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GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION In mathematics, a geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number called the common ratio. For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, ... is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2. The sum of the terms of a geometric progression is known as a geometric series. Thus, the general form of a geometric sequence is

and that of a geometric series is

where r 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence's start value.

Diagram showing the geometric series 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ... which converges to 2.

ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES The n-th term of a geometric sequence with initial value a and common ratio r is given by

Such a geometric sequence also follows the recursive relation for every integer Generally, to check whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply checks whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio The common ratio of a geometric series may be negative, resulting in an alternating sequence, with numbers switching from positive to negative and back. For instance 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, ...
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is a geometric sequence with common ratio 3. The behaviour of a geometric sequence depends on the value of the common ratio. If the common ratio is:
y y y y y y y

Positive, the terms will all be the same sign as the initial term. Negative, the terms will alternate between positive and negative. Greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards positive infinity. 1, the progression is a constant sequence. Between 1 and 1 but not zero, there will be exponential decay towards zero. 1, the progression is an alternating sequence (see alternating series) Less than 1, for the absolute values there is exponential growth towards positive and negative infinity (due to the alternating sign).

Geometric sequences (with common ratio not equal to 1,1 or 0) show exponential growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the Linear growth (or decline) of an arithmetic progression such as 4, 15, 26, 37, 48, (with common difference 11). This result was taken by T.R. Malthus as the mathematical foundation of his Principle of Population. Note that the two kinds of progression are related: exponentiating each term of an arithmetic progression yields a geometric progression, while taking the logarithm of each term in a geometric progression with a positive common ratio yields an arithmetic progression. GEOMETRIC SERIES A geometric series is the sum of the numbers in a geometric progression:

We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above equation by 1 r, and we'll see that

since all the other terms cancel. Rearranging (for r 1) gives the convenient formula for a geometric series:

If one were to begin the sum not from 0, but from a higher term, say m, then

Differentiating this formula with respect to r allows us to arrive at formulae for sums of the form

For example:

For a geometric series containing only even powers of r multiply by 1 r2:

Then

For a series with only odd powers of r

and

INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES An infinite geometric series is an infinite series whose successive terms have a common ratio. Such a series converges if and only if the absolute value of the common ratio is less than one ( | r | < 1 ). Its value can then be computed from the finite sum formulae

Since:

Then:

For a series containing only even powers of r,

and for odd powers only,

In cases where the sum does not start at k = 0,

The formulae given above are valid only for | r | < 1. The latter formula is valid in every Banach algebra, as long as the norm of r is less than one, and also in the field of p-adic numbers if | r |p < 1. As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate formulae for related sums. For example,

This formula only works for | r | < 1 as well. From this, it follows that, for | r | < 1,

Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + is an elementary example of a series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

The inverse of the above series is 1/2 1/4 + 1/8 1/16 + is a simple example of an alternating series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

COMPLEX NUMBERS The summation formula for geometric series remains valid even when the common ratio is a complex number. In this case the condition that the absolute value of r be less than 1 becomes that the modulus of r be less than 1. It is possible to calculate the sums of some non-obvious geometric series. For example, consider the proposition

The proof of this comes from the fact that

which is a consequence of Euler's formula. Substituting this into the original series gives

. This is the difference of two geometric series, and so it is a straightforward application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof.

PRODUCT The product of a geometric progression is the product of all terms. If all terms are positive, then it can be quickly computed by taking the geometric mean of the progression's first and last term, and raising that mean to the power given by the number of terms. (This is very similar to the formula for the sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence: take the arithmetic mean of the first and last term and multiply with the number of terms.)

(if a,r > 0). Proof: Let the product be represented by P: . Now, carrying out the multiplications, we conclude that . Applying the sum of arithmetic series, the expression will yield . . We raise both sides to the second power: . Consequently and , which concludes the proof.

RELATIONSHIP TO GEOMETRY AND EUCLID'S WORK

Books VIII and IX of Euclid's Elements analyze geometric progressions and give several of their properties. A geometric progression is given this name because each term is the geometric mean of the two adjacent terms. Elements, Book IX The geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, (or, in the binary numeral system, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, ) is important in number theory. Book IX, Proposition 36 of Elements proves that if the sum of the first n terms of this progression is a prime number, then this sum times the nth term is a perfect number. For example, the sum of the first 5 terms of the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31, which is a prime number. The sum 31 multiplied by 16 (the 5th term in the series) equals 496, which is a perfect number. Book IX, Proposition 35, proves that in a geometric series if the first term is subtracted from the second and last term in the sequence then as the excess of the second is to the first, so will the excess of the last be to all of those before it. (This is a restatement of our formula for geometric series from above.) Applying this to the geometric progression 31, 62, 124, 248, 496 (which results from 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 by multiplying all terms by 31), we see that 62 minus 31 is to 31 as 496 minus 31 is to the sum of 31, 62, 124, 248. Therefore the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 and 248 add up to 496 and further these are all the numbers which divide 496. For suppose that p divides 496 and it is not amongst these numbers. Assume pq equals 16 31, or 31 is to q as p is to 16. Now p cannot divide 16 or it would be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Therefore 31 cannot divide q. And since 31 does not divide q and q measures 496, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic implies that q must divide 16 and be amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16. Let q be 4, then p must be 124, which is impossible since by hypothesis p is not amongst the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124 or 248.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION In mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant. For instance, the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, is an arithmetic progression with common difference 2. If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the common difference of successive members is d, then the nth term of the sequence is given by:

and in general

A finite portion of an arithmetic progression is called a finite arithmetic progression and sometimes just called an arithmetic progression. The behavior of the arithmetic progression depends on the common difference d. If the common difference is:
y y

Positive, the members (terms) will grow towards positive infinity. Negative, the members (terms) will grow towards negative infinity.

SUM The sum of the members of a finite arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic series. Expressing the arithmetic series in two different ways:

y y y y y y y y y y y

Adding both sides of the two equations, all terms involving d cancel: Dividing both sides by 2 produces a common form of the equation: An alternate form results from re-inserting the substitution: an = a1 + (n 1)d: In 499 CE Aryabhata, a prominent mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, gave this method in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.18) .[1] So, for example, the sum of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n1)(5) up to the 50th term is
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ARITHMETIC SERIES An arithmetic series is the sum of a sequence , , 2, ..., in which each term is computed from the previous one by adding (or subtracting) a constant . Therefore, for ,

The sum of the sequence of the first terms is then given by

Using the sum identity

then gives

Note, however, that

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so

or times the arithmetic mean of the first and last terms! This is the trick Gauss used as a schoolboy to solve the problem of summing the integers from 1 to 100 given as busy-work by his teacher. While his classmates toiled away doing the addition longhand, Gauss wrote a single number, the correct answer

PRODUCT The product of the members of a finite arithmetic progression with an initial element a1, common differences d, and n elements in total is determined in a closed expression

y y y y y

where denotes the rising factorial and denotes the Gamma function. (Note however that the formula is not valid when a1 / d is a negative integer or zero.) This is a generalization from the fact that the product of the progression is given by the factorial n! and that the product for positive integers m and n is given by

y y

Taking the example from above, the product of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is

y y y y y y y y y

Consider an AP a,(a + d),(a + 2d),.................(a + (n 1)d) Finding the product of first three terms a(a + d)(a + 2d) = (a2 + ad)(a + 2d) = a3 + 3a2d + 2ad2 this is of the form an + nan 1dn 2 + (n 1)an 2dn 1 so the product of n terms of an AP is: an + nan 1dn 2 + (n 1)an 2dn 1 no solutions
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Part I Question Cakes come in a variety of forms and flavours and are among favourite desserts served during special occasions such as birthday parties, Hari Raya, weddings and etc. Cakes are treasured not only because of their wonderful taste but also in the art of cake baking and cake decorating. Find out how mathematics is used in cake baking and cake decorating and write about your findings. Answer: Geometry To determine suitable dimensions for the cake, to assist in designing and decorating cakes that comes in many attractive shapes and designs, to estimate volume of cake to be produced Calculus (differentiation) To determine minimum or maximum amount of ingredients for cakebaking, to estimate min. or max. amount of cream needed for decorating, to estimate min. or max. size of cake produced.

Progressions To determine total weight/volume of multi-storey cakes with proportional dimensions, to estimate total ingredients needed for cake-baking, to estimate total amount of cream for decoration.

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Part II Question: 1) Best Bakery shop received an order from your school to bake a 5 kg of round cake as shown in Diagram 1 for the Teachers Day celebration. (Diagram 11)

1)

If a kilogram of cake has a volume of 3800 , and the height of the cake is to be 7.0cm, calculate the diameter of the baking tray to be used to fit the 5 kg cake ordered by your school. = 3.142]

[Use

Answer: Volume of 5kg cake = Base area of cake x Height of cake 3800 x 5 = (3.142)( ) x 7 (3.142) = ( ) 863.872 = ( ) = 29.392 d = 58.784 cm

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Question: 2) The cake will be baked in an oven with inner dimensions of 80.0 cm in length, 60.0 cmin width and 45.0 cm in height. a) If the volume of cake remains the same, explore by using different values of heights,h cm, and the corresponding values of diameters of the baking tray to be used,d cm. Tabulate your answers Answer: First, form the formula for d in terms of h by using the above formula for volume of cake, V = 19000, that is: 19000 = (3.142)(d/2)h


= d d=

Height,h (cm) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

Diameter,d(cm) 155.53 109.98 89.80 77.77 68.56 63.49 58.78 54.99 51.84 49.18

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Question: (b) Based on the values in your table, (i) state the range of heights that is NOT suitable for the cakes and explain your answers. Answer: h < 7cm is NOT suitable, because the resulting diameter produced is too large to fit into the oven. Furthermore, the cake would be too short and too wide, making it less attractive. Question: (ii) suggest the dimensions that you think most suitable for the cake. Give reasons for your answer. Answer: h = 8cm, d = 54.99cm, because it can fit into the oven, and the size is suitable for easy handling. Question: (c) (i) Form an equation to represent the linear relation between h and d. Hence, plot a suitable graph based on the equation that you have formed. [You may draw your graph with the aid of computer software.] Answer: 19000 = (3.142)( )h 19000/(3.142)h = = d d= d= log d =  log d = Log h Log d

log h + log 155.53 0 2.19 1 1.69 2 1.19 3 0.69 4 0.19

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Question: (ii) (a) If Best Bakery received an order to bake a cake where the height of the cake is 10.5 cm, use your graph to determine the diameter of the round cake pan required. Answer: h = 10.5cm, log h = 1.021, log d = 1.680, d = 47.86cm Question: (b) If Best Bakery used a 42 cm diameter round cake tray, use your graph to estimate the height of the cake obtained. Answer: d = 42cm, log d = 1.623, log h = 1.140, h = 13.80cm Question: 3) Best Bakery has been requested to decorate the cake with fresh cream. The thickness of the cream is normally set to a uniform layer of about 1cm (a) Estimate the amount of fresh cream required to decorate the cake using the dimensions that you have suggested in 2(b)(ii). Answer: h = 8cm, d = 54.99cm Amount of fresh cream = VOLUME of fresh cream needed (area x height) Amount of fresh cream = Vol. of cream at the top surface + Vol. of cream at the side surface Vol. of cream at the top surface = Area of top surface x Height of cream = (3.142)( ) x 1 = 2375 cm Vol. of cream at the side surface = Area of side surface x Height of cream = (Circumference of cake x Height of cake) x Height of cream = 2(3.142)(54.99/2)(8) x 1 = 1382.23 cm Therefore, amount of fresh cream = 2375 + 1382.23 = 3757.23 cm Question:
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(b) Suggest three other shapes for cake, that will have the same height and volume as those suggested in 2(b)(ii). Estimate the amount of fresh cream to be used on each of the cakes. Answer: 1 Rectangle-shaped base (cuboid)

19000 = base area x height base area = length x width = 2375 By trial and improvement, 2375 = 50 x 47.5 (length = 50, width = 47.5, height = 8) Therefore, volume of cream = 2(Area of left/right side surface)(Height of cream) + 2(Area of front/back side surface)(Height of cream) + Vol. of top surface = 2(8 x 50)(1) + 2(8 x 47.5)(1) + 2375 = 3935 cm 2 Triangle-shaped base

19000 = base area x height base area = 2375 x length x width = 2375 length x width = 4750 By trial and improvement, 4750 = 95 x 50 (length = 95, width = 50) Slant length of triangle = (95 + 25)= 98.23 Therefore, amount of cream
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= Area of rectangular front side surface(Height of cream) + 2(Area of slant rectangular left/right side surface)(Height of cream) + Vol. of top surface = (50 x 8)(1) + 2(98.23 x 8)(1) + 2375 = 4346.68 cm 3 Pentagon-shaped base

19000 = base area x height base area = 2375 = area of 5 similar isosceles triangles in a pentagon therefore: 2375 = 5(length x width) 475 = length x width By trial and improvement, 475 = 25 x 19 (length = 25, width = 19) Therefore, amount of cream = 5(area of one rectangular side surface)(height of cream) + vol. of top surface = 5(8 x 19) + 2375 = 3135 cm Question: (c) Based on the values that you have found which shape requires the least amount of fresh cream to be used? Answer: Pentagon-shaped cake, since it requires only 3135 cm of cream to be used.

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Part III Question: Find the dimension of a 5 kg round cake that requires the minimum amount of fresh cream to decorate. Use at least two different methods including Calculus. State whether you would choose to bake a cake of such dimensions. Give reasons for your answers. Answer: Method 1: Differentiation Use two equations for this method: the formula for volume of cake (as in Q2/a), and the formula for amount (volume) of cream to be used for the round cake (as in Q3/a). 19000 = (3.142)rh (1) (2)

V = (3.142)r + 2(3.142)rh From (1): h = Sub. (3) into (2): V = (3.142)r + 2(3.142)r( V = (3.142)r + ( )

(3)

V = (3.142)r + 38000r-1 ( ) = 2(3.142)r ( 0 = 2(3.142)r (

) =0

) -->> minimum value, therefore

= 2(3.142)r = r

6047.104 = r r = 18.22 Sub. r = 18.22 into (3): h=

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h = 18.22 therefore, h = 18.22cm, d = 2r = 2(18.22) = 36.44cm Method 2: Quadratic Functions Use the two same equations as in Method 1, but only the formula for amount of cream is the main equation used as the quadratic function. Let f(r) = volume of cream, r = radius of round cake: 19000 = (3.142)rh (1) (2)

f(r) = (3.142)r + 2(3.142)hr From (2):

f(r) = (3.142)(r + 2hr) -->> factorize (3.142) = (3.142)[ (r + ) ( ) ] -->> completing square, with a = (3.142), b = 2h and c = 0

= (3.142)[ (r + h) h ] = (3.142)(r + h) (3.142)h (a = (3.142) (positive indicates min. value), min. value = f(r) = (3.142)h, corresponding value of x = r = --h) Sub. r = --h into (1): 19000 = (3.142)(--h)h h = 6047.104 h = 18.22 Sub. h = 18.22 into (1): 19000 = (3.142)r(18.22) r = 331.894 r = 18.22 therefore, h = 18.22 cm, d = 2r = 2(18.22) = 36.44 cm

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I would choose not to bake a cake with such dimensions because its dimensions are not suitable (the height is too high) and therefore less attractive. Furthermore, such cakes are difficult to handle easily.

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FURTHER EXPLORATION Question: Best Bakery received an order to bake a multi-storey cake for Merdeka Day celebration, as shown in Diagram 2. The height of each cake is 6.0 cm and the radius of the largest cake is 31.0 cm. The radius of the second cake is 10% less than the radius of the first cake, the radius of the third cake is10% less than the radius of the second cake and so on.(a) Find the volume of the first, the second, the third and the fourth cakes. By comparing all these values, determine whether the volumes of the cakes form a number pattern? Explain and elaborate on the number patterns. Answer: height, h of each cake = 6cm radius of largest cake = 31cm radius of 2nd cake = 10% smaller than 1st cake radius of 3rd cake = 10% smaller than 2nd cake 31, 27.9, 25.11, 22.599 a = 31, r = V = (3.142)rh Radius of 1st cake = 31, volume of 1st cake = (3.142)(31)(6) = 18116.772 Radius of 2nd cake = 27.9, vol. of 2nd cake = 14674.585 Radius of 3rd cake = 25.11, vol. of 3rd cake = 11886.414 Radius of 4th cake = 22.599, vol. of 4th cake = 9627.995 18116.772, 14674.585, 11886.414, 9627.995, a = 18116.772, ratio, r = T2/T1 = T3 /T2 = = 0.81

Question: (b) If the total mass of all the cakes should not exceed 15 kg, calculate the maximum number of cakes that the bakery needs to bake. Verify your answer using other methods.

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Answer: Sn =
     

Sn = 57000, a = 18116.772 and r = 0.81 57000 =

   

1 0.81n = 0.59779 0.40221 = 0.81n og0.81 0.40221 = n n=

  

n = 4.322 therefore, n 4

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CONCLUSION In the process of conducting this project, I have learnt that perseverance pays off, especially when you obtain a just reward for all your hard work. For me, succeeding in completing this project work has been reward enough. I have also learnt that mathematics is used everywhere in daily life, from the most simple things like baking and decorating a cake, to designing and building monuments. Therefore, this subject is a necessity to everyone. I have learnt to appreciate the subject more and will try my best at it.

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