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IJLM 18,1

Research approaches in logistics

Trends and alternative future directions
Christopher W. Craighead
Department of Management, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

22

Joe B. Hanna and Brian J. Gibson

Department of Aviation Management and Logistics, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA, and

Jack R. Meredith
Babcock Graduate School of Management, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this research is to track the evolution of logistics research with a focus on the methods and orientation of the research from the past to the present. Specically, this paper investigates the evolution of logistics research methodologies in an attempt to address previous calls for a paradigm discussion aimed at assessing the current direction and proposing a future direction for research in the logistics discipline. Design/methodology/approach The authors chose a previously established framework which describes and evaluates alternative research paradigms. A content analysis of articles in selected journals allows published research of the logistics discipline to be evaluated and categorized. The categorization process uses a two-dimensional framework which then allows the authors to classify research into cells in a matrix which represent a variety of research paradigms. Findings The results illustrate that the methodologies employed in logistics have evolved during the period of analysis. The logistics discipline appears to focus on survey-based research in an attempt to examine attitudinal and behavioral aspects of logistics interactions. Signicant amounts of research are also conducted with simulation and mathematical modeling while case study and action research methods comprise a relatively small but growing portion of published logistics research. Nevertheless, the results of the research support the conclusion that the logistics discipline is diversifying its research efforts and expanding the array of issues addressed. Research limitations/implications The results are based on a thorough literature review along with the use of well established research frameworks and methodologies. Nevertheless, the research focuses on analyzing the content of logistics discipline research in specic outlets and during specic periods of time. Therefore, while the authors believe the results provide a useful guide for assessing the evolution of research in the discipline, it is not all-inclusive in nature. Practical implications Based on our research results in general logistics, researchers appear to be responding to the evolution of the discipline by expanding their efforts to conduct applied research. It appears that common interests are being identied and in many cases, academicians and practitioners are working together to build an alliance designed to benet the discipline by building on the strengths of each group. Originality/value Research plays an important role in furthering any discipline by enhancing our understanding of issues pertinent to those studying and practicing the discipline. This paper helps academicians and practitioners of the logistics discipline to better understand the direction of the profession and to assist us in shaping the future of the discipline. Keywords Research methods, Research, Distribution management Paper type Research paper

The International Journal of Logistics Management Vol. 18 No. 1, 2007 pp. 22-40 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0957-4093 DOI 10.1108/09574090710748153

1. Introduction As the logistics discipline continues to broaden its reach and mature, research will play an increasingly important role in this evolution (Farris, 1997). As past logistics researchers have noted, the logistics discipline has progressed to the point where issues such as relationship management, supply chain management, and information technology are now within the sphere of topics for logistics researchers (Mentzer and Flint, 1997). As the research universe of the logistics discipline continues to expand beyond traditional operational aspects of logistics, methodological rigor will also continue to increase in importance (Mentzer and Flint, 1997). Given the importance of research on the progress of any discipline, it is periodically necessary to conduct an inward look at recent research trends and developments to assess the maturity and progress of the eld. Therefore, the purposes of this paper are to rst track the evolution of logistics research from the past to the present and then discuss various paths that may dene the future evolution of the eld. The remainder of the paper is divided into ve sections. Section 2 contains a brief literature review which includes various efforts to analyze logistics research. Section 3 presents the specics of our study including the methodology employed. Section 4 contains the results of the study which includes the past and present status of logistics research. Section 5 discusses the evolution of logistics research in its current state and presents various paths that logistics researchers might follow in their future efforts. Lastly, we conclude the paper with a few nal thoughts about research in the eld. 2. Literature review The primary goal of conducting research is to help explain, understand, and predict phenomena (Searcy and Mentzer, 2003). As a result, research plays an important role in furthering any discipline by enhancing our understanding of issues pertinent to those studying and practicing the discipline. With research playing such an important role, it certainly should not be taken lightly, and should be conducted by following a detailed and structured research process (Mentzer and Kahn, 1995). Researchers in the recent past have correctly pointed out that as a relatively new discipline like logistics matures, existing theories may need to be challenged (Seaker et al., 1993). They further argue that before existing theories can be challenged, it is rst necessary to attempt to illustrate why current research in the area of interest is inadequate. Illustrating why current research is inadequate requires an understanding of the theories and techniques previously offered. However, while the evolution of research often challenges existing theories and helps to further dene a discipline, little comprehensive research of the logistics discipline has been conducted to examine past research accomplishments, current tendencies, and future possibilities. This is the focus of this effort. As noted by several researchers, the evolution of logistics as a discipline has led researchers to expand their methodological techniques beyond those of examining cost tradeoffs through the use of modeling, econometrics, and other similar analytical techniques (Seaker et al., 1993; Blanchard, 1992; Mossman et al., 1977). More recently, logistics research has expanded its reach to include tools from other disciplines such as marketing and strategic management in an attempt to better understand attitudinal and behavioral concepts (Seaker et al., 1993; Keller et al., 2002).

Research approaches in logistics 23

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Keller et al. (2002) performed a comprehensive examination of multi-item scales used in logistics research. The examination reviewed research appearing in Journal of Business Logistics (JBL), Transportation Journal (TJ), International Journal of Logistics Management (IJLM), and International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management. Each of these journals was considered to be quality research journals in the logistics eld according to the most recent ranking study (Gibson and Hanna, 2003). The researchers analyzed any multi-item scale that was developed or used to conduct research appearing in the above journals. Their have been a total of 690 scales used to conduct research with over 50 percent of all scale research examining one of the four following areas within the logistics discipline: channel relationships, performance evaluation, internal relationships/personnel, and information sharing processes and technology. The researchers conclude that the majority of scales used in logistics research have focused on examining interactions and exchanges between people and the performance outcome of those interactions (Keller et al., 2002). The results of the research indicate a continual increase in the percentage of total articles appearing in the top journals that use multi-item measures for data collection purposes. This development is perceived to be positive since multi-item scales often examine new dimensions important to the logistics discipline by examining key constructs which impact theoretical development. Further, Keller et al. (2002) conclude the use of multi-item scales in logistics research allows for an increase in the level of condence of the results of the research because there is more assurance that the full domain of interest is being captured. While the use of survey research is broadly accepted in the logistics discipline, there are some challenges that must be confronted. Larson and Poist (2004) analyzed survey response rates from 1992-2003 in one of the top logistics research journals and note that the results of their research provide evidence that response rates have been declining since 1992. The results of the researchers content analysis conrms that pre-qualication of survey recipients, prepaid monetary incentives, and follow-up mailings can all serve to increase survey response rates. They close by offering suggestions on how to enhance mail survey response rates, but note the many challenges (e.g. budgetary constraints, data time-sensitivity) confronting researchers using this method of data collection. While quantitative research published in top logistics journals appears to be rising, many are also calling for more of an acceptance of qualitative research methods. Naslund (2002) cites prior research (Dunn et al., 1993, 1994) that examined key journals in the logistics eld from 1988-1992. During this period of time, only 2 percent of the total articles published could be categorized as case study/action research. Thirty-six percent of the articles published were categorized as survey-based while another 25 percent were simulation/modeling-based research articles. Mentzer and Kahn (1995) conrm this trend in their 1995 JBL article, noting only 3.2 percent of recent JBL articles were categorized as a case study-based form of research. These results lead Ellram (1996) to issue a call for the acceptance of the case study method in logistics research. She reviews the misconceptions and potential benets of conducting case study research and then offers insight into when the case study method is appropriate to use. She then highlights research design issues, providing a knowledgeable discussion about how to achieve a vigorous research design resulting in a rigorous analysis of the research topic.

Naslund (2002) points to limitations with quantitative research methods and argues for the acceptance of qualitative techniques such as case studies to augment the current dominance of quantitative logistics research. He also argues that while case studies are typically considered to be qualitative studies, quantitative methods are sometimes also appropriate. Naslund (2002) closes by arguing that, for qualitative methods to be properly accepted in logistics research, a discussion regarding paradigms and their inuence on the research and theoretical development of a discipline must take place. It is partially this call for a paradigm discussion that is the impetus for the current research. 3. Research study 3.1 Research intent and components The purpose of this research is to track the evolution of logistics research with a focus on the methods and orientation of the research from the past to the present. We chose to use the framework and classications derived in Meredith et al. (1989) which described a series of alternative research paradigms and then plotted the paradigm trends found in three leading research journals. The research was classied in terms of two continua: (1) the researchers framework of being deductive (analytical) or inductive (interpretive), referred to as the rational/existential dimension; and (2) the source of the data being empirical (directly observed) or subjective (interpretation or articial reconstruction), referred to as the natural/articial dimension. Using these two dimensions, it is then possible to classify research papers into cells in a matrix which represent the variety of research paradigms. Relative to the rational/existential dimension, we categorized each article as either (note: all denitions adapted from Meredith et al., 1989; Craighead and Meredith, 2005): . Axiomatic. The axiomatic perspective represents the theorem-proof world of research. A high degree of knowledge is assumed, a priori, about the goals and the socio-technical structure of the organization. The key organizing concepts are the presence of formal procedures, consensus, consistency of goals (such as cost minimization), and a work place ideology characterized by scientic management principles. Normative (e.g. mathematical programming, economic order quantity) and descriptive (e.g. queuing, Markov) models tend to fall in this category, as well as reasoning and logic models. . Logical positivist/empiricist. The logical positivist/empiricist perspective assumes that the phenomenon under study can be isolated from the context in which it occurs and that facts or observations are independent of the laws and theories used to explain them. The research tends to be deductive and objective the ndings are normally directly based on the data collected. This is the basis for most survey and existing database research, as well as eld studies and experiments, structured interviews, computer models (simulation, testing heuristic and math models, testing new software), laboratory experiments, expert applications (including the interpretation of logistics issues as an aspect of some other eld), physical models, and prototyping (including formulating an equation(s) to capture an logistics concept).

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Interpretive. The interpretive perspective includes the context of the phenomenon as part of the object of study. Interpretive researchers focus on people and concepts rather than objects, with an emphasis on meanings and interpretations rather than behavior. This departs from the positivist/empiricist approach as the research tends to be more inductive and subjective. The purpose is to understand how others construe, conceptualize, and understand events and concepts, which often involves taking a step back from the data/literature. In contrast to the implicit absolutism of positivism, interpretivism is relativistic because facts are not considered independent of the theory or observer. Interpretive researchers explain by placing behaviors in a broader context in which the behaviors make sense. Hence, approaches such as case studies, open questioning (Delphi, intensive/open-ended interviewing, expert panels), conceptual modeling/development/explanation, literature reviews and essays, interpretations (historical analysis and hermeneutics), scenario postulating, research on research, and even action research would fall into this broad category. Critical theory. The critical theory perspective is an attempt to synthesize the positivist and interpretive perspectives and get past their dichotomy by placing knowledge in a broader context of its contribution to social evolution. The positivist and interpretivist perspectives are considered dialectically interrelated. Critical theorists transcend the contradiction between the way people behave in practice and the way they understand themselves to be acting.

Relative to the natural/articial dimension, we categorized each article as either (again, all denitions adapted from Meredith et al., 1989; Craighead and Meredith, 2005): . Direct observation of object reality. Object reality refers to direct observation by the researcher of the phenomenon. It assumes that there is an objective reality and that human senses can detect it. The observation may be subjected to formal structured analysis, as in eld studies and experimentation, or to interpretation as with action research and case studies. . Peoples perception of object reality. Peoples perception of object reality relates to research conducted through somebody elses eyes, as in surveys, interviews (including Delphi, expert, and scenario panels), introspective reection, or even historical accounts. Thus, the primary concern is with the perception or abstract representation of the reality of individuals exposed to the phenomenon. . Articial reconstruction of object reality. An articial reconstruction of object reality is attempted in almost all the modeling and systems analytic efforts. These approaches recast the object reality, as originally determined from one of the two above categories or the researchers own belief concerning the object reality, into another form that is more appropriate for testing and experimentation, such as analytical, descriptive, or physical models (including prototyping), computer and laboratory simulations (including software, heuristic, and math model testing), or information constructs (including expert applications, conceptual modeling/development/explanation, hermeneutics, literature reviews and essays, and research on research).

To give a sense of the trend in research methods in the eld, our research took three snapshots of the eld every ve years starting from 1993, thereby selecting the years 1993, 1998 and 2003. Since, the focus of the research was to obtain a avor of the trends in research over an extended period of time, we felt it was best to follow past research protocol when developing the methodology for the study. 3.2 Journal selection The focus of this research effort is on analyzing the research approaches being used in the logistics eld. Therefore, the authors elected to analyze articles appearing in the top three peer-reviewed, academic logistics journals according to a recent comprehensive journal ranking study (Gibson and Hanna, 2003). The top three ranking journals were all selected based on a research merit score that was obtained from a 2003 JBL article that presented the results of a comprehensive journal ranking study. The comprehensive study used data from survey responses of 169 logistics faculty members and used the results as the basis for establishing a research merit score. The result of using the method of journal selection presented in the 2003 JBL article identied the JBL, TJ, and IJLM as the top three academic research journals in logistics. While Supply Chain Management Review and Harvard Business Review were rated highly, these journals were not considered appropriate for inclusion given the academic research focus of the study. We realize there are many other high-quality and reputable logistics journals, as well as journals in other disciplines publishing quality logistics and supply chain research. 3.3 Article inclusion To be included in our analysis of logistics research, an article had to meet the following criteria: (1) The article was not an Editorial, a Book Review, an Introduction to a Special Issue, nor did it focus on aspects of a previously published article such as Comments, Errata, and so on. (2) The article had to have a direct research orientation. This eliminated articles that perhaps contributed to the eld in general but did not directly contribute to research. For example, articles were omitted from the pool that: . primarily focused on teaching or curriculum (even if it was contributing to theory related to teaching); and . primarily focused on snapshots of activities in the logistics eld itself (e.g. publication productivity rankings) or classifying/categorizing aspects of the eld such as journal rankings. 3.4 Methodology As discussed, the intent of the paper was to track the evolution of logistics research methods/orientation by using the framework developed in Meredith et al. (1989). In general, the method of the study involved classifying the logistics research articles of the 1993, 1998 and 2003 issues of the three journals (specied above) into the framework. During those three years, there was a total of 157 logistics research articles contained in the three journals. As shown in Table I, the 157 articles were evenly distributed (approximately) across the three journals and three years. To classify the

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research method/approach, we performed a content analysis of all 157 articles. The content analysis is discussed in the following three sub-sections. 3.4.1 Overview of content analysis. The process for conducting the content analysis, which was adapted from Weber (1990) and Neuendorf (2002), is shown in Figure 1. In order to achieve reliable results, the content analysis was designed to guard against threats to reliability (Neuendorf, 2002). Neuendorf (2002) described the key threats to reliability, and, therefore, the condence that may be placed in the results, as:
Year Journal 1993 18 16 20 54 1998 20 17 17 54 2003 19 16 14 49 Total 57 49 51 157 JBL IJLM TJ Total

Table I. Logistics research articles by year/journal

Conceptualize/Define Variables

Create Codebook & Coding Form

Pilot Variable Definitions & Train Coders

Discuss Disagreements & Results

Assess Pilot Reliabilities

Phase 1: Iterative Variable Definition/Pilot Testing and Coder Training

Are Pilot Results Satisfactory?

No

Yes Phase 2: Article Research Coding

Code Articles along Dimensions

Resolve Dimensions Disagreements

Calculate Intercoder Reliability

Figure 1. Overview of content analysis

Calculate Results

(1) (2) (3) (4)

a poorly executed coding scheme; inadequate coder training; coder fatigue; and the presence of a rogue coder (i.e. can/will not be trained).

Research approaches in logistics 29

The rst two threats were eliminated in phase 1 of the study and threat number 3 (coder fatigue) was addressed in both phases (discussed further in section 3.4.3 below). The rogue coder threat was not an issue due to extensive coder training which took place by conducting several practice rounds prior to the actual coding of the research data. Each of the two phases of the content analysis is discussed below. 3.4.2 Content analysis: phase 1. Phase 1 of the content analysis involved variable denition, pilot testing and coder training (Figure 1). We used articles published in 2000 and 2001 (years arbitrarily chosen) from all three journals during this phase of the study. We created a codebook that specied the coding criteria and developed a coding form in Microsoft Excel. The coding form not only contained areas to record coder choices, but also allowed the coder to ag any article that required discussion. As the two coders, we each then independently classied articles from one-half of the issues of 2000 for each of the three journals. Once the rst round of the pilot was complete, agreements and disagreements were tabulated and intercoder crude agreement (percentage of agreement) was calculated. We agreed 83.33 percent (crude agreement) of the time relative to the natural/articial dimension coding, and 79.17 percent of the time on the rational/existential dimension coding during the rst round. We then discussed the disagreements and any articles agged during the independent classications. Based on the discussions, we then revised our coding criteria and performed another round of the pilot study on the second half of the issues of 2000 on the three journals. During the second round of the pilot, we agreed 88.89 percent (crude agreement) of the time relative to the natural/articial dimension coding, and 85.19 percent of the time on the rational/existential dimension coding. We again tabulated the intercoder crude agreement and then discussed the disagreements and any articles agged during the independent classications. The process was repeated on one-half of the issues in 2001, thus resulting in three rounds of pilot testing. During the third round of the pilot, we agreed 91.30 percent (crude agreement) of the time relative to the natural/articial dimension coding, and 82.61 percent of the time on the rational/existential dimension coding. In general, we improved relative to agreement each round of the pilot with the exception of the third round along the rational/existential dimension. Despite this one drop in agreement, we again revised our coding criteria and felt comfortable that we would again improve on agreement along both of the dimensions. Phase 1 involved a great deal of discussion, but resulted in a useful codebook and an easy-to-use coding form. As a result, subsequent to phase 1, we became comfortable with our ability to classify articles along the dimensions of the Meredith et al. (1989) framework. We then proceeded to phase 2 of the study. 3.4.3 Content analysis: phase 2. In phase 2, we proceeded by independently classifying all of the articles included in the sample along both dimensions of the Meredith et al. (1989) framework. During phase 2, a total of 157 articles were examined which encompasses the entire sample of articles for the years reviewed (1993, 1998, and 2003). Upon completion, agreements and disagreements were tabulated, intercoder

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crude agreement (percentage of agreement), and intercoder reliability using Cohens (1960) k were calculated. It should be noted that the reliability measures were calculated prior to discussing disagreements as mandated by Weber (1990). We then resolved any disagreements, resulting in a nal classication of the articles. During phase 2, the coder fatigue threat to reliability discussed earlier was indeed an issue. The coding process involved a thorough analysis of each of the 157 articles. The analysis involved more than a quick glance at an abstract or keywords, as we often found that abstracts and keywords were either not very informative (for our purposes), or were sometimes misleading (for our needs in this study). We avoided the potential impact of fatigue on our results by performing the coding process in multiple sessions and during times of the day where fatigue was less likely to be an issue (e.g. mornings). 4. Results 4.1 Intercoder agreement and reliability To determine the level of agreement, we calculated crude intercoder agreement (percentage agreement) and intercoder reliability using Cohens (1960) k. As mandated by Neuendorf (2002), intercoder agreement and reliability are reported separately for each variable rather than aggregating the results to a single measure. We agreed 98.73 percent (crude agreement) of the time relative to the natural/ articial dimension coding, and 94.27 percent of the time on the rational/existential dimension coding. Although there are no widely accepted levels of crude agreement necessary, Neuendorf (2002) states that crude agreement of 0.9 or above is acceptable to all. Crude agreement does not consider the fact that there is a probability that the coders may agree by chance. We, therefore, present our results using Cohens k, which corrects for the possibility of chance agreement. Our intercoder reliabilities were 0.88 and 0.98 for the rational/existential and natural/articial dimensions, respectively. Cohens k is a more conservative estimate of agreement (Neuendorf, 2002), and some argue that it is perhaps too conservative (Perreault and Leigh, 1989). Acceptable levels of k are open for debate (Neuendorf, 2002). Banjaree et al. (1999) state that a k of 0.75 indicates excellent agreement beyond chance. Popping (1988) and Riffe et al. (1998) have a more demanding standard of 0.8 for k. 4.2 Research results 4.2.1 Research matrix. Figure 2 shows the results of our content analysis of articles from the years 1993, 1998, and 2003 relative to the framework developed by Meredith et al. (1989). For ease of discussion, each cell of the matrix will be referred to by the rst letter of each category (Figure 2). For example, Axiomatic-Articial reconstruction will be referred to as A-A and Interpretive-Direct observation will be referred to as I-D. The two letter coding scheme is provided above the results for every cell of the matrix (Figures 3-8). In terms of the total number of articles, it appears the majority of logistics research throughout the ten-year period has primarily been in the three areas of L-P, L-A, and I-A. It is interesting to note that the portion of logistics research during the period of analysis appearing in the L-P cell increased, indicating interest in L-P-based research may be growing (28 percent in 1993 vs 39 percent in 2003). The vast majority of articles

Natural

Artificial

Rational

Direct Observation of Object Reality

Peoples Perceptions of Object Reality

Artificial Reconstruction of Object Reality A-A 93 98 03 0 JBL 11 5 IJLM 0 0 0 TJ 0 0 0 4 2 0 Total See also Figure 2

Research approaches in logistics 31

Axiomatic

Logical Positivist/ Empiricist

L-D 93 98 08 0 0 11 JBL 0 0 0 IJLM TJ 0 0 0 Total 0 0 4 See also Figure 3 I-D 93 0 0 0 2 98 15 12 0 9 03 5 6 21 10

L-P 93 98 03 33 50 47 JBL 6 12 31 IJLM 40 47 36 TJ Total 28 37 39 See also Figure 4

L-A 93 98 03 22 10 32 JBL 19 24 13 IJLM TJ 25 35 29 22 22 24 Total See also Figure 5 I-A 93 33 69 35 44 98 20 53 18 30 03 5 50 14 22

Interpretive

JBL IJLM TJ Total

JBL IJLM TJ Total

See also Figure 6

See also Figure 7

Critical Theory

Existential

Note: All numbers represent percent of year's articles. For a given year, the percentages may not add to 100 percent due to rounding

Figure 2. Evolution of logistics research within the matrix

12 10 Percent 8 6 4 2 0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003 JBL IJLM TJ Total

Figure 3. Percentage of A-A articles by journal by year

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Percent

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003 JBL IJLM TJ Total

32
Figure 4. Percentage of L-D articles by journal by year

60 50 Percent 40 30 20 10 JBL IJLM TJ Total

Figure 5. Percentage of L-P articles by journal by year

0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003

Figure 6. Percentage of L-A articles by journal by year

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003

JBL IJLM TJ Total

Percent

25 20 Percent 15 10 5 JBL IJLM TJ Total

Figure 7. Percentage of I-D articles by journal by year

0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003

critiqued during this study that were categorized as L-P were survey-based research efforts. Hence, logistics researchers continue to conduct signicant amounts of survey-based research efforts and top journals continue to be viable outlets for this type of research. Conversely, logistics researchers interest may be moving away from I-A: concept papers, literature reviews and similar types of research (44 percent in 1993 vs 22 percent in 2003). The other relatively common cell of the matrix when analyzing logistics research is the L-A dimension. L-A-based research methods have remained stable in the period 1993 to 2003 (22 and 24 percent of total articles, respectively). During the time period examined most of these articles either analyzed secondary data or were either simulation-based or physical modeling research efforts. The I-D quadrant (where case/action type research resides) results are also interesting. While the total percent of articles in this area remains small, a large percentage increase in the total number of case-based research efforts is prevalent from 1993 (2 percent of total) to 2003 (10 percent of total). Apparently, researchers and journal editors are responding to other logistics researchers (Naslund, 2002; Ellram, 1996), who have pointed to the potential benets of qualitative and case-based research and encouraged the discipline to accept high quality case-based and similar types of qualitative research studies. The evolution of the types of research articles appearing in each journal over the years analyzed also displays some interesting trends. Overall, logistics research appears to be moving out of the I-A quadrant. While this is reected in a percentage drop in the number of total I-A articles published by all three of the leading journals combined, IJLM still publishes a large, although decreasing proportion of these types of research articles (69 percent in 1993 vs 50 percent in 2003). Similarly, all three journals analyzed still publish a signicant amount of L-P articles with IJLM supporting this trend by substantially increasing the number of L-P-based research articles published in their journal (6 percent in 1993 vs 31 percent in 2003). One potential explanation for the move from I-A to L-P for IJLM may simply be the process that takes place as a journal matures and establishes itself as a top journal in the eld of logistics. At least one-third of JBLs articles for each of the three years examined were categorized as L-P, consisting primarily of survey-based research efforts. Conversely, JBL has cut back on the conceptual papers that typically comprise the majority of I-A-based research efforts (33 percent in 1993 vs 5 percent in 2003). It is also interesting to note that articles accepted by JBL tend to be moving away from normative and
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993 1998 Year Evaluated 2003

Research approaches in logistics 33

JBL IJLM TJ Total

Percent

Figure 8. Percentage of I-A articles by journal by year

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descriptive modeling (11 percent A-A in 1993 vs 0 percent in 2003) towards case-based (I-D of 15 percent in 1998 and 5 percent in 2003) and eld studies (L-D of 11 percent in 2003). TJ has also published signicantly more I-D types of research (e.g. case-based) recently (21 percent in 2003 vs 0 percent in 1993 and 1998). This increase has been offset by a signicant decrease in I-A-based research articles such as literature reviews and conceptual papers. TJ has consistently published signicant amounts of research categorized as L-P and L-A during the period examined. Logistics research appears to be evolving out of more interpretive and articial types of research that accounted for 44 percent of the total number of articles published in 1993. While interpretive is still popular, the focus appears to be more on direct observation (ve-fold increase from 1993 to 2003). Additionally, logistics researchers still support the continuing trend (28 percent of total in 1993 vs 39 percent of total in 2003) towards empiricist and peoples perceptions of object reality (e.g. surveys). One other item of interest is the inclusion of several blank cells in the matrix. Logistics research appears to be focused in several cells, with additional opportunities for logistics researchers currently undeveloped. We now take a closer look at the dimensions of the matrix. 4.2.2 Rational/existential dimension: a closer look. Tables II and III represent logistics research, with a focus on the rational/existential dimension. To arrive at Table II results, we categorized each article into the appropriate rational/existential dimension category (axiomatic, logical positivist/empiricist, or interpretive) for each of the three years examined (1993, 1998, and 2003). We then used x 2-tests to examine for differences in the categorization of articles between the years reviewed in the study. No statistically signicant difference was noted in the categorization of articles along the rational/existential dimension based on publication year. Logistics research articles published during the periods of 1993, 1998, and 2003 are fairly consistent and somewhat similar in terms of where they fall along the rational/existential dimension.
Year Dimension * Axiomatic Logical positivist/empiricist Interpretive Total Note: *Not signicant 1993 2 27 25 54 1998 1 32 21 54 2003 0 33 16 49 Total 3 92 62 157

Table II. The rational/existential dimension by year *

Journal Dimension * Axiomatic Logical positivist/empiricist Interpretive Total JBL 3 39 15 57 IJLM 0 17 32 49 TJ 0 36 15 51 Total 3 92 62 157

Table III. The rational/existential dimension by journal *

Notes: *Signicant at the 0.01 level; * *signicant at the 0.05 level; * * *signicant at the 0.10 level

To arrive at Table III, we used the same categorization scheme as for Table II except for one notable exception; we examined the categorization of articles by journal as opposed to by year. While the year of publication produced no statistically signicant differences along the rational/existential dimension, the categorization of articles by journal produced statistically signicant differences at the 0.01 level. Our research results show that the three journals reviewed in the current study differ in the types and frequency of articles published along the rational/existential dimension. Overall, IJLM articles appear to be more existential in nature than articles appearing in either JBL or TJ. It is interesting to note that, although research in the leading logistics journals has evolved in the period from 1993 to 2003, the evolution has moved relatively little along the rational/existential dimension. One plausible reason for this is that one of the signicant changes in research trends during the period under study was a move from I-A (literature and concept papers) to I-D (case analyses). While this is likely to impact the categorization of articles along the natural/articial dimension, it fails to impact the results of the articles categorized along the rational/existential dimension. 4.2.3 Natural/articial dimension: a closer look. Tables IV and V represent logistics research with a focus on the natural/articial dimension. To arrive at Table III results, we categorized each article into the appropriate natural/articial dimension category (articial reconstruction, peoples perception, and direct observation). We then used x 2-tests to examine for differences in the categorization of articles between years reviewed in the study. A statistically signicant difference (at the 0.10 level) was noted in the categorization of articles along the natural/articial dimension based on publication year. Between 1993, 1998, and 2003, some differences exist in the types of logistics research articles categorized along the natural/articial dimension. To arrive at Table V, we used the same categorization scheme as for Table IV except that we examined the categorization of articles by journal as opposed to by year.

Research approaches in logistics 35

Year Dimension * * * Articial reconstruction of object reality Peoples perception of object reality Direct observation of object reality Total 1993 38 15 1 54 1998 29 20 5 54 2003 23 19 7 49 Total 90 54 13 157

Notes: *Signicant at the 0.01 level; * *signicant at the 0.05 level; * * *signicant at the 0.10 level

Table IV. The natural/articial dimension by year * * *

Journal Dimension * * Articial reconstruction of object reality Peoples perception of object reality Direct observation of object reality Total JBL 26 25 6 57 IJLM 37 8 4 49 TJ 27 21 3 51 Total 90 54 13 157

Notes: *Signicant at the 0.01 level; * *signicant at the 0.05 level; * * *signicant at the 0.10 level

Table V. The natural/articial dimension by journal * *

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Statistically signicant differences (at the 0.05 level) exist along the natural/articial dimension when examining article categories by journal. As was the case when examining the rational/existential dimension (Table III), the types of articles appearing in the journals we reviewed are also different along the natural/articial dimension. An examination of Tables IV and V indicates that logistics research may be evolving more towards the natural side of the natural/articial continuum. The number of articles categorized as being articial reconstruction of object reality encompasses over 50 percent of all the articles published in all three journals during the three years examined. It appears there is a move among logistics researchers and journal editors to move along the natural/articial dimension towards natural. This is largely precipitated by an increase in the number of case-based research efforts being published over the past ten years. Overall, IJLM articles appear to be more articial in nature when compared to articles appearing in either JBL or TJ. 5. The natural/articial and rational/existential dimensions The result of our research indicates that, over the period of time of the current study, the logistics discipline is slowly evolving away from articial reconstruction towards research focused more on peoples perceptions of reality and even direct observation. When visually examining Tables II-V, the evolution is relatively slow and still indicates a balance between more articial types of research (e.g. simulations) and those based more on direct observation (e.g. case studies). While some movement has occurred over the last ten years, logistics research as of 2003 is probably most appropriately categorized as being one of peoples perceptions of object reality. This is a departure from articles in 1993 which would tend to place logistics research more towards that of articial reconstruction of object reality. During the ten-year period from 1993 to 2003, the total number and percent of articles classied as articial in nature decreased. As pointed out by past logistics researchers, our discipline appears to be following a typical business discipline evolution process by moving towards being more data driven and increasingly relevant to practitioners (Mentzer and Flint, 1997). As the discipline has matured in the period from 1993 to 2003, survey-based research has played a growing role as a data collection mechanism for logistics researchers. If surveys continue to play a signicant and vital role as a data collection method, the position of logistics research along the natural/articial continuum is unlikely to change rapidly or dramatically. Based on the movement along the natural/articial continuum plus the increasing role played by surveys as a data collection technique, it appears the logistics eld is moving more towards empirically-based forms of research. While sometimes slow, a move towards examining peoples perceptions of reality and even direct observation of object reality is likely to continue if the typical business discipline evolution cited by Mentzer and Flint (1997) also continues as one would expect. Therefore, we might expect to see more eld studies and experiments, as well as case studies and similar types of action research as the discipline continues to evolve. While too early to provide conclusive proof this is beginning to occur, it is interesting to note that the number of articles published by JBL in 2003 that were categorized as eld studies or experiments was up sharply when compared to either 1993 or 1998. Similarly, in 1993 none of the journals reviewed published any articles categorized as case studies; however, by 2003 each of the three journals published case study-based articles.

Conversely, while the three journals examined in Table III display different tendencies to publish various types of research along the rational/existential continuum (statistically signicant at the 0.01 level), the discipline as a whole as judged by Table II indicates relatively little movement along this dimension. The study indicates that logistics research is most appropriately categorized as logical positivist/empiricist throughout the ten-year period of study. It is also interesting to note that the number of articles classied as interpretive in 1993 was considerably more than in 2003. Conversely, in 1993, the number of articles categorized as logical positivist/empiricist was considerably less than in 2003. The move towards the logical positivist/empiricist is also in part due to the increase in use of surveys as a popular method of data collection for logistics research. A large number of articles published in 2003 were the result of survey-based data collection methods. Additionally, the L-P cell of the matrix (Figure 2) was the only form of research used to examine peoples perceptions of object reality during the ten years of study. If these trends continue, it is likely the logical positivist/empiricist dimension will remain popular with logistics researchers in the near future. 6. Final thoughts Most would agree that logistics is an applied discipline that attempts to manage processes and activities with the intent of creating value. As the logistics discipline continues to evolve and become increasingly recognized as a key area within organizations, research will continue to evolve and mature to respond to the demands of the marketplace. As noted by past researchers, it is natural for a discipline to simultaneously become more rigorous and more applicable to practitioners. As a result, the interface between logistics academicians and practitioners will continue to be of increasing importance as the discipline matures. Based on our research results, in general logistics researchers appear to be responding to the evolution of the discipline by expanding their efforts to conduct applied research. A noticeable increase in the number of articles that are case-based or eld study-based was prevalent in reviewing the results. It appears that common interests are being identied and in many cases, academicians and practitioners are working together to build an alliance designed to benet the discipline by building on the strengths of each group. It is difcult to fully appreciate or capture all of the relevant issues related to logistics when performing research by any one method such as a simulation or survey. For this reason, we believe that more studies using multiple variations of research, i.e. triangulation, should be used as it leads to more robust results and provides opportunities for cross-method synergies (Jick, 1979). Oftentimes in logistics, researchers examine the impact of logistics functions within the context of a supply chain network. As these networks become more complicated, it becomes more difcult to devise a single research methodology that appropriately captures the complexities of the network. Therefore, triangulation may be particularly benecial to logistics researchers by strengthening research results and helping the discipline to more fully mature (Mentzer and Flint, 1997). Based on the framework used in the research, there were a total of 12 different categories available for logistics research to appear. Of the 157 articles evaluated for this study, logistics research only appeared in six of the 12 categories with the vast

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majority (over 80 percent) of the research appearing in three categories (L-P, L-A, I-A). Overall, very limited amounts of research appeared to be categorized as either axiomatic or object reality. Axiomatic research tends to be characterized by formal procedures, achieving a consensus and establishing consistency of goals. Many normative and/or descriptive models and reasoning and/or logic-based models would fall into this category. It would seem that research aimed at enhancing current models of this type, as well as the development of new models tting this description could be of signicant benet to the logistics discipline as we move forward. Relatively little research was categorized as meeting the denition of direct observation of object reality. This category refers to the direct observation of some phenomenon. With the applied nature of the logistics discipline, research designed in a way to directly observe a phenomenon through some type of structured analysis or process (e.g. eld experiment), or to undertake interpretative research through action research or case-based studies would seem to add value to the body of research of the logistics discipline. While movement towards, and growth in the direction of using direct observation to conduct research was noted, signicant opportunities still exist to expand the body of knowledge through the use of direct observation. While the discipline of logistics may, to some extent, dictate the type of research method used, it appears signicant opportunities remain for logistics researchers to expand the base of the discipline by applying a broader array of methods to their research. As previously noted, the use of triangulation in logistics research may not only enhance research quality, but also aid in the use of a broader array of research methods in the discipline. The results of the current study build on past research and should encourage recent researchers who have called for both more rigorous and robust research (Mentzer and Flint, 1997) and increased use of case study methodologies (Naslund, 2002) in logistics research efforts. It is clear logistics is evolving as a discipline both from the standpoint of the topics included in the domain of logistics research and the variety and rigor of research methods being used. A focus on mathematical optimization has been augmented and enhanced by the desire to also capture behavioral and attitudinal aspects of the discipline. This desire has led to a signicant increase in the amount of logistics research based from data collected via survey instruments, oftentimes multi-item instruments. While this trend is apparent, a signicant amount of research in the discipline is still comprised of modeling and/or simulation. To a lesser degree, qualitative techniques such as the case study method and similar forms of action-based research appear to be making some progress towards being a more broadly accepted research method. While the results of our research support the conclusion that the logistics discipline is diversifying its research efforts and expanding the array of issues addressed, signicant opportunities still exist. The matrix used in the current study had several research category cells that had either a very few or no articles appearing. While progress is being made in the research area, many opportunities to broaden our horizons and positively impact the growing discipline of logistics remain. As the discipline continues to evolve, it will be important to periodically examine the current state of logistics research from both a methodological perspective and a topical perspective. Broadening both the variety and rigor of logistics research should

lead to a broader acceptance as an academic discipline. While it is clear many practitioners are focused on logistics and supply chain issues, the academic segment of these disciplines, while making signicant progress, sometimes struggles for broad acceptance. Continuing to enhance the methodological rigor of research conducted in the logistics arena will assist us in simultaneously improving the quality of our research results and in our abilities to conduct and be recognized for our valuable research contributions to both academicians and practitioners.
References Banerjee, M., Capozzoli, M., McSweeney, L. and Sinha, D. (1999), Beyond kappa, a review of interrater agreement measures, Canadian Journal of Statistics, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 3-23. Blanchard, B.S. (1992), Logistics Engineering and Management, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Cohen, J. (1960), A coefcient of agreement for nominal scales, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 37-46. Craighead, C.W. and Meredith, J. (2005), Operations management research paradigms: evolution and alternative future paths, working paper. Dunn, S.C., Seaker, R.F. and Waller, M.A. (1994), Latent variables in business logistics research: scale development and validation, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 145-72. Dunn, S.C., Seaker, R.F., Stenger, A. and Young, R. (1993), An assessment of logistics research paradigms, Working Paper 93-5, Center for Logistics Research, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. Ellram, L.M. (1996), The use of the case study method in logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 93-138. Farris, M.T. (1997), Evolution of academic concerns with transportation and logistics, Transportation Journal, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 42-50. Gibson, B.J. and Hanna, J.B. (2003), Periodical usefulness: the US logistics educator perspective, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 221-40. Jick, J.D. (1979), Mixing quantitative methods: triangulation in action, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 602-11. Keller, S.B., Savitskie, K., Stank, T.P., Lynch, D.F. and Ellinger, A.E. (2002), A summary and analysis of multi-item scales used in logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 83-119. Larson, P.D. and Poist, R.F. (2004), Improving response rates to mail surveys: a research note, Transportation Journal, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 67-74. Mentzer, J.T. and Flint, D.J. (1997), Validity in logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 199-216. Mentzer, J.T. and Kahn, K.B. (1995), A framework of logistics research, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 231-49. Meredith, J.R., Raturi, A., Amoako-Gyampah, K. and Kaplan, B. (1989), Alternative research paradigms in operations, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 297-326. Mossman, F.H., Bankit, P. and Helferich, O.K. (1977), Logistics Systems Analysis, University Press of America, Washington, DC. Naslund, D. (2002), Logistics needs qualitative research especially action research, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 32 No. 5, pp. 321-38. Neuendorf, K.A. (2002), The Content Analysis Guidebook, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

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Perreault, W.D. Jr and Leigh, L.E. (1989), Reliability of nominal data based on qualitative judgments, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 26, pp. 135-48. Popping, R. (1988), On agreement indices for nominal data, Sociometric Research,Vol. 1, Data Collection and Scaling, New York, NY, pp. 90-105. Riffe, D., Lacy, S. and Fico, F.G. (1998), Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mawah, NJ. Seaker, R.F., Waller, M.A. and Dunn, S.C. (1993), A note on research methodology in business logistics, Logistics and Transportation Review, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 383-7. Searcy, D.L. and Mentzer, J.T. (2003), A framework for conducting and evaluating research, Journal of Accounting Literature, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 130-67. Weber, R.H. (1990), Basic Content Analysis, 2nd ed., Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. About the authors Christopher W. Craighead is an Associate Professor of Supply Chain Management at Auburn University. He received his PhD in Operations Management from Clemson University. He also holds a BS in Computer Science, an MBA, and he is a Certied Fellow in Production and Inventory Management (CFPIM). He has published in Journal of Operations Management, Production and Operations Management, European Journal of Operational Research, International Journal of Production Research, OMEGA, Supply Chain Management Review and other journals. He serves as an Associate Editor of the Journal of Operations Management and on the Editorial Review Boards of Decision Sciences, Production and Operations Management and Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education. E-mail: craigcw@auburn.edu Joe B. Hanna (PhD, New Mexico State University) is a Professor of Supply Chain Management at Auburn University. Hanna has authored or co-authored numerous journal articles and a logistics textbook and has participated in government funded transportation research. Hanna is also an active member of several professional organizations and regularly conducts professional training seminars for various organizations. Hannas area of interest in supply chain management allows him to instruct undergraduate, graduate, and executive education students at Auburn University. Prior to entering academia, Hanna gained professional experience working for Phillips Petroleum Company, Phillips 66 Chemical Company, and Coopers and Lybrand. Joe B. Hanna is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: hannajb@auburn.edu Brian J. Gibson (PhD, University of Tennessee) is an Associate Professor of Supply Chain Management at Auburn University. Gibson has authored or co-authored numerous journal articles in the areas of supply chain management and logistics. Gibson is a member of several professional organizations and has participated in many executive education and distance learning initiatives. Gibsons professional industry experiences and education allow him to effectively participate in undergraduate, graduate and executive education endeavors at Auburn University. E-mail: gibsobj@auburn.edu Jack R. Meredith is Professor of Management and Broyhill Distinguished Scholar and Chair in Operations at the Babcock Graduate School of Management at Wake Forest University. He received his undergraduate degrees in engineering and mathematics from Oregon State University and his PhD and MBA from University of California, Berkeley. He has worked for Ampex Corporation, Hewlett-Packard Company, Douglas Aircraft Company, and TRW. He has co-authored ve textbooks including the popular, Project Management: A Managerial Approach, Operations Management for MBAs, and Project Management in Practice. He is a past Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Operations Management. E-mail: jack.meredith@mba.wfu.edu

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