ENERGY

Cellular Respiration

Siti Sabrina Kasri

Course Sylibus

2. Cellular Respiration
- ATP - NAD+ as an Electron Shuttle & Electron Transport Chain

- Preview of Stages of Cellular Respiration

- Glycolysis - Krebs Cycle (Acid Citric Cycle)

- Oxidative Phosphorylation

ATP

ATP Powers Cellular Work

A cell does three main kinds of work:
Chemical work

eg; synthesis of polymers from monomers

Transport

eg; the pumping of subtances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement.
Mechanical

eg; beating of cilia, movement of chromosomes during cellular work.

To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, the

use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.

Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by ATP.

Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP

The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic.

- because organic molecules can act as fuels. - the breakdown of these molecules taking out energy that was stored chemically which will be used to do work; the rest is dissipated as heat.
Three types of catabolic process:

1. Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP 2. Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other than O2 3. Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2

The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cells energy shuttle.

- composed of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups. - also one of the nucleoside triphosphate used to make RNA. - is a nucleotide with unstable phosphate bonds that the cell hydrolyses for energy. - acts as temporary energy store.

 ATP is a renewable resource

- ATP regenerated by addition of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). - The energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from *catabolic reactions in the cell.

Process that result in the production of ATP:

a) Substrate level phosphorylation

- A phosphate group is transferred directly from a phosphorylated compound (substrate) to ADP.

b) Oxidative phosphorylation
- Takes place on the inner membrane of mitochondrion (this part related to chemiosmosis).

c) Photophosphorylation
- Occurs on the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast.
*catabolic : The metabolic breakdown of large molecules in living organisms to smaller ones, with the release of energy. The catabolic reactions are exergonic.

 Since the high energy bonds of ATP are unstable bonds, the bonds

between the phosphate groups of ATPs tail can be broken by hydrolysis.

HYDROLYSIS OF ATP

The ATP Cycle

To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, (the use of an

exergonic process to drive an endergonic one). - The cells use energy stored in ATP by enzymatically transferring phosphate group from ATP to other compounds. Energy released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken. - The compounds receiving the phosphate group from ATP are phosphorylated & become reactive in the process. (ADP & I are formed in the process)

The ATP Cycle (cont)

The cell must replenish its ATP supply in order to continue cellular activities.

-ATP formation is endergonic.

ADP + Pi ATP, G= +31 kJ mol -1 or 7.3 kcal of energy per mole of ATP hydrolyzed. -The energy used to drive the regeneration of ATP comes from the exergonic

process of cellular respiration.

 Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration.
Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is

helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar glucose:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)

To understand how cellular respiration accomplishes this, we need to understand the fundamental chemical process known as oxidation & reduction.

Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction

How do the catabolic pathways that decompose glucose yields energy?

Answer: Based on the transfer of electrons during the chemical process (eg; Electron transport chain in the oxidative phosphorylation stage in cellular respiration)
The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy

stored in organic molecules.

This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP. (in the chemiosmosis).
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called

oxidation-reduction reactions, or redox reactions.

The Principle of Redox. Involved oxidation-reduction reactions.

In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized. - The electron donor is called the reducing agent.
In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount

of positive charge is reduced). - The electron receptor is called the oxidizing agent.
Because an electron transfer requires both a donor & an acceptor,

oxidation & reduction always go together.

 During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is oxidized, and O 2 is

reduced. - Organic molecules that have an abundance of hydrogen are excellent fuels because; Their bonds are a source of hilltop electrons, whose energy may be released as these electrons fall down an energy gradient when they are transferred to oxygen.

NAD+ as an Electron Shuttle & Electron Transport Chain

Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron Transport Chain
In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down (oxidizing) in a series of steps and requires

involvement of NAD+ & dehydrogenase enzyme.

Electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) ,a coenzyme (a derivative of the vitamin niacin).

As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during

cellular respiration.
Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+) represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP.
How does NAD+ trap electrons from glucose & other organic

molecules?

(From Food)

How does NAD+ trap electrons from glucose & other organic molecules?
-With the help of enzymes called dehydrogenases. - This enzyme: remove a pair of hydrogen atoms (2 electrons and 2 protons) from the substrate (eg glucose), thereby oxidizing it. delivers the 2 electrons along with 1 proton to NAD+ therefore forming NADH. the remain 1 proton is released as a hydrogen ion into the surrounding solution. now NADH has stored energy than can be tapped to make ATP when electrons complete their fall down an energy gradient, from NADH to oxygen via electron transport chain.

WHATS NEXT ON NADH?

 NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain.

- this is how stored energy extracted out from the NADH.

Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron transport chain passes

electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction. This is because:

- it consists of a number of molecules (mostly protein & are called electron carrier) that are built into the inner membrane of mitochondria. - Each downhill carrier is more electronegative than, and thus capable of oxidizing, its uphill neighbour, with oxygen at the bottom of the chain. (refer to fig 6.5C, p92, Biology)

During NADH journey in the electron transport chain, O 2 pulls

electrons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble.

- electron transfer from NADH to oxygen via electron carrier until electron reached oxygen (the terminal electron acceptor). - energy is released in small amount- regenerate ATP.

H2 + 1/2 O2

2H (from food via NADH) Controlled release of + + 2 e 2H energy for synthesis of ATP

1/

2 O2

Explosive release of heat and light energy

1/

2 O2

(b) Cellular respiration (a) Uncontrolled reaction

The one step exergonic reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water releases a large amount of energy in the form of heat & light. In cellular respiration, the same reaction occurs in stages: An electron transport chain breaks the fall of electrons in this reaction into a series of smaller steps & stores some of the released energy in a form that can be used to make ATP.

THEREFORE IN SUMMARY, DURING CELLULAR RESPIRATION, most electrons travel the following downhill route: GLUCOSENADHELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINOXYGEN.

Preview of Stages of Cellular Respiration

IN CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
The process that generates most of the ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation because it is powered by redox reactions of the

electron transport chain.

- Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration. - Inner membrane of the mitochondrion = site of electron transport & chemiosmosis. - In prokaryote at plasma membrane = site of electron transport & chemiosmosis - ATP is formed by adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP.

A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid

cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation.

- ATP is formed when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP.

Several Processes are Central to Cellular Respiration and Related Pathways

1. Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate). 2. The citric acid cycle/ Kreb cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose).

3. Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis).

4. Electron transport chain (electrons produced from glycolysis and the Kreb Cycle are passed along a series of enzyme in the inner mitochondrial membrane, producing ATP via oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis). 1+2+3= three metabolic stages involves in Cellular respiration.

An Overview of Cellular Respiration

Electrons carried via NADH

Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate

Cytosol
Substrate-level Phosphorylation: -Subtrate molecule refers to an organic molecule generated as an intermediate during the catabolism of glucose.

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

- So the term above mean: a process where ATP is formed directly in a few reactions of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
- This mode of ATP synthesis occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from substrate molecule to ADP.

An Overview of Cellular Respiration

Electrons carried via NADH

Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2

Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate

Citric acid cycle

Mitochondrion

Cytosol

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

An Overview of Cellular Respiration

Electrons carried via NADH

Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2

Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate

Citric acid cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis

Mitochondrion

Cytosol

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation

ATP Oxidative phosphorylation