instead of having to clear the land for economic growth.
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THE SEVERITY
OF
DEFORESTATION
The major role that deforestation plays in carbon dioxide emissions - the main cause of climate change - has been established previously. With the rise in the carbon dioxide emissions and global temperatures, environmental consequences occur including the melting of the polar ice caps, changes in flower blooming cycles as well as more ferocious storms and extreme drought.
Exposing soil to heat and rain. When forests are cleared, soil cover is removed as well. As a result, the bare soil is exposed to extreme conditions produced by the sun's heat and rainwater. As rain water flows, it will wash out the nutrients and other organic materials that fertilize and enrich the soil. Add that to the frequent activities of tilling, cropping and grazing gradually result to the degradation of the soil's quality.
Flooding and soil erosion. Trees are highly effective in absorbing water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. Tree roots loosen soil allowing for space for water to enter upon each precipitation event. Their removal prompts soil destabilization and excessive surface water flow, resulting in downstream flooding in which countless instances have caused disastrous effects in many parts of the world.
The displacement of indigenous communities and their traditional way of life. When governments decide to offer forests for deforestation mainly to open up areas for 'civilized' communities, access to forest resources by indigenous peoples are ignored. In fact, indigenous peoples are hardly included in economic and political decisions that directly affect their lives. This encroachment ignores their rights as much as it takes away the resources that their ancestors have bestowed upon them.
Loss in rich biodiversity. The worlds tropical rainforests hold the greatest biodiversity. Deforestation activities ultimately destroy forest ecosystems which correlate to and could be representative of the biological health of our planet. This exists as one of the most serious and potentially devastating consequence of deforestation. Put simply, it could lead to the
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destruction and extinction of many plant and animal species, many of whom remain unknown and whose benefits will be left undiscovered.
Human-induced greenhouse gas emission. Greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere allows for solar radiation while discouraging terrestrial radiation, as such retaining heat within the system. This phenomenon can lead to a multitude of consequences and implications pertaining to the larger issue at hand global warming. One of the few ways in which the situation may be alleviated lies in preserving our carbon reservoirs, and forests are major carbon sinks that are able to retain carbon dioxide for many years. Forest removal would subsequently lead to a loss in carbon storage capacity and the anthropogenic reintroduction of carbon into the atmosphere in addition to emissions caused by decay and burning of the thick vegetation covers.
SOME POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
REFORESTATION Reforestation is the opposite of deforestation. This can be done by letting deforested land go fallow for several years or by replanting native species in open areas or adjacent to remaining forest. Pressure on forests can be relieved by creating tree farms that raise one or more varieties for the express purpose of harvesting them for sale. Many countries in the world have started reforestation and forestry, and East Asian nations are leading in this regard. Many East Asian countries, including China, have successfully managed to reverse deforestation.
LEGISLATION By making suitable changes in the law, so that cutting trees in a forest area becomes a major crime will not only lead to deforestation being controlled in a major way, bit its flow may also be reversed.
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INCENTIVE
TO
CORPORATIONS
Tax cuts should be granted to corporations, to get them actively interested in reforestation.
COMMERCIAL FOREST PLANTATIONS There can be special forest plantations for all the wood that is needed for the industry. This way the wood can be cut in a controlled and regulated environment.
WATER MANAGEMENT Improper water management affects deforestation in a big way. If the wildlife doesn't have water, then the entire ecosystem will falter. The construction of new dams should be planned properly, so that any one area isn't deprived of water, and the other area has abundance of it.
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STAKEHOLDERS
GENER A LLY FOR

CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Some of Australia's most popular stores are driving the destruction of native forests, according to a report by a new environmental group Markets for Change (MFC). Furniture, building Australia materials, and paper products were found to be coming at the expense of native forests in Australia and being sold by over 30 businesses in the country, such as Freedom Furniture, Bunnings, Officeworks, Staples, Target, Coles, and Countries Woolsworths. Contains the majority of the planet's largest remaining rainforest, the Amazon. The rainforest has been heavily deforested in the past few decades. There Brazil is a 27% jump in deforestation from August 2010 to April 2011. The biggest rise was in Mato Grosso, which produces more than a quarter of Brazil's soybean harvest due to a rise demand for soy and cattle which prompted farmers to clear more of their land.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
World's third largest emitter of climate changing greenhouse gases due to mass destruction of Indonesia's rainforests and carbon-rich peat lands for palm oil and paper. Fires have become nearly an annual occurrence in Sumatra. Typically Indonesia fires are set for land-clearing purposes and allowed to burn until the onset of the rainy season. Riau is even viewed by environmentalists as ground-zero for efforts to slow deforestation and destruction of peatlands, activities which account for more than three-quarters of Indonesia's greenhouse gas emissions. Countries Chile Developing countries are unable to Guyana Kenya Philippines Vietnam Yemen The Congo Basin's vast rainforest is the Democratic Republic of Congo second largest rainforest on Earth, it provides livelihoods for tens of millions of people and plays an increasing role in the global effort to halt climate change. reduce the rate of deforestation by themselves. Hence they need the fair climate fund from developed country that deemed to be responsible for the high greenhouse emissions that led to climate change to stop deforestation.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Deforestation continues to be a major problem facing the Chinese environment, despite efforts to plant trees and expand forest cover. Tremendous population pressures Countries China throughout the country increase the need for shelter and other amenities, and hence have contributed toher substantial extent of forest loss. The economic growth in China in the past few years also resulted in the increased consumption of forest resources. Singapore-based trading group that deals in the trading of illegally-logged timber in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It Olam International has purchased logging titles in breach of the 2002 moratorium which expressly forbids the allocation of more land for Corporations Asia Paper Resources International Limited (APRIL) Sinar Mas Group, which controls Asia Pulp & Paper (APP) logging in the DRC.
Most of the lowland forest lies outside protected areas and is already concessioned for logging by companies that are owned by these two companies.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Founded in 1889 as manufacturer of vegetable crates, the company, the company grew to become one of the largest hardwood producers in the Anderson-Tully Lumber Company United States. Anderson-Tully Worldwide emerged as a globally successful marketing arm and formed the International Hardwood Resource to provide reliability in supplying greater volumes of quality hardwoods to customers around the world.
Corporations
GENER A LLY NEUTRAL
CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
United Nations' global development United Nations Development Programme network. It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. Intergovernmental Organisations UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Scientific intergovernmental body tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Specialized agency of the United Nation that acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to Food and Agricultural Organisation negotiate agreements and debate policy. Helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and Intergovernmental Organisations improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all. Largest inter-governmental organisation The Group of 77 in the United Nations for developing countries and promotes their collective economic interest. STAP is an advisory body to the Global Environment Facility (GEF). GEF promotes international cooperation and fosters actions to protect the global The Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) environment and provides funding to developing countries and those with economies in transition for projects and activities targeting global benefits in one or more of four focal areas: biological diversity, climate change, international waters and the ozone layer.
Scientific Advisory Groups
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
The ECG was established in 1974 for the purpose of promoting thematic Scientific Advisory Groups The Ecosystem Conservation Group (ECG) joint programming and to advise its member organisations on the development and implementation of relevant ecosystems and genetic resources conservation activities. IUFRO is a non-profit, nongovernmental international network of International Union of Forestry Research Organisations Nongovernmental Organisations forest scientists, which promotes global cooperation in forest-related research and enhances the understanding of the ecological, economic and social aspects of forests and trees. Markets for Change is a market-focused Markets for Change environmental organisation that investigates and exposes the companies and products driving eco destruction.
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GENER A LLY AGAINS T CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION
IN
The United States along with other developed countries will dedicate a total of $3.5 billion towards reversing deforestation in developing countries. Of the 3.5, the United States will be contributing $1 billion over the next United States three years. This investment is provided to promote immediate actions in REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) and the United States has already begun working with other Countries countries to ensure proper implementation. Developed countries have deforested much of their land for progress. They are also part of the forest protection plan France Germany Japan Norway announced at U.N. climate talks in the Danish capital where world leaders are trying to seal the outline of a tougher pact to avoid dangerous global warming. These developed countries have pledged funds to help developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that result from the destruction of forests.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
These European countries are all heavily deforested countries. An average European country currently has only United Kingdom Countries Finland Ireland Russia 24% of its land area covered by forest. The EU has since committed itself to active negotiation for a 50% reduction in deforestation rates by year 2020, favouring a Global Forest Carbon Mechanism to reward countries for abstaining from deforestation activity.
Analyzes interdisciplinary environmental WorldWatch Institute data from around the world, providing information on how to build a sustainable society. Greenpeace is campaigning for a future that will allow our forests to thrive - filled Nongovernmental Organisations Greenpeace with unique wildlife and able to sustain local people and economies while cleaning the air of carbon: a future with no deforestation. Works to stop the degradation of the World Wildlife Fund planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
Global partnership focused on reducing The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Greenpeace is campaigning for a future that will allow our forests to thrive - filled Greenpeace with unique wildlife and able to sustain local people and economies while cleaning the air of carbon: a future with no deforestation. Nongovernmental Organisations International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
An international organisation dedicated to natural resource conservation.
FSC is an independent nongovernmental, not-for-profit organisation established to promote the responsible management of the world's forest. Established in 1993 as a response to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) concerns over global deforestation, FCS is a pioneer forum where the global consensus on responsible forest management convenes and through democratic process effects solutions to the pressures facing the world's forest and forest-dependent communities.
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CATEGORY
STAKEHOLDER
ROLE
IN
DISCUSSION
EastwoodPower is a green bioenergy supply company serving power plants and EastWoodPower LTD homes, dedicated to guarantee the supply of affordable bioenergy, with sustainable management of forest resources. Corporations A global asset management business grown out of a desire to create and Global Fund Exchange LTD manage wealth by disciplined and focused investments in energy, commodities, water and critical resources.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT

1.
What are the short-term and long-term consequences if deforestation activities were to be ceased? Will the government be able to provide the unskilled or semi-skilled indigenous population with an alternative source of revenue? What about those employed in the forestry industries?
2.
What measures can we put in place to ensure that developed countries contribute in monetary terms what they have pledge? How can funding then be divided fairly among the countries that need it?
3.
Will there be more viable options to reduce deforestation in the long run? How can we reduce the reliance on monetary incentives to reduce deforestation activities in developing countries?
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A REFERENCES
OVEREXPLOITATION
OF
MINES
Actualising Sustainable Mining: MMSD Steps, Ivan Weber http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/ ActualizingSustainableMining.pdf Environmental and Social Aspects of Mining http://pdf.wri.org/mining_background_literature_review.pdf Kertes, N., (March, 1996). US abandoned mine count still a mystery - General Accounting Office report. American Metal Market, Retrieved August 27, 2007, Larmer, Brook (2009-01). "The Real Price of Gold". National Geographic. Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution Union of Concerned Scientists http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/coalvswind/c02c.html "Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining". World Coal Institute. Retrieved 2008-10-22. http://www.worldcoal.org/coal-the-environment/coal-mining-the-environment/
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International Council on Mining & Metals http://www.icmm.com/ First International Conference on Mining Impacts to the Human and Natural Environments http://itech.fgcu.edu/faculty/ndemers/Miningconference/mcindex.htm Regulatory Inadequacies and Mining Impacts in the Lower Withlacoochee River Watershed http://itech.fgcu.edu/faculty/ndemers/Miningconference/Withlacoochee %20Armstrong.ppt Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative http://eiti.org/
CARBON
FUTURES
G77. 2008. Statement on behalf of the Group of 77 and China by Ambassador John Ashe, Permanent Representative of Antigua and Barbuda to the United Nations, at the thematic debate of the General Assembly on Addressing climate change: The United Nations and the world at work. http://www.g77.org/statement/getstatement.php?id=080212 Giddens, Anthony. 2008. The politics of climate change: National responses to the challenge of global warming. Policy Network. http://policy-network.net/ Martinsen, D., Markewiz, P., and Vgele, S. 2003. Roads to Carbon Reduction in Germany. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. http://www.iiasa.ac.at/ Montgomery, W. David, and Smith, Anne E. 2005. Price, Quantity, and Technology Strategies for Climate Change Policy. CRA International. http://www.crai.com.au/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. n.d. Climate Change. http://www.oecd.org/about/0,3347,en_2649_34361_1_1_1_1_1,00.html
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FOOD SECURITY World Agricultural Production report, Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture, July 2009. Values given in scenario were based on projected yearly production. Accessed May 30 2011. http://www.fas.usda.gov/wap/circular/2009/09-07/productionfull07-09.pdf Special Alert report on China, FAO Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture, February 8 2011. Accessed May 31 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5wVDZbHRG/ Principal Revision to 2010 Paddy Production Forecasts (millions of tonnes), pg.2, Rice Market Monitor, Volume XIII, Issue no. 3, November 2010, FAO. Accessed May 30 2011. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am016e/am016e00.pdf China's Corn Output Is Expected To Reach 148 Million Tons in the Period of October, April 8 2008, Reuters. Accessed May 30 2011. http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/08/idUS115869+08Apr-2008+BW20080408/ Water Scarcity in the North China Plain: Water Saving Irrigation and its Implications for Water Conservation, Erin Henry, Michigan State University, July 8 2004. Accessed May 31 2011. http://forestry.msu.edu/china/New%20Folder/Erin.pdf Chinas shadow looms over the Mekong, Steve Hirsch, UNHCR, April 2 2011. China-US Trade Issues, W. M. Morrison, January 7 2011, Congressional Research Service. Accessed May 31 2011. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf Wheat export data (updated May 20 2011) by the Economic Research Service, USDA. Accessed May 31 2011. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/wheat/YBtable25.asp
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FAO estimates as of October 2010. Accessed May 31 2011. http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm How to feed the world in 2050, FAO. Accessed May 31 2011 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/ How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf Special report on feeding the world: How much is enough? The Economist, Feb 24 2011. Accessed May 31 2011 http://www.economist.com/node/18200702/ Livestocks long shadow, UN FAO report on livestock-raisings damage to the environment, including causing water scarcity, consuming food crops, harming biodiversity and production of greenhouse gases. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e.pdf US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy News, Feb 24 2010 http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=15820/ The Green Gold, Anjali Shukla. Accessed 22 Jun 2011. http://www.free-green-magazine.com/jatropha-curcas-the-green-gold-by-anjali-shukla/ Online CIA World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ FAOSTAT online resources http://faostat.fao.org/ WFP official site http://www.wfp.org/ Threemile Canyon Farms site http://www.threemilecanyonfarms.com/ The Common Agricultural Policy Explained, European Commission, Agriculture and Rural Development. Accessed Jun 20 2011. http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/capexplained/cap_en.pdf
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Monsanto site http://www.monsanto.com/Pages/default.aspx Information on Argentenian agriculture http://www.carilat.de/suedamerika/argentinien/landwirtschaft.htm Statistics on Argentenian agriculture http://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?c=mr&v=67 Information on Australian agriculture http://www.hreoc.gov.au/social_justice/sj_report/sjreport08/img/ch3_mapofaus.jpg Ben &Jerry's http://www.benjerry.com/ Finnish agriculture http://countrystudies.us/finland/85.htm French agriculture http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/France-AGRICULTURE.html Irish agrifood industry http://www.teagasc.ie/agrifood/ List of G-20 nations http://www.g20.org/index.aspx Japan http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Japan-AGRICULTURE.html Kraft Foods http://www.kraftfoodscompany.com/ Malaysia http://lmorganicfertilizer.com/files/sustainable-agriculture-faridah.pdf McDonalds http://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en/home.html
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Netherlands http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/ Wojtan, Linda S. (1987-12). "Teaching about the Pacific Rim. ERIC Digest No. 43". ERIC. Retrieved March 12, 2011. www.data.govt.nz/dataset/show/690 Pakistan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Pakistan Russian Federation http://www.country-studies.com/russia/agriculture.html http://agricultureforum.blogactiv.eu/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-10815176 Smithfield Foods - Turner, Tyya N. Vault Guide to the Top Consumer Products Employers. Vault Inc., 2005, p. 323; Tietz, Jeff. "Boss Hog", Rolling Stone, December 14, 2006, accessed December 20, 2010.; Kris Maher, "Firms Use RICO to Fight Union Tactics," Wall Street Journal,December 10, 2007. http://www.pauldoolan.com/2010/04/evil-of-smithfield-foods.html South Africa http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_South_Africa Turkey http://www.mongabay.com/history/turkey/turkey-agricultural_policy_agriculture.html http://jensholm.se/2010/11/03/reduction-of-meat-consumption-bill/ http://www.energyefficiencynews.com/i/1227/
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DEFORESTATION Avoided Deforestation with Sustainable Benefits. Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn. N.d. Web. Accessed 22 May 2011. http://www.asb.cgiar.org/pdfwebdocs/Avoided-Deforestation-with-Sustainable-Benefitsflyer.pdf Bradshaw, Corey J.A. et al. Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the developing world. Global Change Biology 13.11 (2007): 2379-2395. Print. Brazilian president says 'gringos' must pay to protect Amazon. Guardian News and Media Limited. 27 Nov 2009. Web. Accessed 21 Mar 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/27/lula-gringos-pay-protect-amazon Contreras-Hermosilla, Arnoldo. "The Underlying Causes of Forest Decline". CIFOR. 2000. Web. Accessed 3 May 2011. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-030.pdf Definition of Deforestation. Ecolife. N.d. Web. 3 May 2011. http://www.ecolife.com/define/deforestation.html Fact Sheet: Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: approacjes to stimulate action. United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change. N.d. Web. Accessed 22 May 2011. http://unfccc.int/files/press/backgrounders/application/pdf/ fact_sheet_reducing_emissions_from_deforestation.pdf How the World Bank and HSBC are investing in deforestation. Greenpeace. 30 Aug 2007. Web. Accessed 3 May 2011. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/features/world-bank-congoforest_300807/ Illegal Logging. DAFF. 28 Apr 2011. Web. Accessed 3 May 2011. http://www.daff.gov.au/forestry/international/illegal-logging Logging the Forest. ICT Update. March 2008. Web. Accessed 22 May 2011. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Logging-the-forest
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Rich nations step up fight against deforestation. The Swedish Wire. 27 May 2010. Web. Accessed 21 Mar 2011. http://www.swedishwire.com/politics/4725-rich-nations-step-up-fight-against-deforestation
APPENDIX B FURTHER READING
READING 1 HALF
THE
AMAZON RAINFOREST
TO BE
LOST
BY
2030
Due to the effects of global warming and deforestation, more than half of the Amazon rainforest may be destroyed or severely damaged by the year 2030, according to a report released by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).
The report, "Amazon's Vicious Cycles: Drought and Fire," concludes that 55 percent of the world's largest rainforest stands to be severely damaged from agriculture, drought, fire, logging and livestock ranching in the next 22 years. Another 4 percent may be damaged by reduced rainfall caused by global warming. This is anticipated to destroy up to 80 percent of wildlife habitat in the region.
By 2100, the report adds, global warming may cause rainfall in the Amazon to drop by 20 percent and temperatures to increase by 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit). This combination will increase the occurrence of forest fires, further accelerating the pace of deforestation.
The Amazon contains more than half of the planet's surviving rainforest and is a key stabiliser of global climate. The report notes that losing 60 percent of it would accelerate the pace of global warming, affecting rainfall as far away as India.
WWF warned that the "point of no return" for the Amazon rainforest, from which ecological
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recovery will be impossible, is only 15-25 years in the future, much sooner than has previously been supposed.
"The Amazon is on a knife-edge," said WWF-UK forests head Beatrix Richards, "due to the dual threats of deforestation and climate change."
She called for the countries discussing global climate change at an international conference in Bali to take the importance of forests into account.
"At the international negotiations currently underway in Bali, governments must agree a process which results in ambitious global emission reduction targets beyond the current phase of Kyoto," she said. "Crucially, this must include a strategy to reduce emissions from forests and help break the cycle of deforestation." Source: http://www.naturalnews.com/023673.html
READING 2 D E FO R E S TAT I O N: T H E H I D D E N C AU S E
OF
GLOBAL WARMING
In the next 24 hours, deforestation will release as much CO2 into the atmosphere as 8 million people flying from London to New York. Stopping the loggers is the fastest and cheapest solution to climate change. So why are global leaders turning a blind eye to this crisis? The accelerating destruction of the rainforests that form a precious cooling band around the Earth's equator, is now being recognised as one of the main causes of climate change. Carbon emissions from deforestation far outstrip damage caused by planes and automobiles and factories. The rampant slashing and burning of tropical forests is second only to the energy sector as a source of greenhouses gases according to report published today by the Oxford-based Global Canopy Programme, an alliance of leading rainforest scientists.
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Figures from the GCP, summarising the latest findings from the United Nations, and building on estimates contained in the Stern Report, show deforestation accounts for up to 25 per cent of global emissions of heat-trapping gases, while transport and industry account for 14 per cent each; and aviation makes up only 3 per cent of the total. "Tropical forests are the elephant in the living room of climate change," said Andrew Mitchell, the head of the GCP. Scientists say one days' deforestation is equivalent to the carbon footprint of eight million people flying to New York. Reducing those catastrophic emissions can be achieved most quickly and most cheaply by halting the destruction in Brazil, Indonesia, the Congo and elsewhere. No new technology is needed, says the GCP, just the political will and a system of enforcement and incentives that makes the trees worth more to governments and individuals standing than felled. "The focus on technological fixes for the emissions of rich nations while giving no incentive to poorer nations to stop burning the standing forest means we are putting the cart before the horse," said Mr Mitchell. Most people think of forests only in terms of the CO2 they absorb. The rainforests of the Amazon, the Congo basin and Indonesia are thought of as the lungs of the planet. But the destruction of those forests will in the next four years alone, in the words of Sir Nicholas Stern, pump more CO2 into the atmosphere than every flight in the history of aviation to at least 2025. Indonesia became the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world last week. Following close behind is Brazil. Neither nation has heavy industry on a comparable scale with the EU, India or Russia and yet they comfortably outstrip all other countries, except the United States and China. What both countries do have in common is tropical forest that is being cut and burned with staggering swiftness. Smoke stacks visible from space climb into the sky above both countries, while satellite images capture similar destruction from the Congo basin, across the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo.
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According to the latest audited figures from 2003, two billion tons of CO2 enters the atmosphere every year from deforestation. That destruction amounts to 50 million acres - or an area the size of England, Wales and Scotland felled annually. The remaining standing forest is calculated to contain 1,000 billion tons of carbon, or double what is already in the atmosphere. As the GCP's report concludes: "If we lose forests, we lose the fight against climate change." Standing forest was not included in the original Kyoto protocols and stands outside the carbon markets that the report from the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) pointed to this month as the best hope for halting catastrophic warming. The landmark Stern Report last year, and the influential McKinsey Report in January agreed that forests offer the "single largest opportunity for cost-effective and immediate reductions of carbon emissions". International demand has driven intensive agriculture, logging and ranching that has proved an inexorable force for deforestation; conservation has been no match for commerce. The leading rainforest scientists are now calling for the immediate inclusion of standing forests in internationally regulated carbon markets that could provide cash incentives to halt this disastrous process. Forestry experts and policy makers have been meeting in Bonn, Germany, this week to try to put deforestation on top of the agenda for the UN climate summit in Bali, Indonesia, this year. Papua New Guinea, among the world's poorest nations, last year declared it would have no choice but to continue deforestation unless it was given financial incentives to do otherwise. Richer nations already recognise the value of uncultivated land. The EU offers 135 per hectare subsidies for "environmental services" to its farmers to leave their land unused. And yet there is no agreement on placing a value on the vastly more valuable land in developing countries. More than 50 per cent of the life on Earth is in tropical forests, which cover less than 7 per cent of the planet's surface. They generate the bulk of rainfall worldwide and act as a thermostat for the Earth. Forests are also home to 1.6 billion of the world's poorest people who rely on them for subsistence.
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However, forest experts say governments continue to pursue science fiction solutions to the coming climate catastrophe, preferring bio-fuel subsidies, carbon capture schemes and nextgeneration power stations. Putting a price on the carbon these vital forests contain is the only way to slow their destruction. Hylton Philipson, a trustee of Rainforest Concern, explained: "In a world where we are witnessing a mounting clash between food security, energy security and environmental security - while there's money to be made from food and energy and no income to be derived from the standing forest, it's obvious that the forest will take the hit." Source: http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/deforestation-the-hidden-cause-ofglobal-warming-448734.html
READING 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

OF
HOW
TO
FEED
THE
WORLD
IN
2050
By 2050 the worlds population will reach 9.1 billion, 34 percent higher than today. Nearly all of this population increase will occur in developing countries. Urbanisation will continue at an accelerated pace, and about 70 percent of the worlds population will be urban (compared to 49 percent today). Income levels will be many multiples of what they are now. In order to feed this larger, more urban and richer population, food production (net of food used for biofuels) must increase by 70 percent. Annual cereal production will need to rise to about 3 billion tonnes from 2.1 billion today and annual meat production will need to rise by over 200 million tonnes to reach 470 million tonnes. This report argues that the required increase in food production can be achieved if the necessary investment is undertaken and policies conducive to agricultural production are put in place. But increasing production is not sufficient to achieve food security. It must be complemented by policies to enhance access by fighting poverty, especially in rural areas, as well as effective safety net programmes. Total average annual net investment in developing country agriculture required to deliver the necessary production increases would amount to USD 83 billion. The global gap in what is
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required vis--vis current investment levels can be illustrated by comparing the required annual gross investment of US$209 billion (which includes the cost of renewing depreciating investments) with the result of a separate study that estimated that developing countries on average invested USD 142 billion (USD of 2009) annually in agriculture over the past decade. The required increase is thus about 50 percent. These figures are totals for public and private investment, i.e. investments by farmers. Achieving them will require a major reallocation in developing country budgets as well as in donor programmes. It will also require policies that support farmers in developing countries and encourage them and other private participants in agriculture to increase their investment. In developing countries, 80 percent of the necessary production increases would come from increases in yields and cropping intensity and only 20 percent from expansion of arable land. But the fact is that globally the rate of growth in yields of the major cereal crops has been steadily declining, it dropped from 3.2 percent per year in 1960 to 1.5 percent in 2000. The challenge for technology is to reverse this decline, since a continuous linear increase in yields at a global level following the pattern established over the past five decades will not be sufficient to meet food needs. Although investment in agricultural R&D continues to be one of the most productive investments, with rates of return between 30 and 75 percent, it has been neglected in most low income countries. Currently, agricultural R&D in developing countries is dominated by the public sector, so that initially additional investment will have to come from government budgets. Increasing private sector investment will require addressing issues of intellectual property rights while ensuring that a balance is struck so that access of smallholder farmers to new technologies is not reduced. Hunger can persist in the midst of adequate aggregate supplies because of lacking income opportunities for the poor and the absence of effective social safety nets. Experience of countries that have succeeded in reducing hunger and malnutrition shows that economic growth does not automatically ensure success, the source of growth matters too. Growth originating in agriculture, in particular the smallholder sector, is at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest as growth from non-agriculture sectors. This is not surprising since 75 percent of the poor in developing countries live in rural areas and their incomes are directly or indirectly linked to agriculture. The fight against hunger also requires targeted and deliberate
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action in the form of comprehensive social services, including food assistance, health and sanitation, as well as education and training; with a special focus on the most vulnerable. Many countries will continue depending on international trade to ensure their food security. It is estimated that by 2050 developing countries net imports of cereals will more than double from 135 million metric tonnes in 2008/09 to 300 million in 2050. That is why there is a need to move towards a global trading system that is fair and competitive; and that contributes to a dependable market for food. Reform of farm support policies in OECD countries is a welcome step which has led to a decline in the aggregate trade distortion coefficient from 0.96 in 1986 to 0.74 in 2007. However, there is clearly still room for improvement. There is also a need to provide support and greater market access to developing country farmers so that they can compete on a more equal footing. Countries also need to consider joint measures to be better prepared for future shocks to the global system, through coordinated action in case of food crises, reform of trade rules, and joint finance to assist people affected by a new price spike or localised disasters. Climate change and increased biofuel production represent major risks for long-term food security. Although countries in the Southern hemisphere are not the main originators of climate change, they may suffer the greatest share of damage in the form of declining yields and greater frequency of extreme weather events. Studies estimate that the aggregate negative impact of climate change on African agricultural output up to 2080-2100 could be between 15 and 30 percent. Agriculture will have to adapt to climate change, but it can also help mitigate the effects of climate change, and useful synergies exist between adaptation and mitigation. Biofuel production based on agricultural commodities increased more than threefold from 2000 to 2008,. In 2007-08 total usage of coarse grains for the production of ethanol reached 110 million tonnes, about 10 percent of global production. Increased use of food crops for biofuel production could have serious implications for food security. A recent study estimates that continued rapid expansion of biofuel production up to 2050 would lead to the number of undernourished pre-school children in Africa and South Asia being 3 and 1.7 million higher than would have been otherwise the case. Therefore, policies promoting the use of food- based biofuels need to be reconsidered with the aim of reducing the competition between food and fuel for scarce resources.
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The world has the resources and technology to eradicate hunger and ensure long-term food security for all, in spite of many challenges and risks. It needs to mobilise political will and build the necessary institutions to ensure that key decisions on investment and policies to eradicate hunger are taken and implemented effectively. The time to act is now. Continue reading at http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/ How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf/
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S U S TA I NA B L E D E V E LO P M E N T YO U T H C O N V E N T I O N

ACADEMIC BOOKLET 2 011

Last modified August 14, 2011 12:19 PM

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Appendix A 99 References Appendix B 106 Further Reading

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

LINKS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SOME INITIATIVES TAKEN

THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL

MINING & METALS (ICMM)

GENER A LLY NEUTRAL CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION

African Rainbow Minerals

GENER A LLY AGAINS T

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

LINKS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SOME INITIATIVES TAKEN

Generally FOR Generally NEUTRAL Generally AGAINST

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

LINKS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SOME INITIATIVES TAKEN

REDUCTION OF MEAT CONSUMPTION BILL (RIKSDAG OF SWEDEN)

SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL BILL (PARLIAMENT

Generally FOR Generally NEUTRAL Generally AGAINST

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

LINKS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SOME INITIATIVES TAKEN

SOME POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

GENER A LLY FOR

GENER A LLY NEUTRAL

Scientific Advisory Groups

GENER A LLY AGAINS T CATEGORY STAKEHOLDER ROLE DISCUSSION

An international organisation dedicated to natural resource conservation.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

APPENDIX B FURTHER READING

READING 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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