TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................6 ...........................................................................................................................................7 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................7 HOW WIRELESS WORKS ...........................................................................................8 SPREADING THE SPECTRUM..........................................................................................................................

9 SPREAD SPECTRUM: DOWN TO THE BITS.......................................................................................................10 INTRODUCTION TO SPREAD SPECTRUM...........................................................11 HOW SPREAD SPECTRUM WORKS...............................................................................................................12 DETAILS ON SPREAD SPECTRUM.................................................................................................................13 DIRECT SEQUENCE SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................................13 FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEMS...................................................................................................................13 DIRECT SEQUENCE VS FREQUENCY HOPPING ..............................................................................................13 WHAT SPREAD SPECTRUM DOES................................................................................................................16 CHAPTER TWO ..........................................................................................................17 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS....................................................................18 THE CDMA STANDARDS...........................................................................................18 CDMA STANDARD: IS-95A ..................................................................................................................18 WHY CDMA...................................................................................................................19 BACKGROUND OF CDMA.........................................................................................19 CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................21 POWER CONTROL IN CDMA...................................................................................22 THE NEAR-FAR PROBLEM.........................................................................................................................22 POWER CONTROL TECHNIQUES (PCT).......................................................................................................23 Reverse Link Power Control ..........................................................................................................23
Open Loop Control...................................................................................................................................23 Closed Loop Control ................................................................................................................................23

Forward Link Power Control ........................................................................................................24 Reverse Outer loop Power Control................................................................................................24 Power Control in Soft Handoff.......................................................................................................24 POWER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES (PMT)...............................................................................................25 Forward Handoff Boundary...........................................................................................................25 Reverse Handoff Boundary ............................................................................................................25 Breathing........................................................................................................................................25 Wilting.............................................................................................................................................26 Blossoming......................................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................27 HANDOFF.......................................................................................................................28 HANDOFFS IN CDMA..................................................................................................28 STEPS IN HANDOFF ..................................................................................................................................28 SOFT HANDOFF........................................................................................................................................29 Forward CDMA Channel...............................................................................................................30 Reverse Power Control...................................................................................................................30 CDMA & RF Planning Page 1 of 86 Mukul

Reverse CDMA Channel.................................................................................................................30 INITIATION OF SOFT HANDOFF...................................................................................................................30 Pilot Search.....................................................................................................................................30 Detection Thresholds......................................................................................................................31 CASES WHERE CDMA DOES NOT USE SOFT HANDOFFS................................................................................31 Inter Frequency Handoffs...............................................................................................................31 Timing Changes..............................................................................................................................31 Digital-to-Analog............................................................................................................................32 Handoffs between FM and CDMA systems ...................................................................................32 "SOFTER" HANDOFF.............................................................................................................................32 CHAPTER FIVE ..........................................................................................................33 CHANNELS....................................................................................................................34 CDMA CHANNELS.......................................................................................................34 CDMA FORWARD CHANNELS..................................................................................................................34 Pilot Channel..................................................................................................................................34 Sync Channel..................................................................................................................................34 Paging Channel..............................................................................................................................34 Forward Traffic Channel................................................................................................................35 CDMA REVERSE CHANNELS....................................................................................................................35 Access Channel...............................................................................................................................35 Reverse Traffic Channel.................................................................................................................35 CHAPTER SIX..............................................................................................................36 CODES.............................................................................................................................37 PN CODES......................................................................................................................37 FORWARD CDMA CHANNEL....................................................................................................................38
CHAPTER SEVEN.................................................................................................................................39

CAPACITY.....................................................................................................................40 CDMA CAPACITY........................................................................................................40 CDMA CAPACITY INCREASES .................................................................................................................40 CDMA AND CELL REUSE........................................................................................................................40 EB/NO AND INTERFERENCE THRESHOLD .....................................................................................................41 CDMA CAPACITY IMPROVEMENTS ...........................................................................................................41 BASIC CAPACITY CALCULATIONS - 3 SECTOR AMPS TO 3 SECTOR CDMA..................................................41 FIRST CDMA CARRIER ALLOCATION .......................................................................................................42 CAPACITY OF A CDMA NETWORK.......................................................................42 SINGLE CELL CDMA CAPACITY..............................................................................................................43 Augmented Performance with CDMA............................................................................................44 Reverse Link Power Control in Multiple-Cell Systems..................................................................44 CAPACITY FOR MULTIPLE CELL CDMA.....................................................................................................45 Multiple-Cell Forward Link Capacity with Power Allocation.......................................................45 CONCLUSIONS AND COMPARISONS..............................................................................................................46 FACTORS INFLUENCING CAPACITY....................................................................46 VOICE ACTIVITY DETECTION.....................................................................................................................46 CDMA POWER CONTROL........................................................................................................................46 COVERAGE VERSUS CAPACITY.............................................................................47 CHAPTER EIGHT........................................................................................................48 CDMA STEPS.................................................................................................................49

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 2 of 86

Mukul

MODULATION IN CDMA...........................................................................................49 CORRELATION............................................................................................................49 DE-SPREADING AND DETECTION.........................................................................50 VOICE CODING............................................................................................................51 MULTIPATH AND CDMA...........................................................................................51 FADING DUE TO MULTIPATH .....................................................................................................................52 EFFECTS OF FADING ................................................................................................................................52 CHAPTER NINE ..........................................................................................................53 TIMING...........................................................................................................................54 CDMA AND SYSTEM TIMING..................................................................................54 THE "CLOCK".........................................................................................................................................54 The system time scale......................................................................................................................54 The reference state of the system clock relative to system time......................................................54 HOW TO SET A CLOCK & FIND OUT THE TIME ...............................................................................................55 If you are a base station: GPS........................................................................................................55 If you are a mobile, listen to a base station....................................................................................55 PROCESS OF SYNCHRONIZATION TO SYSTEM TIME ........................................................................................55 CHAPTER TEN.............................................................................................................56 PLANNING.....................................................................................................................57 RADIO PLANNING.......................................................................................................57 OBJECTIVE .............................................................................................................................................58 COVERAGE..............................................................................................................................................58 CAPACITY...............................................................................................................................................58 ANTENNA...............................................................................................................................................58 DRIVE TEST............................................................................................................................................58 OPTIMIZATION.........................................................................................................................................59 Network Parameters Optimization.................................................................................................59 CHAPTER ELEVEN ....................................................................................................60 RF FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANNING......................................................................61 THEORY.............................................................................................................................................61 RADIO.................................................................................................................................................61 SIDEBANDS ......................................................................................................................................61 SPREAD SPECTRUM........................................................................................................................61 DEMODULATION.............................................................................................................................61 ANTENNA THEORY.........................................................................................................................62 0.6 FRESNEL ZONE..........................................................................................................................62 SPACE ATTENUATION...................................................................................................................62 DECIBELS..........................................................................................................................................62 ANTENNA TYPES.............................................................................................................................63 COAXIAL CABLE.............................................................................................................................63 DATA QUALITY...............................................................................................................................63 SYSTEM CALCULATIONS..............................................................................................................63 SITE.....................................................................................................................................................63 INSTALLATION TIPS.......................................................................................................................63 TESTING.............................................................................................................................................64 Unified Power Control, Error Correction Coding, and Scheduling for a CDMA Downlink System ........................................................................................................................................................64

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 3 of 86

Mukul

IMPLICATIONS FOR CELL PLANNING ...........................................................................................................65 CHAPTER TWELVE ..................................................................................................66 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK ENGINEERING..............................................67 NETWORK ENGINEERING WITHIN RF PLANNING..........................................67 RF SERVICES...........................................................................................................................................67 SITE SELECTION & SITE ACQUISITION .......................................................................................................67 Site Acquisition services ...............................................................................................................67 INSTALLATION & NETWORK OPTIMIZATION.................................................................................................67 COMMUNICATIONS SITE MANAGEMENT.......................................................................................................68 SPECTRUM ENGINEERING & FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT................................................................................68 INTERFERENCE ANALYSIS - IDENTIFYING & RESOLVING CONFLICT....................................................................68 Propagation modeling....................................................................................................................68 RF COVERAGE DESIGNS AND CAPACITY ANALYSES ...................................................................................68 RF DESIGN STANDARDS & GUIDELINES.....................................................................................................69 RF SIGNAL COVERAGE DESIGNS ..............................................................................................................69 TRAFFIC CAPACITY PLANNING & DESIGN ..................................................................................................69 MOBILE SYSTEM FREQUENCY PLANNING & DESIGN ....................................................................................69 MICROWAVE RADIO SYSTEM PLANNING & DESIGN .....................................................................................69 NETWORK & SWITCHING INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN .....................................................................................69 NETWORK INTERCONNECTION.....................................................................................................................70 NETWORK SERVICES.................................................................................................................................70 RADIO FREQUENCY NETWORK PERFORMANCE..............................................................................................70 COMPREHENSIVE DESIGN SERVICES .............................................................................................................70 COMPREHENSIVE RF OPTIMIZATION SERVICES ............................................................................................71 Prior to Drive Tests:.......................................................................................................................71 Initial Drive Tests:..........................................................................................................................71 Cluster Drive Tests.........................................................................................................................71 KEY ELEMENTS IN DESIGNING CELLULAR...................................................................................................71 CHAPTER THIRTEEN ................................................................................................72 QUALITY OF SERVICE...............................................................................................73 CHAPTER FOURTEEN ...............................................................................................75 NETWORK DEPLOYMENT AND PERFORMANCE.............................................76 THE BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS:...............................................................76 RF ENGINEERING CAPABILITIES.................................................................................................................76 ANALYSIS AND NETWORK IMPLEMENTATION................................................................................................76 NETWORK OPTIMIZATION..........................................................................................................................76 NETWORK PERFORMANCE AND QUALITY TESTING........................................................................................76 THE PLANNING TOOL...............................................................................................................................77 PROBLEMS & THEIR SOLUTIONS IN THE WLL NETWORK..........................78 THE STATIC AND DROPPED CALLS THAT ARE HAUNTING THE CUSTOMERS MAY BE COMING FROM THE CELL SITE. ......78 SITE SELECTION. .....................................................................................................................................79 SHIELDING. ............................................................................................................................................79 OTHER RF PROTECTION. .........................................................................................................................79 STEPS FOR ABATEMENT ...........................................................................................................................79 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS. .........................................................................................................................79 TEST MEASUREMENTS. ............................................................................................................................80 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................................80 CDMA IN WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP.......................................................................81 NETWORK DEPLOYMENT........................................................................................81

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 4 of 86

Mukul

WLL SUBSCRIBER TERMINALS.............................................................................82 WLL INTERFACES TO THE PSTN...........................................................................82 MICROWAVE BACKHAUL CONNECTIVITY.......................................................83 INTER CITY MICROWAVE BACKHAUL..........................................................................................................83 INTRA CITY MICROWAVE BACKHAUL.........................................................................................................83 STEPS FOR TRANSMITTING INTER CITY.......................................................................................................84 STEPS FOR RECEIVING INTER CITY.............................................................................................................84 STEPS FOR DISTRIBUTION OF E1 IN THE INTERCITY MICROWAVE BACKBONE.................................................84 STEPS FOR TRANSMITTING INTRA CITY.......................................................................................................84 STEP FOR RECEIVING INTRA CITY:.............................................................................................................84 STEPS FOR DISTRIBUTION OF E1 WITHIN THE CITY....................................................................................84 CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................84 TEN TOP ADVANTAGES USING CDMA.................................................................85

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 5 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER ONE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 6 of 86

Mukul

INTRODUCTION

Designers and planners of the communication systems are often concerned with the efficiency with which the systems utilize the signal energy and bandwidth. In most communication systems these are the most important issues. In some cases, it is necessary for the system to resist external interference, to operate at low spectral energy, to provide multiple access capability without external control and secure channel not accessible to the outsiders. Thus, it is sometimes unavoidable to sacrifice some of the efficiency in order to enhance these features. Spread spectrum techniques allow accomplishing such objectives. The theoretical aspects of using spread spectrum in a strong interference environment have been known for over forty years. It is only recently that practical implementations became feasible. In the beginning, the spread spectrum technology was developed and used for military purposes and their implementations were too expensive for the commercial applications. New technological advancements such as VLSI, and advanced signal processing techniques made it possible to develop less expensive spread spectrum equipment for civilian use. Applications of this technology include cellular, wireless data transmission and satellite communications. All of the spreadspectrum systems have to satisfy two criteria:

1. The bandwidth of the transmitted signal must be greater than the transmitted signal 2. Transmitted bandwidth must be determined by some function that is independent of the
message and is known to the receiver. Bandwidth expansion in spread spectrum systems is achieved by using a function that is independent of the message, thus it is more susceptible to white noise as opposed to other communication techniques, such as FM and PCM. Spread spectrum techniques have other applications that make it unique and useful. These applications include: 1. Anti-jam capability-particularly for narrow-band jamming. 2. Interference rejection. 3. Multiple-access capability. 4. Multi-path protection 5. Covert operation or low probability of intercept (LPI) 6. Secure communications. 7. Improved spectral efficiency-in special circumstances 8. Ranging CDMA is a wireless communications technology that uses the principle of spread spectrum communication. The intent of CDMA technology is to provide increased bandwidth in a limited frequency system, but has also other advantages including extended range and more secure communications. In a CDMA system, a narrow-band message signal is multiplied by a spreading signal, which is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a rate much greater than the data rate of the message. CDMA uses these code sequences as a means of distinguishing between individual conversations. All users in the CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously. In this document I will be discussing about CDMA in detail.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 7 of 86

Mukul

CDMA is a driving technology behind the rapidly advancing personal communications industry. Because of its greater bandwidth, efficiency, and multiple access capabilities, CDMA is becoming a leading technology for relieving the spectrum congestion caused by the explosion in popularity of cellular mobile phones, fixed wireless telephones, and wireless data terminals. Since becoming an officially recognized digital cellular protocol, CDMA is being rapidly implemented in the wireless communications networks of many large communications corporations. CDMA stands for "Code Division Multiple Access." It is a form of spreadspectrum, an advanced digital wireless transmission technique. Instead of using frequencies or time slots, as do traditional technologies, it uses mathematical codes to transmit and distinguish between multiple wireless conversations. Its bandwidth is much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communications at the same data rate because it uses noise-like carrier waves to spread the information contained in a signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth. However, because the conversations taking place are distinguished by digital codes, many users can share the same bandwidth simultaneously. The advanced methods used in commercial CDMA technology improve capacity, coverage and voice quality, leading to a new generation of wireless networks. Old-fashioned radio receivers separate stations and channels by filtering in the frequency domain. CDMA receivers, conversely, separate communication channels by a pseudo-random modulation that is applied and removed in the digital domain. Multiple users can therefore occupy the same frequency band. This universal frequency reuse is crucial to CDMA's distinguishing high spectral efficiency. CDMA has gained international acceptance by cellular radio system operators as an upgrade because of its universal frequency reuse and noise-like characteristics. CDMA systems provide operators and subscribers with significant advantages over analog and conventional TDMA-based systems.

How Wireless Works Before we start talking about the CDMA we shall be familiar with the wireless. When a cellular mobile is switched on it scans the group of control channels to determine the strongest base station signal. Control channels are only involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused channel. When a telephone call is placed, signal is sent to the base station. The mobile switching center (MSC) dispatches the request to all base stations in the cellular system. The mobile identification number (MIN), which is the subscriber's telephone number, is then broadcast as a paging message to the forward control channels throughout the cellular system. The mobile receives the page, and identifies itself through the reverse control channel. The base station of the mobile informs the MSC of the "handshake", and the MSC instructs the base station to move the call to an unused channel. All of these events happen within a few seconds that are unnoticeable by the users. Wireless technology uses individual radio frequencies repeatedly by dividing a service area into separate geographic zones called cells. Cells can be as small as an individual building, such as an office, or as large as 20 miles across. Each cell must be equipped with its own radio transmitter/receiver antenna. Because the system operates at such low power, a frequency being used to carry a telephone conversation in one cell can be used to carry a conversation in a nearby cell without interference. (This allows much greater capacity than radio

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 8 of 86

Mukul

systems like Citizens Band (CB) in which all users contend to get their messages on the same limited channels.) When a customer using a wireless phone - car phone or portable - approaches the boundary of one cell, the wireless network senses that the signal is becoming weak and automatically hands off the call to the antenna in the next cell into which the caller is traveling. This process is known as a "handoff". Roaming occurs when subscribers travel beyond their home geographical area. The wireless carrier in the area where they are traveling provides service so they can still make calls.

S P RE ADI NG

T HE

S P E CT RUM

Spread spectrum multiple access transmits the entire signal over a bandwidth that is much greater than that required for standard narrow band transmissions in order to gain signal-to-noise (S/N) performance. In channels with narrow-band noise, increasing the transmitted signal bandwidth results in an increased probability that the received information will be correct. Because each signal is an assembly of many smaller signals at the fundamental frequency and its harmonics, increasing the frequency results in a more accurate reconstruction of the original signal. The effective drawback of narrow-band data communications is the limitation of bandwidth; thus signals must be transmitted with enough power so the corruption by gaussian noise is not as effective and the probability that the data received is correct will remain low. This means that the effective SNR must be high enough so that the receiver should have no problem in recovering the transmitted code without error. From a system viewpoint, the performance increase for very wideband systems is referred to as "process gain". This term is used to describe the received signal fidelity gained at the cost of bandwidth. Errors introduced by a noisy channel can be reduced to any desired level without sacrificing the rate of information transfer using Claude Shannon's equation describing channel capacity: C =W log 2 (1+S/N) Where C = Channel capacity in bits per second, W = Bandwidth, S/N = Energy per bit/Noise power. The benefits of increasing bandwidth become clearer. The S/N ratio may be decreased without decreasing the bit error rate. This means that the signal may be spread over a large bandwidth with smaller spectral power levels and still achieve the required data rate. If the total signal power is interpreted as the area under the spectral density curve, then signals with equivalent total power may have either a large signal power concentrated in a small bandwidth or a small signal power spread over a large bandwidth. A CDMA spread spectrum signal is created by modulating the radio frequency signal with a spreading sequence (a code consisting of a series of binary pulses) known as a pseudo-noise (PN) digital signal because they make the signal appear wide band and "noise like". The PN code runs at a higher rate than the RF signal and determines the actual transmission bandwidth. Messages can be encoded to any level of secrecy desired with direct sequencing, as the entire transmitted/received message is purely digital. An SS receiver uses a locally generated replica of pseudo noise (PN) code and a receiver correlator to separate only the desired coded information from all the possible signals. An SS correlator can be thought of as a specially matched filter -- it responds only to signals that are encoded with a pseudo noise code that

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 9 of 86

Mukul

matches its own code. Thus an SS correlator (SS signal demodulator) can be "tuned" to different codes simply by changing its local code. This correlator does not respond to manmade, natural or artificial noise or interference. It responds only to SS signals with identical matched signal characteristics and encoded with the identical PN code. Many spread spectrum radios can share the same frequency band, if each system uses a unique spreading code to reduce interference between the different radios. Because only the receiver with the identical code can de spread the signal to recover the signal, SS radios can tolerate a high level of interference unlike conventional radios, providing much greater capacity increase in frequency reuse. SSMA is not very bandwidth efficient when used by a single user. However, since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, SS systems become bandwidth efficient in multiple user environments. This reason makes SS communication an ideal choice for metropolitan areas with large blocking rates. Frequency reuse is universal, that is, multiple users utilize each CDMA carrier frequency. The reuse pattern is N=1. The spread of energy over a wide band, or lower spectral power density, makes SS signals less likely to interfere with narrow band communications, because the spreaded signal power is near that of gaussian noise levels. Narrow band communications, conversely, cause little to no interference to SS systems because the correlation receiver effectively integrates over a very wide bandwidth to recover an SS signal. The correlator then "spreads" out a narrow band interferer over the receiver's total detection bandwidth. S P RE AD S P E CT RUM: DO W N T O TH E BI TS

CDMA technology focuses primarily on the "direct sequence" method of spread spectrum. Direct sequence is spread spectrum technique in which the bandwidth of a signal is increased by artificially increasing the bit data rate. This is done by breaking each bit into a number of sub-bits called "chips". Assuming this number is 10, each bit of the original signal would be divided up into 10 separate bits, or "chips." This results in an increase in the data rate by 10. By increasing the data rate by 10, we also increase the bandwidth by 10. The signal is divided up into smaller bits by multiplying it by a Pseudo-Noise code, PN-code. A PN-code is a sequence of high data rate bits ("chips") ranging from -1 to 1 (polar) or 0 to 1 (non-polar). When referring to the number of "chips" used, we mean the number of small data bits in the PN-code per single bit of the original signal. Simply by multiplying the original modulated signal by this high data rate PN-code will result in dividing the signal into smaller bits, and hence, increase its bandwidth. The greater number of "chips" used results in a wider bandwidth proportional to the number of "chips". The basic operation of the transmitter and receiver for spread spectrum will now be described briefly. Let's assume there are two transmitters with two different messages to be transmitted. We should keep in mind that each transmitter can be thought of as separate cell phones. The messages M1(t) and M2(t) first go through a modulator to modulate the message at a higher carrier frequency. For spread spectrum, all messages are modulated on the same carrier frequency. The output for each of the modulators is S1(t) and S2(t). After the modulator, each signal is multiplied by its own unique Pseudo-Noise code, C1(t) and C2(t). These are the high data rate bit patterns which spreads the signal's bandwidth. For this example, let's assume the range values for the PN-code is -1 and 1. After spreading the bandwidth, each signal is transmitted. Because many signals

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 10 of 86

Mukul

can be transmitted from different transmitters at the same time, we represent these transmissions by simply summing their spectrums. At the receiver end, the incoming signal is the spread spectrum signal. In order for a receiver to extract a single message, it must multiply the incoming signal by the correct PN-code. Because we chose the PN-code to range from -1 to 1, this technique of multiplying by the PN-code works perfectly. Since the original signal at the transmitter end was multiplied by the PN-code, and again multiplied by the same PN-code at the receiver end, we effectively canceled out the PN-code for that particular message. By eliminating the PN-code, we eliminate the spread spectrum effects for that particular message signal. The receiver circuit that does this is called a correlator, and it collapses the spread signal back down to just the original narrow bandwidth centered at the modulated carrier frequency. The resulting signal is then passed through a band pass filter (BPF) centered at the carrier frequency. This operation selects only the desired signal while rejecting all surrounding frequencies due to other messages in the spread spectrum. This rejection is known as the processing gain of the de spreading correlation process. Lastly, the desired signal is demodulated to eliminate the carrier frequency. Processing gain is a direct consequence of the direct sequence radio signal spreading and de spreading process. It refers to the increase in signal-to-noise ratio that results from this process, and is required for successful data communications. Processing gain increases as the number of chips per data bit increases, and this can be manipulated by the system designer to get the desired effect.

Introduction to Spread Spectrum The basic characteristics of spread spectrum system as follows: 1. The carrier is an unpredictable, or pseudorandom, wideband signal. 2. The bandwidth of the carrier is much wider than the bandwidth of the data modulation. 3. Reception is accomplished by cross correlation of the received wide-band signal with a synchronously generated replica of the wide-band carrier. In case of spread spectrum (SS) systems, if a signal is called pseudorandom, it means that it appears to be random but in fact the information is contained within it. One of the most important features of the SS signal is that it contains large number of very different signaling formats used for communicating data symbols. It means that the receiver which detects one of these formats cannot detect any other format within a single message. The number of formats used in an SS system is called the multiplicity factor of the communication link. Most of the well known communication systems, have a multiplicity factor near unity while SS systems have multiplicity factors in the thousands. Thus, it can be seen that a jammer attempting to interfere with SS communication has to know exactly which signaling factors are being used, which is not very likely considering the size of SS multiplicity factor, or the jammer has to reduce significantly his power per each signaling format by jamming all of the formats. Scholtz recognizes at least five important performance attributes of SS systems which are due to the nature of their signal characteristics: 1. Low probability of intercept (LPI) can be achieved with high processing gain and unpredictable carrier signals when power is spread thinly and uniformly in the frequency domain, making detection against noise by the survailance receiver difficult. A low probability of position fix (LPPF) attribute goes one step further in including both intercept and direction finding (DFing) in its evaluation. Low probability of signal exploitation (LPSE) may include additional effects, e.g., source identification, in addition to intercept and DFing.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 11 of 86

Mukul

2. Anti jam (AJ) capability can be secured with an unpredictable carrier signal. The jammer cannot use signal observations to improve its performance in this case, and must rely on jamming techniques which are independent of the signal to be jammed. 3. High time resolution is attained by the correlation detection of wide-band signals. Differences in the time of arrival (TOA) of the wide-band signal, on the order of the reciprocal of the signal bandwidth, are detectable. This property can be used to suppress multipath and, by the same token, to render repeater jammers ineffective. 4. Transmitter-receiver pairs using independent random carriers can operate in the same bandwidth with minimal cochannel interference. These systems are called spreadspectrum code-division multiple-access (CDMA) systems. 5. Cryptographic capabilities result when the data modulation cannot be distinguished from the carrier modulation, and the carrier modulation is effectively random to an unwanted observer. In this case the SS carrier modulation takes on the role of a key in a cipher system. A system using indistinguishable data and SS carrier modulation is a form of privacy system. There are three basic configurations used for recovery of the SS carrier: 1. Transmitted reference (TR) system achieves detection by transmitting two versions of the carrier, one modulated by data and other unmodulated. These two signals enter a correlation detector which extracts the message. 2. In a stored reference (SR) system, both receiver and transmitter keep a 'copy' of the same pseudorandom signal. Carrier generator at the receiver is adjusted automatically in order to synchronize its output with the arriving carrier. Detection is then similar to TR system. 3. Matched filtering can also be used for reception of SS signals. Filter systems produce a wide-band, pseudorandom impulse response. Matched filter with such response is used at the receiver in order to recover transmitted signal. Pseudorandom characteristic of the impulse response ensures security of the transmitted signal. Another way to classify the SS system is by the modulation technique used to generate the SS signals. Some of the techniques are listed below: 1. In early developments of SS techniques, pure noise was used for a signal carrier. This technique gave superior randomness but could be accomplished only by TR system. There is a chance though that the jammer can gain access to both channels thus reducing the multiplicity factor to 1 (no anti-jamming capability). "Spread-spectrum radio communications, long a favorite technology of the military because it resists jamming and is hard for an enemy to intercept, is now on the verge of potentially explosive commercial development. The reason: spread-spectrum signals, which are distributed over a wide range of frequencies and then collected onto their original frequency at the receiver, are so inconspicuous as to be 'transparent.' Just as they are unlikely to be intercepted by a military opponent, so are they unlikely to interfere with other signals intended for business and consumer users -- even ones transmitted on the same frequencies. Such an advantage opens up crowded frequency spectra to vastly expanded use. H O W SP RE AD S PE CT RUM W O RKS

Spread Spectrum uses wide band, noise-like signals. Because Spread Spectrum signals are noise-like, they are hard to detect. Spread Spectrum signals are also hard to Intercept or demodulate. Further, Spread Spectrum signals are harder to jam (interfere with) than narrowband signals. These Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) and anti-jam (AJ) features are why the military has used Spread Spectrum for so many years. Spread signals are intentionally made to be much wider band than the information they are carrying to make them more noise-like. Spread Spectrum signals use fast codes that run many times the information bandwidth or data rate. These special "Spreading" codes are called "Pseudo

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 12 of 86

Mukul

Random" or "Pseudo Noise" codes. They are called "Pseudo" because they are not real gaussian noise. Spread Spectrum transmitters use similar transmit power levels to narrow band transmitters. Because Spread Spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral power density, measured in Watts per Hertz, than narrowband transmitters. This lower transmitted power density characteristic gives spread signals a big plus. Spread and narrow band signals can occupy the same band, with little or no interference. This capability is the main reason for all the interest in Spread Spectrum today. DE T AI LS O N S P RE AD S P E CT RUM

Over the last 50 years, a class of modulation techniques usually called "Spread Spectrum," has been developed. This group of modulation techniques is characterized by its wide frequency spectra. The modulated output signals occupy a much greater bandwidth than the signal's baseband information bandwidth. To qualify as a spread spectrum signal, two criteria should be met: 1. The transmitted signal bandwidth is much greater than the information bandwidth. 2. Some function other than the information being transmitted is employed to determine the resultant transmitted bandwidth. DI RE CT S EQ UE NCE S YST E MS Direct sequence spread spectrum systems are so called because they employ a high speed code sequence, along with the basic information being sent, to modulate their RF carrier. The high speed code sequence is used directly to modulate the carrier, thereby directly setting the transmitted RF bandwidth. Binary code sequences as short as 11 bits or as long as [2^(89) - 1] have been employed for this purpose, at code rates from under a bit per second to several hundred megabits per second. The result of modulating an RF carrier with such a code sequence is to produce a signal centered at the carrier frequency, direct sequence modulated spread spectrum with a (sin x/x)2 frequency spectrum. The main lobe of this spectrum has a bandwidth twice the clock rate of the modulating code, from null to null. The sidelobes have a null to null bandwidth equal to the code's clock rate. Direct sequence spectra vary somewhat in spectral shape depending upon the actual carrier and data modulation used.A binary phase shift keyed (BPSK) signal is the most common modulation signal type used in direct sequence systems. F RE Q UE NCY HO P P I NG S YST E MS

The wideband frequency spectrum desired is generated in a different manner in a frequency hopping system. It does just what its name implies. That is, it "hops" from frequency to frequency over a wide band. The specific order in which frequencies are occupied is a function of a code sequence, and the rate of hopping from one frequency to another is a function of the information rate. The transmitted spectrum of a frequency hopping signal is quite different from that of a direct sequence system. Instead of a [(sin x)/x]^2-shaped envelope, the frequency hopper's output is flat over the band of frequencies used. The bandwidth of a frequency hopping signal is simply w times the number of frequency slots available, where w is the bandwidth of each hop channel. DI RE CT H O P P I NG SE Q UE NCE VS F REQ UE NCY

The nature of radio signals used for data transmissions RF portable data collection systems rely on radio waves to transmit information to a remote computer or wired network interface. Most of these portable handheld computers

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 13 of 86

Mukul

rely on radio transmissions in the 2.4 GHz band the ETSI has established for unlicensed operation of spread spectrum radios. Radio signals consist of a carrier frequency to which information (audio, video, or digital data) is added in a process called modulation. Modulation creates sidebands on both sides of the carrier frequency, and it is these sidebands that carry the information to be transmitted. Radio receivers use demodulators to get rid of the carrier frequency and extract the desired information. The person operating the receiver needs to know what frequency to tune into (the carrier frequency) before the receiver can do the demodulation. Also, the receiver must be using the correct method of demodulation that corresponds to the method used by the transmitter. This avoids interference between adjacent carrier frequencies, and maintains a degree of privacy. Spread spectrum radio Spread spectrum transmitters maintain user privacy and avoid interference by the way they encode their frequency signals. They purposely spread their signals across a very large band of frequencies, and rely on the fact that others in that band are doing the same. Each receiver must know what spreading pattern or code the transmitter is using in order to decode the signals being sent. Because the ETSI allows very wide bandwidths for spread spectrum radio transmissions, very high data rates are possible. Typically, the bit rates are in the range of 200 Kbps to 2Mbps. One issue associated with spread spectrum radios is receiver signal-to-noise as compared to a narrow-band transmission. Reduced signal-to-noise of a spread spectrum signal is regained by the use of a despreading process in the receiver that boosts the level of the despread signal. This is called processing gain. Range and coverage are often increased by using a network of repeaters that receive, amplify, and retransmit the signal. The two most popular methods of encoding spread spectrum signals are called Direct Dequence (DS) spread, and Frequency Hopping (FH). Frequency Hopping (FH) In FH systems, the radio transmitter hops from one carrier frequency to another at a specific hopping rate, in a specific sequence that appears to be a random pattern. Each carrier frequency and its associated sidebands must stay within the channel width defined by the ETSI. If only the intended receiver knows the transmitter's hopping pattern, then only that receiver can follow the transmission. Other FH transmitters will be using different patterns, which usually will be on non interfering frequencies. There is a communications protocol that transmitters and receivers employ to cover those instances when two different transmitters attempt to use the same frequency simultaneously. In those cases the data is retransmitted on the next hopping frequency. The ETSI allows FH systems to define their own channel spacing up to a maximum 1 MHz bandwidth in the 2.4 GHz band. There also are ETSI requirements on the amount of time the transmitter can spend on any one channel, and the number of channels that must be used. This is done to avoid "collisions" between different transmitters. Direct Sequence Spread Rather than hop around the band, DS spread radios broaden the bandwidth of their transmissions by artificially increasing the data bit rate. This is done by breaking each bit into 10 or more sub-bits called "chips". For example, if 10 chips are used, the apparent data rate and resulting bandwidth also are increased proportionally.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 14 of 86

Mukul

A spread spectrum transmitter with a unique spread code cannot create the exact same side-bands (spectral lines) as another transmitter using a different code. A receiver having the same despreading code as the transmitter can extract information from a DS spread signal. The receiver circuit that does this is called a correlator, and it collapses the spread signal back down to just the data side bands. This is done by matching the proper spread code to the received spread signal, and thus removing the effects of chipping. The resulting signal is demodulated to extract the data. Removing the chipping also allows the modulated signal to be filtered at a narrow bandwidth. Filtering helps reject interference from other transmitters. This rejection is known as the processing gain of the despreading correlation process. Processing gain is a direct consequence of the direct sequence radio signal spreading and despreading process. It refers to the increase in signal-to-noise ratio that results from this process, and is required for successful data communications. Processing gain increases as the number of chips per data bit increases, and this can be manipulated by the system designer to get the desired effect. Performance Comparison Frequency hopped signals will generally have better adjacent channel selectivity compared to DS spread signals. But FH radios must hop through 50 channels. The ETSI requires this to keep spectrum usage uniform and random. Selective use of channels is not allowed in frequency hopping. DS radio users have the freedom of selecting the channels that have the least amount of traffic and interference in their area. This usually results in better overall reliability. It is sometimes argued that DS spreading results in a weaker signal-to-noise ratio than the narrower FH signals. The logic is that DS spreading lowers the signal power at any one frequency. However, the processing gain of the despreading correlator regains the apparent loss in power when the correlator signal is collapsed back down to the data bandwidth. In reality, DS spread signals can actually be received and correlated even when they are lower than the accompanying noise on the channel. DS spread radios also offer the opportunity for better power management than FH radios. ADS radio can more easily rely on the wireless network access points to determine when it can shut down to conserve power. FH systems are forced to stay on more of the time because of the need to constantly synchronize their hopping sequence with that of the RF network access points. Therefore, battery life is potentially longer with DS spread radios than it is with their FH counterparts. This document provides an in-depth treatment of the important concepts for architecting, analyzing, developing, and implementing efficient, secure CDMA networks. CDMA is an attractive technique for wireless access to broadband services and has emerged as the leading technology for today's new mobile communications systems. For CDMA Cellular Mobile I have tried to provide some guidelines to planning, designing, and securing the efficient CDMA cellular systems. The main objective of the document is to learn all the fundamentals to intensive system concepts and innovative implementation techniques for CDMA spread spectrum multiple access communications. Understand the techniques for encoding, repeating, interleaving, modulation, spreading, filtering and QPSK transmission that make CDMA possible. Then, take a look at each CDMA code channel. Walk through the design issues

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 15 of 86

Mukul

surrounding the CDMA forward channel, including its pilot, sync, paging, and forward traffic code channels. Examines the access and reverse traffic code channels that make up the CDMA reverse channel. Then go through the fundamentals of cellular system planning, the aspects and the does and don'ts while planning a network. W H AT S P RE AD S PE CT RUM DO ES

The use of these special pseudo noise codes in spread spectrum (SS) communications makes signals appear wide band and noise-like. It is this very characteristic that makes SS signals possess the quality of Low Probability of Intercept. SS signals are hard to detect on narrow band equipment because the signal's energy is spread over a bandwidth of maybe 100 times the information bandwidth. The spread of energy over a wide band, or lower spectral power density, makes SS signals less likely to interfere with narrow band communications. Narrow band communications, conversely, cause little to no interference to SS systems because the correlation receiver effectively integrates over a very wide bandwidth to recover an SS signal. The correlator then "spreads" out a narrow band interferer over the receiver's total detection bandwidth. Since the total integrated signal density or SNR at the correlator's input determines whether there will be interference or not. All SS systems have a threshold or tolerance level of interference beyond which useful communication ceases. This tolerance or threshold is related to the SS processing gain. Processing gain is essentially the ratio of the RF bandwidth to the information bandwidth. A typical commercial direct sequence radio, might have a processing gain of from 11 to 16 dB, depending on data rate. It can tolerate total jammer power levels of from 0 to 5 dB stronger than the desired signal. Yes, the system can work at negative SNR in the RF bandwidth. Because of the processing gain of the receiver's correlator, the system functions at positive SNR on the baseband data. Besides being hard to intercept and jam, spread spectrum signals are hard to exploit or spoof. Signal exploitation is the ability of an enemy (or a non-network member) to listen in to a network and use information from the network without being a valid network member or participant. Spoofing is the act of falsely or maliciously introducing misleading or false traffic or messages to a network. SS signals also are naturally more secure than narrowband radio communications. Thus SS signals can be made to have any degree of message privacy that is desired. Messages can also, be cryptographically encoded to any level of secrecy desired. The very nature of SS allows military or intelligence levels of privacy and security to be had with minimal complexity. While these characteristics may not be very important to everyday business and LAN (local area network) needs, these features are important to understand.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 16 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER TWO

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 17 of 86

Mukul

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

The CDMA Standards With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or channels, are used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the mobile station (cellular phone) and the base station, and are called "pseudoRandom Code Sequences." All users share the same range of radio spectrum. For cellular telephony, CDMA is a digital multiple access technique specified by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as "IS-95." In March 1992, the TIA established the TR-45.5 subcommittee with the charter of developing a spread-spectrum digital cellular standard. In July of 1993, the TIA gave its approval of the CDMA IS-95 standard. IS-95 systems divide the radio spectrum into carriers which are 1,250 kHz (1.25 MHz) wide. One of the unique aspects of CDMA is that while there are certainly limits to the number of phone calls that can be handled by a carrier, this is not a fixed number. Rather, the capacity of the system will be dependent on a number of different factors. "This will be discussed in later sections." There are primarily two standards for CDMA as described below. These standards ensure that a mobile station can obtain service in any cellular system manufactured according to this standard. However, neither one of the following two standards address the quality or reliability of the service. CDMA S T ANDARD: IS -9 5 A

IS-95A defines a compatibility standard for wideband spread spectrum cellular mobile telecommunications (800 MHz band). IS-95 was first published in July, 1993 and IS-95A revision was published in May, 1995. It describes the Generation of channels, Power Control, Call Processing, Handoff, Compatibility (Radio Interface and Call Processing Protocols are specified to ensure this), and Registration techniques for cellular system operations. The subscriber stations have more compatibility requirements than the base stations. The other one is for the CDMA PCS J- STD 008(1800 MHz band) and is not described here in this document.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 18 of 86

Mukul

Why CDMA The CDMA scheme was developed mainly to increase capacity. The development of digital cellular systems for increasing capacity came just as the analog cellular system faced a capacity limitation in 1987. In theory, it does not matter whether the spectrum is divided into frequencies, time slots, or codes; the capacity provided from these three multiple schemes are same. However in cellular systems we might that one is better suited in certain communication media than another. Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a digital air interface standard, claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of analog. It employs a commercial adaptation of military spread-spectrum singlesideband technology. Based on spread spectrum theory, it is essentially the same as wireline service -- the primary difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is provided via wireless phone. Because users are isolated by code, they can share the same carrier frequency, eliminating the frequency reuse problem encountered in AMPS and DAMPS. Every CDMA cell site can use the same 1.25 MHz band, so with respect to clusters, n = 1. This greatly simplifies frequency planning in a fully CDMA environment. CDMA is an interference limited system. Unlike AMPS/TDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit; however, each user is a noise source on the shared channel and the noise contributed by users accumulates. This creates a practical limit to how many users a system will sustain. Mobiles that transmit excessive power increase interference to other mobiles. For CDMA, precise power control of mobiles is critical in maximizing the system's capacity and increasing battery life of the mobiles. The goal is to keep each mobile at the absolute minimum power level that is necessary to ensure acceptable service quality. Ideally, the power received at the base station from each mobile should be the same (minimum signal to interference). The main advantages of CDMA are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Increased capacity Improved voice quality, eliminating the audible effects of multipath fading Enhanced privacy and security Improved coverage characteristics which reduce the number of cell sites Simplified system planning reduces deployment and operating costs Reduced average transmitted power, thus increasing talk time for portable devices Reduced interference to other electronic devices Reduction in the number of calls dropped due to handoff failures Development of a reliable transport mechanism for wireless data communications Coexistence with previous technologies, due to CDMA and analog operating in two spectras with no interference

Background of CDMA To understand why there is a demand for CDMA, it is necessary to understand the technology that existed prior to its introduction and to know the background behind previous spread-spectrum systems. Spread spectrum communications have been used for encrypting military communication for many years. Its strengths in the military arena lie in its ability to resist enemy jamming and to provide secure communications. It is difficult to interfere with or intercept a CDMA signal because of its use of a spread signal. The great attraction of CDMA technology from the beginning was its inherent ability to boost

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 19 of 86

Mukul

communications capacity and reuse frequencies to a degree unheard of in narrowband multiple access wireless technology. Its civilian mobile radio application was proposed theoretically in the late 1940's, but its practical application in the market did not take place until 40 years later due to the many technical obstacles that still needed to be overcome. The viability of CDMA technology was dismissed by TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) supporters as a technology that worked fine in theory but would never work in practice. The rapid development of high density digital ICs, however, combined with the realization that regulating all transmitter powers to the lowest level required for a link would achieve optimal multiple access communication, allowed CDMA to materialize as a working technology. In 1991, the promising results of the first field trials demonstrated that CDMA could work as well in practice as it did in theory. Commercial CDMA was introduced, tested, standardized, and initially deployed in less then seven years, a relatively rapid maturation cycle compared to other technologies such as TDMA. The first commercial CDMA service was launched in Hong Kong in 1995, followed by a launch in Korea and Pennsylvania. It has rapidly become the primary choice of carriers in the U.S. Now 11 of the top 14 cellular carriers, 10 of the top 17 PCS carriers and the 2 largest PCS C block bidders have selected CDMA for their new digital network.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 20 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER THREE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 21 of 86

Mukul

POWER CONTROL IN CDMA

T HE

NE AR- F AR

P ROB L E M

The CDMA technology had all the better things to its part but why then it took this long time to come into the commercial market. CDMA has not been previously implemented due to its "Near-Far Problem." Let's assume there are two users, one near the base and one far from the base. The propagation path loss difference between these extreme users may be many tens of dB. In general, the strongest received mobile signal will capture the demodulator at the base station. In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received. To help eliminate the "Near-Far Problem", CDMA uses power control. The base station rapidly samples the radio signal strength indicator levels of each mobile and then sends a power change command over the forward radio link. This sampling is done 800 times per second and can be adjusted in 84 steps of 1 dB. The purpose of this is so that the received powers from all users are roughly equal. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the signals of far away subscribers. An extra benefit is extended battery life. That is, when a mobile unit is close to a base station, its power output is lower. In other words, the mobile unit transmits only at the power necessary to maintain connection. The key to high capacity of CDMA is the fact that instead of using constant power, the transmitters can be controlled in such a way that the received powers from all the users are roughly equal and the subscribers occupy the same spectrum. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the signals of far- away subscribers. Power Control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the Radio Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) level of each mobile and sending power change command over the forward radio link. In cellular service areas, the typical total dynamic range of path loss is of the order of 80 dB which means that the mobile transmitter must vary its power from about 2.5n W to 0.25W. The critical part of DS-CDMA System is Power Control and Management because of many reasons Let us summarize what Power Control and Management Techniques has to achieve: Reduce the transmitted power of both mobile and base station. Received Power level of signals from all mobiles should be same at the base station. Optimize the network resources. Two terms are used one is Power Control Techniques and the other is Power Management Techniques. Power Control Techniques will achieve both a. and b. described above. Power Management Techniques will achieve c. described above.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 22 of 86

Mukul

It is clear that with out Power Control Techniques, the DS-CDMA System will go haywire. By using Power Management Techniques, the DS-CDMA System will be optimally used. So, in practice both the techniques are used. P O W E R CO NT RO L TE CH NI Q UES (P CT )

Power Control Techniques are implemented on per user basis. So, PCT is implemented on base band of a channel and before adding all the Walsh channels in that frequency. There are 4 Power Control Techniques, which are explained in detail below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Reverse Link Open Loop Power Control Reverse Link Closed Loop Power Control Reverse Outer Loop Power Control Forward Link Power Control

Reverse Link Power Control Open Loop Control This handles the wide dynamic range mentioned above. The mobile initially estimates the required transmit power based on the received power at the mobile and access parameters provided by the base station. This is under the assumption that coarse losses in the both directions are same. The mobile estimates the path loss to the cell by measuring the received signal level in terms of analog AGC (Automatic Gain Control) voltage. The receiver AGC loop holds constant the total power entering its 1.25 MHz IF pass band (which includes signal, thermal noise, and interference) . The measured front-end power is adjusted by a closed loop correction and then used to control the mobile transmit power accordingly. But, this will not guarantee perfect power control. So, after the connection is established, Reverse Link Closed Loop Power Control techniques are used. Closed Loop Control Closed loop power control is a correction applied to the open loop power estimate. In this case, the cell measures the received Eb/No and compares it to a set point( set by a cell function ). If the measured Eb/No is above the set point, then a "down "command is sent, otherwise an "up" command is sent. The base station directs the mobile to increase or decrease transmit power of mobile. The mobile shall change its transmit power accordingly. Each command results in increasing or lowering the mobile power by one dB , depending on the open loop estimate. The commands are sent once every 1.25 ms, or a rate of 800 corrections per second. The dynamic range of the closed loop control is +-24 dB relative to the open loop estimate. At the boundary of a cell site, the mobile receives power control commands from both the base station and the mobile will increase its transmit power only if both the base station's command the mobile to increase the transmit power otherwise the mobile will decrease its transmit power.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 23 of 86

Mukul

Power Control Command bit from BTS#1 0 0 Power 1 Power 1 Power

Power Control Command bit from BTS#2 0 1 0 1

Action taken (per IS-95) by mobile Diversity combine from both BTS's Select BTS#2 Select BTS#1

Resulting change in transmit power of mobile Increase Power Decrease Decrease Decrease

Diversity combine from both BTS's

Bit Value: 0 Increase Power. 1 Decrease Power. The base station sets Power control command bit by comparing the received power with the Threshold value or Set point. If the received power is more than Threshold value, and then BTS commands mobile to decrease transmit power, otherwise BTS commands mobile to increase transmit power of mobile. Set point is so chosen (by BSC) that required transmit power of mobiles is just enough to maintain reasonable Frame Error Rate (FER) of received signals from mobile. Forward Link Power Control In this, case, base station varies power transmitted in forward direction. IS-95 specifies only messaging-based forward control. That is, when the mobile station concludes, because of excessive frame error rate, its forward signal quality is poor, it sends a report to the base station. This method is however relatively slow due to the processing delay in message parsing by the base station. Rate set 2, however incorporates a rapid power control mechanism which permits a faster and tighter power control. The main aim of this Power Control is to reduce the transmit power of base station to each mobile (this will not shrink the cell because transmit power of pilot, sync, paging channels are not reduced). The base station decides to raise the transmit power to those mobile under two conditions: Periodic Frame Quality Measure sent by mobile is poor. Mobile requests a specific threshold needed for it.

Reverse Outer loop Power Control This is to adjust the Set point of Reverse Link Closed Loop Power Control. The BSC adjusts the Set Point based on the Reverse Link FER. If the FER is more, then BSC increases the Set Point to decrease the FER. Otherwise, BSC decreases the Set Point which in turn indirectly reduces the transmit power of mobiles. Benefits of Reverse Outer loop Power Control: Decrease power consumption of mobiles. Increase capacity of base station. The capacity of base station is increased because of reduction in transmit power of mobile which reduces interference in that cell as well as other cells. This is not part of IS-95 because it doesn't have commands that are sent into air.

Power Control in Soft Handoff It is crucial to control the mobile transmit power during handoff by the cell that is receiving the best signal, so that minimum necessary power is transmitted. Thus, each cell and sector participating in the soft handoff makes a separate

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 24 of 86

Mukul

determination of the power control bit to be sent. The mobile processes them separately, and performs an "or of the downs" logic operation as mentioned in detail in the handoff section of the document. However, it is also possible that two soft handoff participant sectors make a joint decision and both transmit. This happens when the soft handoff is between the sectors of one cell and one processing engine handles both branches of the handoff. The mobile is informed that the power control bits are identical so that it does diversity combining and single bit decision rather than separate decisions and a logical "or". P O W E R MANAG E ME NT TE CH NI Q UES (P MT )

All the above Power Control Techniques should be implemented for both regular cell sites (equal sized & non-overlapping) and irregular cell sites (unequal sized & over-lapping). In practice, the cell sites are of irregular sizes and are overlapping. Power Management Techniques are not needed for regular cell sites. They are needed for irregular cell sites because with out Power Management Techniques the network capacity is reduced but CDMA system will not go haywire. Before getting into Power Management Techniques, one has to understand two terms that are Forward Handoff Boundary and Reverse Handoff Boundary. Here, assume cell sites of irregular size and are overlapping. Forward Handoff Boundary Forward Handoff Boundary between two sectors is defined as the surface where an Mobile Station's forward link would perform the same, regardless of which of the two sectors were transmitting. Reverse Handoff Boundary Reverse Handoff Boundary between two sectors is defined as the surface where an Mobile Station's reverse link would perform the same, regardless of which of the two sectors were receiving. For regular cell sites, the forward handoff boundary and reverse handoff boundary are aligned and so PMT is not needed. For irregular cell sites, the forward handoff boundary and reverse handoff boundary are not aligned and so PMT is needed to align the two handoff boundaries. PMT is meant to align two handoff boundaries, which is also called as Handoff boundary balancing. Using PMT, one can only adjust the Forward Handoff Boundary to align with Reverse Handoff Boundary because Reverse Handoff Boundary is a physical boundary, which cannot be adjusted. As PMT is not needed for regular cell sites, here assume cell sites are of irregular. PMT is applied to all Walsh channels of CDMA frequency. PMT is implemented by using the following processes: 1. Breathing. 2. Wilting 3. Blossoming. Breathing The Breathing Module varies the attenuation in the forward link based on the amount of reverse power that is detected. This causes the radius of the forward

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 25 of 86

Mukul

link of the sector to follow the radius of the reverse link of the sector, therefore keeping the reverse and forward link handoff boundaries balanced. This is implemented by using a suitable equation to find the attenuation to be inserted in the transmit path of the base station. The equation should able to find the difference between the actual Received Noise Power and the estimated Received Noise Power. And then calculate the attenuation to be applied to transmit path, which is the above difference minus some constant value. Wilting The motive of Wilting is to avoid calls to drop during bringing down of sector. Sudden deactivation of a sector causes calls in the sector to drop. Thus a gradual decrease in transmitted power of base station is used to bring down the sector. Sector Wilting is used to achieve handoff boundary balancing during the process to bringing down the sector. The Wilting Module increases in steps the attenuation and Noise figure in transmit and receive paths of base station and there by mobiles get time to handoff to other base stations. Blossoming Sudden activation of a sector causes an increase in the forward link power leading to degradation in the forward link and possible dropped calls near the new sector. Thus a gradual increase in power is used to bring up the sector. Blossoming is used to achieve handoff boundary balancing during the process of bringing up the sector. The Blossoming Module decreases in steps the attenuation and Noise figure in transmit and receive paths of base station and there by mobiles get time to handoff. When transmit power of base station exceeds certain threshold set by BSC, the base station wilts till the transmit power is sufficiently below the threshold and now the base station begins to Blossom till transmit power exceeds threshold.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 26 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER FOUR

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 27 of 86

Mukul

HANDOFF

Handoffs in CDMA The act of transferring support of a mobile from one base station to another is termed handoff. In other words, Handoff occurs when a call has to be handed off from one cell to another as the user moves between cells. In a traditional "hard" handoff, the connection to the current cell is broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made. This is known as a "break-before-make" handoff. Since all cells in CDMA use the same frequency, it is possible to make the connection to the new cell before leaving the current cell. This is known as a "make-beforebreak" or "soft" handoff. Soft handoffs require less power, which reduces interference and increases capacity. The implementation of handoff is different between the narrowband standards and the CDMA standards. Traditional AMPS handoffs fail frequently, causing dropped calls and poor quality service. Moreover each handoff is preceded and followed by poor link quality, resulting in annoying noise and distortion. But, CDMA is specifically designed to reduce handoff failures, maintain good quality at all times : before, during, and after handoff. In fact, the handoffs are totally undetectable, even by skilled listeners. The number of handoff is seen to be anywhere from perhaps one every 8 - 10 calls to perhaps 3 - 4 per call (roughly) which indicates that handoff is frequent enough for good performance to be considered important. Moreover, CDMA cell radii can be considerably larger than AMPS cell radii for any particular load distribution, which again reduces handoff rates simply on the basis of geometry. As mentioned above, good handoff performance in CDMA is very important. A mobile that is being served by one base station when another is closer in terms of path loss will be transmitting more power than would be necessary were it using the "right" cell. The fact that that mobile, and all others like it radiate excess power raises the overall interference level. The higher overall interference level increases the effective reuse factor, and thus reduces overall, average reverse link capacity. Sloppy, late, or slow handoffs thus should be kept to an absolute minimum. On the other hand, there is a detrimental effect of handoff due to the asymmetry in power control design between forward and reverse links. While the reverse link power control is fast and accurate, the forward link power control is slow and loose. In IS-95A it is implemented via messaging this permits a faster power control implementation. Soft handoff requires that multiple base stations transmit the same traffic to the mobile in question. The multiple active forward channels raise the overall interference level at the mobile - like the reverse link, this increases the effective frequency reuse factor and thus reduces forward link capacity. S TE P S I N H ANDO F F

The main steps in any handoff can be summarized as follows: 1. Starting in a state where only one cell is supporting the call in question.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 28 of 86

Mukul

2. Determining that over-the-air link conditions between the mobile and the old serving cell are deteriorating, and that there is a potentially better link to a new, candidate cell. 3. Informing the candidate cell of the imminent handoff, including parameters needed to identify the mobile and execute the handoff. 4. Signaling the mobile to begin executing the handoff. 5. New cell beginning to service the mobile. 6. Mobile beginning to use the new cell. 7. Entering the mid-handoff state. 8. Mobile discontinuing use of the old cell. 9. Old cell stopping service to the mobile. 10. Ending in a state where only the new cell, is supporting the call in question. CDMA handoff offers several advantages over AMPS as follows: 1. It is "soft", meaning that communication is not interrupted by the handoff. This is sometimes called "make before break." This means fewer dropped calls for users and higher customer satisfaction for operators. 2. The handoff is not abrupt, but rather it is a prolonged call state during which there is communication via two or more base stations. The multi-way communication diversity improves the link performance during the handoff. The diversity gain partially compensates for the large path loss at the cell boundary. 3. The signal measurement that triggers the handoff is performed by the mobile stations, not the base stations. There is no handoff boundary in CDMA but rather a handoff region. The distributed handoff alleviates most of the shortcomings of the AMPS-style hard handoffs. For example, a decision that handoff should be initiated means only that another base station is added to the active set of base stations for this mobile. The handoff can be completed either by the mobile moving completely into the new cell, or by the mobile returning to the original serving cell. In either case the call is never in jeopardy due to link failure. The diversity during handoff improves link performance to the point where not only are the handoffs not disruptive, they are not even detectable. This also very much reduces the likelihood of dropped calls due to signaling failures that disrupt handoff coordination. S O FT H ANDO F F

CDMA soft handoff is a call state in which two or more base stations support a mobile station. Those stations can be either separate sectors of separate cells, or they can be multiple sectors of the same cell, or any combination of these. The system chooses the best signal in order to provide the user with the best audio at all times. Mentioned previously were methods of current cellular technology that uses the "hard handoff" method when mobiles are changing cells. Because each mobile is on a limited channel within a specific cell, the transmitting base station must try to allocate a new channel to a new mobile. The problem arises when the mobile is active and also changing cells. At the very least, the persons will here some static or a glitch of some sort because the transmission had to be placed on a new carrier wave. This is relatively acceptable, except in cases when there are no more channels available to any mobile. In this case the call is just dropped. Since the bandwidth in CDMA schemes is common to all users, channel allocation is not required. In the CDMA network the current cell of the mobile is responsible for all transmissions. As the mobile nears the boundary of a neighboring cell, it receives transmissions from both cells. The mobile will receive some message from one cell, and some from the other until it has moved into one or the other cells. This is known as a "soft handoff" because the user never experiences any glitch and certainly never a dropped call.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 29 of 86

Mukul

Forward CDMA Channel Each participating cell in a soft handoff transmits the same traffic stream to the mobile, bit-for-bit. They do so on any available code channel. Each base station chooses a code channel simply on the basis of availability. The mobile station must implement, in its Rake receiver, multiple fingers that are capable of "tuning" to any of the 63 available code channels. The outputs of those Rake fingers must be combined for good Eb/N0 performance. The presence of a pilot in the Forward CDMA Channel allows optimum coherent combining of those Rake outputs. Reverse Power Control Embedded in the Forward CDMA Channel are the reverse power control bits. These occur in pseudo-random positions in each 1.25 ms interval (power control group), or 16 times per frame. Each power control bit is interpreted as a command to raise or lower power by an increment of approximately 3/4 dB. Each base station makes power control decisions independently. The mobile station is responsible for demodulating the power control bits and raising or lowering its power accordingly. The goal of the power control is to maintain the reverse link transmit power at the lowest possible level commensurate with adequate error performance. The mobile is thus required to interpret the power control bits, which will often disagree, as requiring an increase in power only if all base stations in the handoff say "up"; if any participant says "down" then the mobile is required to reduce power. This rule is sometimes called "OR of the downs" - if anybody says down, you go down. Reverse CDMA Channel Spreading of the Reverse CDMA Traffic Channel is mobile-unique. There is nothing about the coding and modulation that depends in any way on the base stations that are serving the mobile. The mobile thus needs do nothing special about handoff, aside from proper interpretation of the power control bits. Combining of the reverse link signals to the base station is not specified in the air interface or performance standards. However practical considerations strongly encourage the use of selection diversity. That is, each base station de modulates, de interleaves, and de codes the traffic independently. When the traffic frames from the handoff participants arrive at the network interface, frame quality metrics can be compared and the best frame chosen for transmission to the network. This is sometimes called selection diversity - Use the best of the N available copies of each traffic frame. I NI T I AT I O N Pilot Search CDMA is said to use Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO). In practice this means that the mobile station continuously searches for the pilot code using a PN correlator specifically designated for this purpose. Universality of the pilot code (or Short Code) facilitates the search. All base stations use the same code. The mobile station can search in timing hypothesis without having to change the PN sequence. If the mobile already has a notion of CDMA system time, as it does if it is already involved in a call, then it can report the relative timing of a newly detected pilot. O F SO F T H ANDO F F

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 30 of 86

Mukul

What distinguishes base stations from one another is the phase of their pilots. The period of each pilot is 26.667 ms. They are separated by a minimum of 64 chips, which is about 52 ms or about 15 km at the speed of light. The mobile timing will normally be good enough that a reported pilot offset unambiguously identifies the base station it has detected. Detection Thresholds The mobile reports pilots on the basis of their pilot-to-interference ratio (PIR). The PIR (called, strangely, Ec/I0 in much of the literature and standards) is compared to an absolute threshold to determine when it should be reported as a handoff candidate. That threshold is a parameter that the mobile obtains from the overhead messages broadcast by the base stations. When a pilot crosses the first threshold, T_ADD, then its presence is reported, via a message, to the network. The network will normally add that base station to the so-called Active Set, that is, the set of base stations that are participants in the soft handoff to the mobile in question. The second threshold is not absolute but relative. It is compared to the difference between the largest PIR in the active set and the PIRs of all other members. When any of them falls below this threshold, T_DROP, then another message is transmitted. The normal result is that the base station in question will be dropped from the Active Set, and that will be reported to the mobile by a signaling message. The effect of the two thresholds, one absolute, the other relative, is to ensure that any station that is able to contribute in any significant way to the overall SNR after diversity combining, is in the active set with high probability. Conversely, a base station is dropped only when it has deteriorated far below the best station. If the best station is itself marginal then the next strongest station will be retained. This two-threshold scheme has been found in practice to be very effective. Hiwever, too much handoff reduces capacity because of the excess number of Forward Traffic Channels needed to support it. It also impacts the number of channel elements (CDMA modems) needed in the base stations. CAS E S WH E RE CDMA DO ES NO T US E SO F T H ANDO F F S CDMA uses soft handoff whenever possible because the performance is very much superior to other forms of handoff. However there are several forms of handoff that cannot be done "softly". Inter Frequency Handoffs If there are multiple CDMA carrier frequencies active, then handoffs between them must be hard. While inter-frequency handoff is physically possible, the decision was made in the standards committees to not require it as then the implementation would make the mobile station very complicated. Inter-frequency hard handoffs are probably best accomplished by doing so within one geographical site, rather than trying to hand off to a neighboring site. The inter-frequency handoff can first be executed intra-site, where the mobile's timing is already known, followed immediately by a soft handoff to the neighbor without frequency change on the new frequency. Timing Changes The CDMA air interfaces, to allow load balancing on network transmission facilities, include the ability to offset traffic frame timing from system time. Those timing offsets are accomplished by a hard handoff.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 31 of 86

Mukul

Digital-to-Analog Usually there is no practical way to do soft handoffs between a CDMA digital system and an analog FM system. These handoffs are thus always hard. Handoffs between FM and CDMA systems CDMA to analog handoffs are carried out by sending the same information that is required in a normal analog to analog handoff. Analog to digital handoffs are not allowed. " SO F T E R" H ANDO F F

All of this is modified a bit if the participants in a soft handoff are sectors of the same cell. This situation has come to be known as "Softer" handoff. Collocated stations permit combining to be done in a CDMA modem that has visibility of multiple sectors. Such combining can be done on a symbol-by-symbol basis, rather than by selection of entire frames. Likewise, a common modem that services all sectors of a handoff is capable of sending identical power control bits on all the sectors. This is allowed for in the air interfaces. The handoff direction message that initiates handoffs contains a field that shows which stations are transmitting the same power control bits so that the mobile can do pre-decision combining of those bits. To the mobile, a softer handoff is identical to soft handoff except for the treatment of the power control bits.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 32 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER FIVE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 33 of 86

Mukul

CHANNELS

CDMA Channels Just when one grasps an understanding of the CDMA carrier which is 1.25 MHz wide, someone talks about "traffic channels" and confuses the issue. The fact is that with CDMA, the path by which voice or data passes is the entire carrier. CDMA traffic channels are different: they are dependent on the equipment platform on which the CDMA is implemented. Mostly channels are designated in three ways: effective traffic channels, actual traffic channels and physical traffic channels. The number of "Effective" traffic channels includes the traffic carrying channels less the soft handoff channels. The capacity of an effective traffic channel is equivalent to the traffic carrying capacity of an analog traffic channel. The number of "Actual" traffic channels includes the effective traffic channels, plus channels allocated for soft handoff. The number of "Physical" traffic channels includes the Pilot channels, the Sync channels, the Paging channels, the Soft Handoff Overhead channels and the Effective (voice and data) traffic channels. CDMA uses the terms "forward" and "reverse" channels just like they are used in analog systems. Base transmit equates to the forward direction, and base receive is the reverse direction. ("Forward" is what the subscriber hears and "reverse" is what the subscriber speaks.) CDMA F O RW ARD CH ANNE L S

Pilot Channel The pilot channel is used by the mobile unit to obtain initial system synchronization and to provide time, frequency, and phase tracking of signals from the cell site. Sync Channel This channel provides cell site identification, pilot transmit power, and the cell site pilot pseudo-random (PN) phase offset information. With this information the mobile units can establish the System Time as well as the proper transmit power level to use to initiate a call. Paging Channel The mobile unit will begin monitoring the paging channel after it has set its timing to the System Time provided by the sync channel. Once a mobile unit has been paged and acknowledges that page, call setup and traffic channel assignment information is then passed on this channel to the mobile unit.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 34 of 86

Mukul

Forward Traffic Channel This channel carries the actual phone call and carries the voice and mobile power control information from the base station to the mobile unit. CDMA Access Channel When the mobile unit is not active on a traffic channel, it will communicate to the base station over the access channel. This communication includes registration requests, responses to pages, and call origination. The access channels are paired with a corresponding paging channel. Reverse Traffic Channel This channel carries the other half of the actual phone call and carries the voice and mobile power control information from the mobile unit to the base station. RE VE RS E CH ANNE LS

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 35 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER SIX

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 36 of 86

Mukul

CODES

PN CODES Pseudo-random (PN) codes can be categorized as being linear or non-linear codes. Linear codes are generated using linear operations (which for binary pseudo-random codes is solely modulo-2 addition or subtraction). This essentially means only ex-OR gates are used in the shift register feedback path. A pseudo-random generator that does not use such techniques is termed nonlinear. The most commonly used group of pseudo-random sequences, used in spread spectrum, are the maximal linear code sequences (sometimes called Msequences or PN, pseudo-noise, codes). Maximal codes are the longest codes that a shift register of specified length can produce and have mathematical properties well suited to spread spectrum communications. A maximal shift register pseudo-random generator consists of a shift register with selected outputs being exclusive -ORed and fed back into the shift register input. The circuit goes through a number of states (determined by the bits in the shift register at each clock pulse) before it repeats itself after a set number of states for a shift register of length m is 2m, i.e. for a 7-stage shift register 27=128 states. However the all-zero state is not allowable as the pseudo-random generator would lock-up as ex-ORing two logic 0 results in yet another logic 0 at that input. Therefore a maximal length pseudo-random sequence 2m-1 bits long before repeating itself. To obtain a maximal sequence, the correct shift register outputs (tap points) must be found. These could be found by experimentation but this would be very time consuming. Maximal codes are the longest codes that a shift register of specified length can produce and have mathematical properties well suited to spread spectrum communications. A 7-stage (i.e. seven flip-flop) shift register can produce a maximal code of length 27-1=127 bits (known as chips in spread spectrum terminology) long. The feedback tap points may be taken from the following stages: As the simplest circuit implementation is often desire, the first option of tapping the seventh and first stages is selected. To avoid the all-zero lock up problem, inverting stages are inserted before the shift register input and at the output of the shift register input and at the output of the shift register. When the shift register is switched on, a reset pulse is initiated. This pulse initiate all shift register outputs to logic 0. This would normally lock up the pseudo-random sequence generator. However the input inverter injects a logic 1 so that the maximal sequence can commence. The output inverter ensures that maximal code output is inverted negating the effect of the anti-lock-up inverter at the input. The maximal code is also available at the output (A) of the modulo-2 adder, but the second inverter output is normally used to permit direct drive of the DBM in a direct sequence system.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 37 of 86

Mukul

F O RW ARD

CDMA

CH ANNE L

The QPSK model is similar to the Forward CDMA Channel except neglecting the orthogonal channelization. Assuming that the spreading sequences are completely uncorrelated between users. There are two consequences of this assumption. First, it means that the users active in the various channels of one base station interfere with one another just as though they would if they came from different stations. Second, it means that the expectations of the chip detection amplitudes depend only on the user being addressed, and have no contributions from the other users. Neither of these is true in the real Forward CDMA Channel. First, not only are the spreading sequences correlated, they are specifically designed to be rigorously orthogonal over the span of 64 chips, which is the span of an FEC code symbol. This means that the mutual interference terms are correlated in such a way that when the amplitudes are summed to make a soft code symbol, they the other-channel interference terms rigorously cancel. Second, there is a contribution to the mean detection amplitude from all the code channels. It is precisely that property that lets us separate the code channels in the receiver by selectively de-covering with the desired code channel. The effect of the orthogonal channelization is to reduce the mutual interference between users. While the cancellation is not perfect in a real system due to unavoidable multipath, it does help, and contributes somewhat to the forward capacity.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 38 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER SEVEN

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 39 of 86

Mukul

CAPACITY

CDMA CAPACITY CDMA CAP ACI T Y I NCRE AS E S

Capacity gains in cellular systems can be attained in one of two ways: 1. By getting more channels per MHz of spectrum. 2. By getting more channel reuse per unit of geographic area. NAMPS is an example of a system technology which achieves greater capacity through method #1 (more channels per MHz of spectrum). Instead of one channel in 30 kHz as in AMPS, NAMPS gets three channels in 30 kHz, thereby providing three times the capacity of AMPS. GSM is an example of a system which uses method #2 (more channel reuse per unit of geographic area). GSM allows for a 9dB C/I (carrier to interference ratio) instead of the traditional 17dB C/I used in TACS (the analog FDMA technology in the 900 MHz band). This allows GSM to place cell sites closer together and translates to about two times the capacity of TACS. Plans for a half-rate GSM system are under consideration. A half-rate GSM system, using methods #1 and #2, would result in approximately a 4 to 5 times capacity gain over analog TACS. CDMA offers a greater system capacity than that offered by traditional analog cellular systems by using method #2. It allows reuse of the same frequency in every sector of every cell. Depending upon the starting assumptions and specific system designs, carriers should be able to achieve an 8 to 10 times capacity gain over AMPS. It is important to note that CDMA capacity computations are based upon system wide averages. Actual capacity will vary from cell to cell and sector to sector, depending on terrain, interference levels, propagation characteristics, and a number of other factors. CDMA AND CE LL RE US E

One of the key design principals of cellular telecommunications is the use of the same frequencies, over and over, in a particular geographic region. This greatly increases the communication carrying capacity of the spectrum used in cellular systems when compared to the traditional practice of covering the widest possible area from a single transmission site. In many types of cellular systems, however, it is not possible to use every frequency in every cell site because of the interference which would result. Therefore, with these other cellular technologies, it is necessary to plan which frequencies are used at each cell site in order to minimize the interference among cell sites on the same frequency. This requirement has led to "frequency reuse patterns." AMPS systems (and those designed to be compatible with AMPS) often use a three-sector configuration and are designed with a 7 cell reuse pattern, referred to as "N = 7 reuse." In other words, typically one seventh

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 40 of 86

Mukul

of all of the cellular frequencies allocated to an operator can be used in any one cell. With CDMA, signals can be received in the presence of high levels of interference, yet still result in the same, or better, call quality. All users on a carrier share the same RF spectrum. The same CDMA RF carrier frequency is used in every cell site, and in every sector of a sector cell site. This equates to an N=1/S frequency reuse pattern, where S is the number of sectors per cell. This N=1/S reuse of frequencies is what gives CDMA its greater capacity over AMPS and other technologies. E B/ NO AND I NT E RF E RE NCE TH RE SH O L D

Eb/No provides a measure of the performance of a CDMA link between the mobile and the cell. It represents the signal to noise ratio for a single bit on the reverse link. It is the ratio in dB between the energy of each information bit and the noise spectral density. The noise is a combination of background interference and the interference created by other users on the system. A decrease in the Eb/No ratio indicates that the relative level of interference, as compared to the level of the voice information, is increasing. This will lower the voice quality of the conversation. While all digital cellular systems use error correction coding, systems based on narrowband digital modulation generally use less sophisticated schemes which use up less bandwidth. In order to keep voice quality high, therefore, the operators of narrowband systems require a higher Eb/No. This leads to a need to limit the number of users on the system, lowering capacity. CDMA, on the other hand, uses advanced forward error correction coding as well as a digital demodulator, lowering CDMA's required Eb/No ratio. Using a lower Eb/No to reach voice quality standards, CDMA achieves more capacity and uses less transmitter power than narrowband systems. CDMA describes Eb/No noise interference in terms of the Frame Erasure Rate (FER). Using an interference threshold, the CDMA system erases frames of information that contain too many errors. The FER, then, describes the number of frames that were erased due to poor quality. Therefore, as the Eb/No level increases, the FER decreases, and system voice quality is improved. Conversely, the higher the acceptable FER, the higher the overall cell site capacity. These two parameters, frame erasure rate and voice quality, must be balanced against each other. CDMA CAP ACI T Y I MP RO VE ME NT S CAL CUL AT I O NS S E CT O R CDMA 3

B AS I C S E CT O R

CAP ACI T Y AMP S TO 3

The calculation of CDMA's capacity gain over a given AMPS system depends on two factors: 1. the number of AMPS channels that fill the spectrum slated for a CDMA carrier 2. the number of channels supported by the CDMA carrier One CDMA carrier requires 1.25 MHz of bandwidth. Since 3-sector AMPS has a seven cell reuse pattern, this example will spread the 1.25 MHz across 7 cell

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 41 of 86

Mukul

sites. Each cell site would then lose 180 kHz of spectrum (1.25 7 0.180). Thus, a total of six AMPS channels must be removed from each cell site (180 kHz 30 kHz/AMPS channel = 6). Hence, 42 AMPS channels must be removed in order to support one CDMA carrier. Unlike AMPS, CDMA can use the same 1.25 MHz in all three sectors in each of the seven cells. Better system designs can support 18-22 effective traffic channels per sector in a 3-sector system for cellular mobile network and 38-45 effective traffic channels per sector in a 3-sector environment of fixed WLL network. This provides 54/114 effective channels per cell. Given the seven cells, then, CDMA supports 378/798 channels. Hence, CDMA achieves capacity gains of nine times that of AMPS (378 42 = 9). F I RS T CDMA CARRI E R ALL O CAT I O N

It is important to note that the capacity increase brought about by the addition of the first CDMA carrier frequency differs from the previous capacity computations. It is necessary to take into account the additional AMPS channels which must be taken out of service due to guard band requirements between CDMA and AMPS channels. The first CDMA channel will actually require 1.8 MHz of spectrum, inclusive of guard bands of 0.27 MHz on each side. (Carrier + 2*guard band = 1.23 MHz + 2*0.27 MHz = 1.77 MHz.) Because of the guard bands, 60 AMPS channels, instead of 42, must be removed from service (1.8 MHz .03 MHz = 60). When these 60 channels are replaced by the 378 CDMA channels, a 6.3 times capacity increase results. Subsequent CDMA channels will be inserted between the existing guard bands and will require only 1.25 MHz each. So the second and third carriers would bring a 9 times capacity increase.

Capacity of a CDMA Network In 1985; Dr. Viterbi published a paper where he made a very straightforward comparison of the capacity of CDMA in satellite applications to the other two techniques. According with that discussion, it was not clear which technique was better. However, the panorama becomes more clear in 1990, when it was realized that CDMA indeed is only interference limited (unlike FDMA and TDMA capacities which are mainly bandwidth limited). That means that any reduction in interference converts directly and linearly into an increase in capacity. This fact can be perfectly exploited in voice applications, where interference can be reduced due to two different reasons: Human-being voice signals are intermittent with a duty factor of approximately 3/8; and thus, capacity can be increased by an amount inversely proportional to this factor. Spatial isolation can be achieved by using multibeamed or multisectored antennas. From the above lines, it can be inferred that CDMA exhibits its greatest advantage over TDMA or FDMA not in satellite systems, but in terrestrial digital cellular systems. On the other hand, while conventional techniques can not reuse the same channel for every cell present in the channel, CDMA can reuse the same (entire) spectrum for all cells, thereby increasing capacity by a large percentage of the normal frequency factor.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 42 of 86

Mukul

In numbers, due to all above features, the net improvement in capacity of CDMA over TDMA and FDMA is on the order nearly to 20 for TDMA; and on the order of 4 to 6 for FDMA. The capacity of CDMA for the simple Single cell case to the more general, multiple cell case. S I NGL E CE LL CDMA CAP ACI T Y

This is the case when a network to be considered consists of numerous mobile subscribers communicating with one single cell site (base station). Each user of CDMA system occupies the entire allocated spectrum, employing a direct sequence spread spectrum waveform. In that system, it can be distinguish two different transmission cases: Forward direction. Transmission from cell site to subscriber. Reverse direction. Transmission from subscriber to cell site. In each transmission side there is a digital system, which consist of a forwarderror correction (FEC) block; and modulation and (direct sequence) spreading function. The digital System precedes the analog amplification and transmission functions. On the forward link, cell-site transmitter performances an analog signal processing on the incoming user digital signals. This spread signals are added linearly. Phase randomness is assured by modulating each signal with independent pseudorandom sequences on each of the two quadrature phases. The other key feature of the cell-transmitter is the inclusion of a pilot signal in the forward direction. This pilot signal provides the power control adjust for each mobile unit. This adjust consist of a shift in the output power inversely to the total signal power it receives. Power control is a very important issue in CDMA system design, and its importance has been discussed in the chapter three. On the other hand, no pilot is used in the reverse direction (subscriber to cellsite) due a power efficiency considerations, because and independent pilot would be needed for each signal. In the present case (single cell site), it is obvious that all subscriber unit signals are received at the same power level. So For N users, each cell-site demodulator processes a composite received waveform containing: 1. The desired signal with power S and; 2. (N-1) interfering signals having power S each. Thus the signal-to-noise interference power is: S/N = C/I = S/S(N-1) = 1/ N-1 (1) For CDMA designer, a more important merit figure is the bit energy-to-noise density ratio (Eb/No), which is equal to: Eb/No = W/R* 1/((N-1) + (n/S)) ..(2) Where R is the bit information rate and W is the total bandwidth, and eta is the background noise. This expression is important because through it we can find out the capacity supported in terms of number of users: N = 1+ W/R* 1/Eb/No - n/S (3)

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 43 of 86

Mukul

Usually, W/R is referred as "processing gain" and Eb/No is the value required for adequate performance of the modem and decoder (which for digital voice implies a Bit Error Rate (BER) of 0.001 or better). With dual antenna diversity, it can be achieved the required Eb/No = 7 dB for a relatively powerful convolutional code. In the case of reverse direction, noncoherent reception and independent fading of all users is assumed. The forward link has a much superior performance than reverse link because forward directions employs coherent demodulation and because its multiple transmitted signals are synchronously combined. The above argument is true for the relatively simple single cell site case. For a multiple cell system, however, other cell sites interference will tend to equalize performance in the two directions. Augmented Performance with CDMA. The goal is to increase the CDMA capacity as much as possible. Taking a look back in equation (3), it can be quickly noticed that in order to increase capacity we have to have short Eb/No ratio and large processing gain (W/R). The first possibility is not practical because we can not go beyond Shannon limit. Thus, we can only increase capacity by reducing other user interference and hence denominator of (2). The latter can be achieved in two ways: Sectorization, which refer to use directional antennas at the cell site both for receiving and transmitting. For instance, with 3 antennas per cell site, each having 120 effective beamwidth degrees, the interference sources seen by each antenna are approximately one-third of those seen by an omnidirectional antenna. This reduces the (N-1) term in (2) by a factor of 3, and consequently N is increased by nearly this factor. Voice activity, which can be monitored (this is a feature present in virtually every digital vocoder), in order to suppressed transmission when no voice is present. Extensively studies show that either speaker is active only 35% to 40% of the time. On the average, this reduces the interference term for a 3/8 factor, which produces the corresponding increase in capacity (this characteristic is just partially true, because several users can be talked at the same time. For practical purposes a factor more realistic is two). With the beneficial combination of this two factors, we can get an average number of users per cell increased by almost a factor of 8. This arguments definitely changes the balance to CDMA system over the other two spread spectrum techniques. Reverse Link Power Control in Multiple-Cell Systems Power control is the single most important requirement for CDMA, since: Only by control of the power of each user accessing a cell, the resources can be shared equitably among users and capacity maximized. Power control can be achieved if prior to any transmission; each of the subscribers. monitors the total received signal power from the cell site. According to the power level it detects, it transmits at an initial level which is the inverse function in magnitude of the received pilot power level. According with a practical viewpoint, this feature requires a dynamic range of control on the order of 80 dB.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 44 of 86

Mukul

A potential problem in power control design is due to so called Rayleigh fading, because this phenomenon exhibits relatively fast variations. It can happen that the closed-loop power control can not follow the fast changes due to Rayleigh fading. Another problem with this phenomenon is that its consequences are not the same for forward and reverse directions. Talking about multiple-cell system case, even the question of cell membership is not so simple. A subscriber recognizes its membership by measuring the maximum pilot power among the cell sites that it receives. Often, the corresponding maximum measure is not proveining from the nearest cell site. CAP ACI T Y F O R MUL T I P L E CEL L CDMA.

Ideally, the cell sites have to be distributed following an hexagonal geometry. With this ideal disposition, path loss can be modeled as a function that only depends on the distance from the cell site to the mobile unit. The generally accepted model is an attenuation which is the product of the fourth power of the distance. However, this path loss factor can change for different environments. If the subscriber is very close to the antenna, then a square law can be adequate. On the other hand, in a very dense urban environment, the loss path factor can be as great as the inverse 5.5 power. The interference from transmitter within the given subscriber's cell is treated as before: Since each user is power controlled by the same cell site, it arrives with the same power S, when active. Subscribers in other cells, however, are power controlled by other cells sites; and because of that, exist a mutual interference among them. It can be probed, that this interference depends mainly of two different terms: The attenuation caused by distance and blockage to the given cell site and; The effect of power control to compensate for the corresponding attenuation to the cell site of the out-of-cell interferer. Follow a relatively large mathematical derivation, it can be probe that if sectorization, variable voice activity and the other cell interference statistics are taken into account, the received Eb/No on the reverse link of any desired user becomes the random variable: Eb/No = W/R 1/(Xi + ( I/S) +( n/S)*Ns) .(4) Where Ns is the users/sector and I is the total interference from users outside the desired user's cell, and Xi are random variable, with distribution: Xi = {1, with probability 'a' = {0, with probability '1-a' (5) The additional term I in (4) represent the other (multiple) cell user interference. Multiple-Cell Forward Link Capacity with Power Allocation Although with a single cell no power control is required, with multiple cells it becomes important, because near the boundaries of cells, considerable interference can be received from other cell-site transmitter fading independently. For the forward link, power control takes the form of power allocation at the cellsite transmitter according to the needs of individual subscribers in the given cell. Practically, this is done by acquiring (correlating to) the highest power pilot and measuring its energy, and also measuring the total energy received by the mobile's omnidirectional antenna from all cell site transmitters. After make some

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 45 of 86

Mukul

complex estimations, it can be show that for achieve a good BER (less than 0.001), a Eb/No = 5 dB is required. CO NCL US I O NS AND CO MP ARI S O NS .

It can be follow from the previous results, that the reverse link can support over 36 users/sector or 108 users/cell, with 0.001 bit error rates better than 99% of the time. This number becomes 44 users/sector or 132 users/cell if the neighboring cells are kept to half of this loading. On the other hand, the forward link can do the same or better for 38 users/sector or 114 users/cell.

Factors Influencing Capacity VO I CE ACT I VI T Y DE T E CT I O N

Voice activity detection is another variable which helps to increase the capacity of a CDMA system. IS-95 CDMA takes advantage of voice activity gain through its use of variable rate vocoders. In a typical phone conversation a person is actively talking only about 35% of the time. The other 65% is spent listening to the other party, or is quiet time when neither party is speaking. The principle behind the variable rate vocoder is to have it run at high speed, providing the best speech quality, only when voice activity is detected. When no voice activity is detected, the vocoder will drop its encoding rate, because there is no reason to have high speed encoding of silence. The encoded rate can drop to 4, 2, or even 1 kbps. Thus the variable rate vocoder uses up channel capacity only as needed. Since the level of "interference" created by all of the users directly determines system capacity, and voice activity detection reduces the noise level in the system, capacity can be maximized. CDMA P O W E R CO NT RO L

Another very important parameter that is key to providing enhanced capacity with CDMA is power control. The primary design goal of a CDMA system is for all users to be received by the base station at the same power level, and to make that power level as low as possible while still maintaining a high quality call. Any more power than needed adds unnecessarily to the overall noise level on the CDMA channel, and cuts down capacity. Therefore, the more precise the power control, the greater the capacity. Power control is also employed in analog and TDMA systems, but it is not as precise as it is in CDMA. In CDMA, the base station communicates to the mobile station, instructing the mobile to adjust its power up or down. The mobile station transmits only enough power to maintain a link, so the average transmitted power is much lower than that required for an analog system. By contrast, most narrowband systems, have very slow and course power control capabilities. This means the subscriber unit cannot adjust power quickly enough to compensate for fades. As a result, the handset must always transmit at a power level several dB higher than optimum to account for possible fading. As would be expected, this leads to shorter battery life. In a CDMA system, the cell site continually measures the received signal from the mobile, compares it to the desired power level, and then makes a decision to

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 46 of 86

Mukul

raise or lower a specific mobile's transmit power as frequently as once every 1.25 milliseconds (800 times per second). CDMA adjusts mobile power levels up and down in 84 steps of 1 dB each. This method ensures that no matter how close or far a mobile is from the cell site, each one is received at the same power level.

COVERAGE VERSUS CAPACITY There is some bad news arising from the CDMA capacity equation. Namely, the fact that the power that the mobiles are required to transmit goes to infinity as the capacity pole is approached. As the required power increases, mobiles at the fringe of coverage will begin to run out of transmitter power. That is, they will be asked to transmit more than their capability allows. The practical consequence of this is that the system load should really be controlled so that the planned service area never experiences coverage failures because of this phenomenon. There are some interesting mathematical models of this, that we talk about in our Coverage-Capacity pages. It is not really so much a problem as it is a system design consideration. You cannot simultaneously achieve maximum capacity and maximum coverage. It is a tradeoff.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 47 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER EIGHT

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 48 of 86

Mukul

CDMA STEPS

Modulation in CDMA Both the Forward and Reverse Traffic Channels use a similar control structure consisting of 20 millisecond frames. For the system, frames can be sent at either 14400, 9600, 7200, 4800, 3600, 2400, 1800, or 1200 bps. For example, with a Traffic Channel operating at 9600 bps, the rate can vary from frame to frame, and can be 9600, 4800, 2400, or 1200 bps. The receiver detects the rate of the frame and processes it at the correct rate. This technique allows the channel rate to dynamically adapt to the speech or data activity. For speech, when a talker pauses, the transmission rate is reduced to a low rate. When the talker speaks, the system instantaneously shifts to using a higher transmission rate. This technique decreases the interference to other CDMA signals and thus allows an increase in system capacity. CDMA starts with a basic data rate of 9600 bits per second. This is then spread to a transmitted bit rate, or chip rate (the transmitted bits are called chips), of 1.2288 MHz. The spreading process applies digital codes to the data bits, which increases the data rate while adding redundancy to the system. The chips are transmitted using a form of QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying) modulation which has been filtered to limit the bandwidth of the signal. This is added to the signal of all the other users in that cell. When the signal is received, the coding is removed from the desired signal, returning it to a rate of 9600 bps. When the decoding is applied to the other users' codes, there is no despreading; the signals maintain the 1.2288 MHz bandwidth. The ratio of transmitted bits or chips to data bits is the coding gain. The coding gain for the IS-95 CDMA system is 128, or 21 dB.

Correlation Correlation is a fundamental process in a spread-spectrum system and forms a common method of receiving signals. Correlation measures how alike two signals are; that is, how similar in appearance they are to each other. The degree of likeness is often expressed as a number between zero and one. A Perfect match is typically indicated by a zero. Partial matches yield values between one and zero, depending upon likeness. In a spread-spectrum receiver, correlation is often used to identify a signal that has been coded with a desired PN sequence. Correlation is usually done with a circuit known as a correlator. A correlator is typically composed of a mixer followed by a low-pass filter that performs averaging. The mixer is where the two signals to be compared are multiplied together. A match yields a high value of output; but if the two mixed signals differ, the output will be lower depending on how different the signals are. The averaging circuit report the average output of the mixer. This value is therefore the average likeness of the two signals. In a DS system, the correlator is used to identify and detect signals with the desired spreading code. Signals spread with other PN codes, or signals not

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 49 of 86

Mukul

spread at all, will differ statistically from the desired signal and give a lower output from the correlator. The desired signal will have a strong match with the locally generated PN code and yield a larger output from the correlator. Notice that the averaging circuit of the correlator gives the average mixer value over time. If noise or interference is present, some of the received signal will be corrupted. After mixing, the interfering signals are spread and resemble noise, while the desired signal is despread and narrow band. The averaging circuit of correlator then performs a low-pass filter function, thereby reducing the noise while passing the desired narrow band information. This is the heart of the DS interference-rejection process. Correlation action in a FH system is implemented differently but the concept is the same. In a frequency-hopping system, the transmitter carrier frequency is being moved many times a second according to the spreading sequence. The receiver uses the same spreading sequence to follow the transmitter, moving from channel to channel in exact step with the signal. If the receiver is out of step with the signal, it cannot recover the information being transmitted. FH signals that are under the control of a different PN sequence will be received only randomly, by the chance that both the desired and undesired PN codes have a channel in common at that moment. Narrow band signals will be visited occasionally by the hopping signal and should not be a cause of interference.

De-spreading and Detection In DS systems, collapsing the spread-spectrum signal by removing the effects of the spreading sequence is called despreading. If the DS signal is viewed as a signal with two types of modulation impressed on it (one for spreading and the other containing information) then the despreading is a demodulation step aimed at the spreading sequence. What remains after the removal of the spreading sequence is the digital information stream. The despreading process is in fact performed by a correlator containing a mixer and an averaging circuit. In the correlator, like signals produce a high value while unlike signals produce lower values. Thus signals that are the same produce high outputs because the signals reinforce each other. Signals that are unlike cannot reinforce each other and therefore form lower-valued products. Bit-inversion modulation is detected by this correlator action since an information bit of "1" caused the PN code to be inverted, while a "0" leaves the PN code unchanged. In the correlator, a "0" information bit generates an non-inverted PN code stream that closely correlates with the local PN code. Comparatively, a "1" results in a complete de-correlation since the PN code is inverted for this information bit. Through this action the correlator recovers the transmitted information. Undesired signals in the DS receiver passband are not correlated with the local PN code. Within the correlator, the undesired signals randomly fall in and out of match on a bit-by-base. Here the mixer output resembles noise that is filtered by the correlator lowpass filter. In comparison, the mixer will produce a stream of ones for a non-inverted PN sequence or a stream of zeros for the inverted PN sequence. Thus, the mixing process despreads the desired spread-spectrum signal and causes the undesired signals to spread to noise. It is mainly through the mixing process that interference is rejected within a spread-spectrum receiver.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 50 of 86

Mukul

Voice Coding Because the interference is averaged, anything that can be done to reduce the average transmitted power enhances capacity. An obvious target for such power optimization is the speech coding. Human speech is an intermittent information source. Measurements at Bell Laboratories many years ago suggested that the activity factor in natural human conversation is in the range of 35-40%. If that activity factor can be translated into power gating, then a further increase in capacity of perhaps two times or more is possible. This is in fact accomplished by features in both the air interface standards and the voice coder service option standards. The pole capacity becomes W/R* 1/Eb/No*1/V*Fr*SG where V is the voice activity factor, approximately 0.5. The reduction achieved in practice is less than the measured activity factor because the transmission rate in the air interface is not reduced to zero during idle periods. Fr is frequency reuse factor and SG is sectorization gain. The gain over AMPS capacity, by the same assumptions as above, is now about 26 times - perhaps optimistic given the crude nature of the model, but suggestive of the substantial improvements possible by converting to CDMA. Variable rate data is accommodated in the air interface by providing a basic traffic data rate that can be reduced by binary ratios (1, 1/2, 1/4, and 1/8). Transmission is never reduced to zero because this would present problems related to channel supervision. Two rate families are currently supported: the first based on 9600 bps, the second on 14,400 bps. These, of course, have different capacity characteristics. The voice coding used in CDMA is standardized separately from the air interface as a service option. The first coder standardized was IS-96; others are in widespread used, and will also soon be standardized. The IS-96 standard operates in the nominal 9600 bps rate set, and achieves an average effective rate of something just over 4kbps, or about 50% of the actual air interface payload data rate of 8550 bps.

MULTIPATH AND CDMA It is well known that cellular channel is severely impacted by the presence of multipath in the channel. In multipath , the propagating signal is reflected from a number of objects in the physical environment, such as buildings, hills, and vehicles. Multiple replicas of the signal arrive at the receiver after travelling over differing paths. Each replica has a different phase, attenuation and time delay. One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays. Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. This improves the call quality in congested areas that experience lot of interference from reflected signals. CDMA subscriber units use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of four receivers. One of the receivers (fingers) constantly searches for the different multipaths and feeds the information to the other three fingers. Each finger then demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath. The results are then combined together to make the signal stronger. System capacity is affected by propagation phenomena. While increasing spreading bandwidth leads to an asymptotic improvement in Erlang capacity of CDMA per megahertz, multipath propagation phenomena have increasingly detrimental effects.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 51 of 86

Mukul

Fading is experienced by users of analog cellular phones very often, especially in handheld portables when standing nearly still. Fading in a moving vehicle is more rapid, being caused by motion of the vehicle through stationary interference patterns, where the spatial scale of the interference pattern is the wavelength, about one foot. CDMA is much more robust than the analog technologies in the presence of multipath, but it does affect capacity. F ADI NG DUE TO MUL T I P AT H

When the multipath components are "resolved" by the CDMA waveform, that is, when their delays are separated by at least the decorrelation time of the spreading, then they can be separated by the despreading correlator in the receiver. They do not interfere because each component correlates at a different delay. When the multipath components are separated by less than the decorrelation time, then they cannot be separated in the receiver, and they do interfere with one another, leading to what is sometimes called flat fading. Fading is also characterized as Rayleigh or Rician. Rayleigh fading is the result of a vector sum of multiple signal components, each having a random amplitude. It can be viewed alternatively as a signal whose I and Q amplitudes are Gaussian random deviates. Rayleigh fading exhibits deep signal dropouts. If there is a strong, constant component to the signal, in addition to the multiple random components of Rayleigh fading, then the fading is said to be Ricean. Ricean fading is typical of line-of-sight situations, where there is a direct, unobstructed path between stations, as well as reflecting or scattering surfaces. The duration of one spreading chip is 1/1.2288MHz = 814 ns, or at the speed of light, 244 meters. Multipath differences less than this will lead to flat fading; greater will lead to resolved multipath, which will be diversity combined by the receiver. E F F E CTS O F F ADI NG

The effects of fading are complex and are different in the forward and reverse links. It also depends on the fading rate, which in turn depends on the velocity of the mobile station. Generally fading increases the average SNR needed for a particular error rate. The increase can be as much as perhaps 6 dB. In the reverse link, the power control will mitigate the effects of fading at low speed; at high speed it has little effect. At high speed, and in both links, the FEC coding and interleaving becomes more effective as the characteristic fade time becomes less than the interleaver span.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 52 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER NINE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 53 of 86

Mukul

TIMING

CDMA AND SYSTEM TIMING CDMA requires accurate time synchronization among all base stations and mobile stations. The accuracy must be within a few microseconds among base stations because the pilot code phase is used to distinguish them. When a mobile station is communicating with a base station they must be synchronized to within a fraction of a chip (814 ns). And the "clocks" (the PN generators) that must be synchronized have a period of 37 centuries. How does all this happen? T HE " CL O CK"

All stations keep a conventional time-of-day, but this is not directly relevant to code synchronization. The code "clock" is really the combined state of the Short Code and Long Code generators. The short code has period 215 chips and the long code has period 242 - 1 chips. As these are relatively prime numbers, the overall period is the product, or about 257 chips. This is the 37 century clock. How does a clock with this long a period get set? It isn't as hard as it might seem. The 257 period 257 clock is really two clocks with incommensurate periods. If they are separately set correctly, system time is correct. The Short Code must be set to system time, measured in chips, modulo 215; the long code must be set to system time modulo 242 -1. The former is 80/3 = 26.666... ms, and the latter is about 41 days. Setting the clock consists of two steps. First, calculate the remainders after dividing the time by the two periods, 215 and 242 -1. These are the number of states that each generator must be offset from its zero reference state. Second, determine the generator state that corresponds to that number of states. It might seem that this is a hard thing to do. It is not. It is not quite obvious, but there are straightforward, easy-to-program algorithms that will offset an LFSR to any state, given the binary representation of its offset. The fact that the short code is a modified LFSR sequence only slightly complicates the process. The system time scale System time is referenced to Global Positioning System (GPS) time. GPS time is synchronous with Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) except for leap second corrections added to UTC. GPS does not incorporate the leap second corrections. The origin of GPS time is January 6, 1980 00:00:00 UTC. The reference state of the system clock relative to system time At system time zero the state of the Long Code generator is such that the current output is one, preceded by 41 zeros.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 54 of 86

Mukul

At system time zero the state of the each of the two Short Code generators is such that the current output is one, preceded by 15 zeros. This is the state immediately following the stuff bit. H O W T I ME TO S ET A CL O CK & F I ND O UT TH E

If you are a base station: GPS System time typically is maintained in the base stations by means of a GPS receiver. GPS-derived time is normally accurate to a fraction of one CDMA chip (833 ns). Even in the absence of a GPS reference, readily available atomic frequency standards permit stations to "flywheel" for many hours, perhaps days, and remain within spec. This gives plenty of margin for repair or replacement of failed or damaged equipment. Direct use of GPS is not absolutely required, but timing must be synchronized with GPS. If you are a mobile, listen to a base station. Mobile stations derive system time from the pilot signals that they receiving. The system is specially designed to not require accurate timekeeping by the mobile stations while active. Because the mobile stations do not have any simple means of determining the propagation delay, their derived system time will lag by that delay. P RO CE SS O F S YST E M T I ME S YNCH RO NI Z AT I O N TO

First, the mobile station synchronizes its short code generator with a pilot signal from a candidate serving base station. That code will be offset from system time according to the pilot offset used by that base station to distinguish itself from other base stations. Second, the mobile demodulates and decodes the sync message. Once the mobile station has acquired the pilot, the sync channel interleaving synchronization is known because the interleaver block size is equal to the short code period, or 80/3 ms. Sync channel messages always start at an 80 ms "superframe" boundary, and are marked by a start-of-message indication. One superframe is three short code periods. Once the message has been successfully decoded the alignment of the superframes is known. Third, using the pilot offset of that particular base station that is contained in the sync message, the mobile station adjusts its transmitter short code phase back to system time. Fourth, the sync message also contains both the time of day and the long code state as of the next 80 ms boundary, adjusted for the pilot offset. The 80 ms boundaries are already known because the interleaver must have been synchronized in order to have correctly decoded the message. The long code state is loaded into the long code generator at the appropriate time. When the mobile station has successfully performed all these steps, its "clock" set to system time, with a lag due to the base-to-mobile propagation delay. Transmissions from the mobile to the base will be aligned within two propagation

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 55 of 86

Mukul

delays when they arrive at the base. This accurate mobile transmit timing reduces the synchronization search window needed in the base.

CHAPTER TEN

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 56 of 86

Mukul

PLANNING

RADIO PLANNING Planning as we all know that it plays a vital role anywhere. Telecom networks are not the exception to this fact. As we know that spectrum available is how costly and it will always be valuable. But I believe that wireless system will ultimately and inevitably be capable of better performance and lower cost than a wired system if the usage of the spectrum is done efficiently. As we know that the mobility is the cost. But designing a fixed WLL can reduce the cost significantly for the subscriber. The main purpose of the planning is fewer base stations per network, greater system efficiency and capacity, improved voice quality and a reduction or elimination of drop outs and multipath problems. All of which result in improved services and greatly reduced network cost. The ultimate goal, of course, is driving the cost per minute of telephone services down to a level that every citizen from every walk of life can afford. By reducing the cost it will give hundreds of people basic telephony. Planning means that we know that what we are going to do and when. In fact what is the objective of planning. We all know that planning should be cost and resource effective and efficient. It must be able to support the required capacity and quality objectives ( in terms of blocked and dropped calls). We also have to take care of small cells of the network. How these cell are going to interact with larger cells. We also have to consider the significance of coverage overlaps and what effect that will have on the network performance and resources. How can we control the coverage areas of the cell in the network. The preliminary design will identify suite search areas to meet the coverage requirements defined under the objectives. The preliminary design will also identify the tentative no. of channels required at the site based on the demand criteria provided or developed by marketing. Based on the demand and coverage objectives the preliminary design is done. Finally all cell sites will be reevaluated against coverage objectives, capacity limitations as well as the availability of radio site locations for the design. In the wireless network we do not have to plan for the local loop or an area. We plan for the coverage and capacity. There are some basic steps involved in the planning. Objective Coverage Capacity Antenna Drive Test

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 57 of 86

Mukul

Model selection and Tuning Analysis SAM and Site selection Design remodeling Issuance of final site plan Optimization O B JE CT I VE What we want to achieve? What kind of services we want to provide to our subscribers and what segment of subscriber is going to benefited from these services; when and how we are going to implement these services? What kind of resources we require to get these services? The planner should be aware of the fact and the details of the equipment. The knowledge of capabilities and the limitations of the equipment are very necessary. CO VE RAG E The coverage of the base station is defined a the locations where the actual measured signal level is either greater or equal to the receiver sensitivity. In the other words the area, from which a subscriber can make and receive a call with acceptable call quality. The mean received signal level threshold usually represents coverage. For the planning purposes we have to define our coverage requirements.

IN BUILDING COVERAGE IN VEHICLE COVERAGE OUTDOOR COVERAGE The coverage analysis is done through the planning software tool with predefined fade margins and penetration losses in the design criteria guide lines. Typically we plan for 90% of cell area and 75 % of cell edge reliability at 40 dB path loss slope and 5.6 dB fade margin. It implies that any user on the street or in the building is provided with acceptable quality of service. CAP ACI T Y We chose CDMA because we wanted to provide the coverage over the vast area and to support the capacity for the basic telephony. Before planning we identify the areas of high capacity and data subscribers. While planning we have to locate all the bottlenecks if any in the system capacity and make recommendations such as rates of handoffs, PN Offset reuse patterns, antenna orientations, voice coding rate, power control algorithm and other interference. If there is any change in the traffic distribution, calls handled, erlangs/subs, system capacity or BHCA; the capacity of network will change. If not handled properly then it will create dropped call rate increase, congestion, in effective attempt rate and interference. ANT E NNA Antennas are so chosen that it fulfill the defined coverage requirements. Before choosing the antenna for the base station we define the polarization, beam width and the gain of the antenna. DRI VE TE ST We use the propagation model for the radio predictions and use the standard models. But the morphology, clutter and the topography is different for every town. So we require some tweaking a the clutter changes. For that purpose we require the drive test. For the drive test we first identify the routes and specify the appropriate data to be collected from these routes. The data is then fed into the planning tool and

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 58 of 86

Mukul

with the help of some algorithms if available otherwise with trial and error methods the model is tweaked and then it is used for the planning of that town. We again do the drive test while optimization or finding the system trouble areas. We collect the data regarding the RF coverage, handoffs, call processing, call quality and service reliability. After the data is collected and analyzed and the problem areas are identified for the optimization purposes. O P T I MI Z AT IO N The optimization of the operating system involves the detailed analysis of technical parameters and the field analysis of the system parameters. Engineering design tools can be utilized to conduct theoretical analysis and system design. These studies are then followed by field analysis of system performance. The goal is to improve performance through the identification of system trouble areas and optimization of network performance through frequency retunes, antenna modifications, operational parameters adjustments, site and carrier additions and other engineering solutions to improve the system quality. Network Parameters Optimization Optimization of network parameters allows network operators to improve system performance and end user satisfaction. The network optimization includes: Sector out put Power Antenna Up Tilt or Down Tilt modifying the neighbor list to reduce the dropped calls and improve RF quality Minimizing Co Channel and adjacent channel interference Adjustment in hand off parameters to improve the call quality.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 59 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER ELEVEN

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 60 of 86

Mukul

RF FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANNING

T HE O RY Theory, Almost everyone in our "High Tech World" is familiar with radio communication in one form or another. We listen to music on the FM car radio, or to a commentary on an AM pocket radio and we watch pictures sent by radio waves to our TV sets. Industry uses it to dispatch vehicles, to send messages or to monitor processes. Law Enforcement and Public Safety would be handicapped without it, as would Governments and their militaries. But how does it work? RADI O Radio (now called WIRELESS) is a form of electromagnetic energy, so is visible light. Because wireless signals are lower on the frequency spectrum than visible light we cannot see them, but we can use electronic equipment to detect them and wireless signals react in similar ways to light. To communicate from "here" to "there" by wireless (e.g. without an interconnecting cable) it is necessary to have a carrier convey information. In the beginning this consisted of simply "keying" the carrier on and off and its was an extension of the telegraph. Later, as we learned to transmit more complex information, voice, data, etc., the modulation process became more complicated. Common modulation techniques are AM and FM. Amplitude modulation, or AM, means to make the carrier stronger or weaker in unison with the modulating information and frequency modulation, or FM, means to change the frequency of the carrier higher or lower with the modulating information. [NOTE: A change in phase of the carrier frequency also results in an FM like signal that is easier to implement, so most of what is called FM is really phase modulation.] S I DEB ANDS When a carrier is modulated, the frequencies of the modulating signal will add to and subtract from the carrier frequency, setting up side-bands on either sides of the carrier. These side-bands take up space in the spectrum and many modulation techniques to conserve space are being used. This philosophy is termed - Narrow Band Transmission. S P RE AD S P E CT RUM Recently, a modulation scheme called "Spread Spectrum" was de-classified by the military for civilian use. SS can be a very wide band type of transmission, but it uses the band in a way that, theoretically, lessens the total interference. There are various kinds of spread spectrum technologies in operation, with direct sequence modulation a more common mode of transmission. Direct sequence is a phase shift scheme, resulting in a wide band FM like signal. The spreading is accomplished by a Pseudo-random Noise or PN code modulated on a radio carrier. Since the PN code is not totally random, it has a definite pattern, the idea is that several patterns can be interleaved in a wireless band of frequencies causing little interference. The information to be conveyed is imbedded within the PN code. DE MO DUL AT I O N After the wireless has been modulated, it must transmit over distance to a receiving system that reverses the modulating process. First, the modulated

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 61 of 86

Mukul

carrier is detected and "de-spread", the PN code is deciphered and then the imbedded information is validated. At the transmitting end, the imbedded data is assembled into "packets", plus some additional information to ensure accuracy, before it is transmitted. At the receiving end, after the imbedded information is recovered, the packets are disassembled. This "packetized" communication is termed modified X.25 and its purpose is to ensure accurate data transfer. The Packet Assemble and Disassemble process is referred to as "PAD". ANT E NNA TH E O RY To get the carrier signal from "here" to "there" involves an antenna system. The height, type and efficiency of this system will determine the distance between transmitting and receiving stations. As was mentioned, UHF wireless and light is alike is many ways, especially in propagation. They each tend to travel in a straight path called "line of sight" but because the wireless signal is at a lower frequency, it bends some and will go a bit farther than light. This increase at 900 MHz is approximately 1.18 times the line of sight distance. Because we live on a rounded world, the line of sight distance will vary with height Above Ground Level or AGL. At 6 feet AGL, line of sight is about 3 miles. At 10 feet AGL, it is about 3.9 miles. At 25 feet AGL, the line of sight is about 6 miles but the UHF wireless distance is around 7 miles. The formula for calculating antenna height or distance is: H=(DxD)/2, or : D= sq rt.(2H). H=feet, D=miles. 0 . 6 F RE S NEL Z O NE Another consideration with wireless is keeping the lower .6 Fresnel Zone in the clear to prevent echoes or multipath from reducing the received signal. Multipath is to wireless as "ghosting" is to TV. The lower part of the .6 Fresnel Zone is like a "sag" or widening of the radio beam at the middle of the path. Its width (900 MHz) is about 44 feet at 2.5 miles for a 5 mile link and about 72 feet at 7 miles for a 14 mile link. The lower .6 Fresnel Zone, as well as the radio center line between the antennas, must clear all obstacles for best results. The antenna AGL is about 97 feet at each end of a 14 mile unobstructed path over "flat" ground. The 900 MHz formula for calculating the lower 1st Fresnel Zone is: F1=72.1 x sq. rt. (dxd / 2fd) where: F1=1st Fresnel Zone radius in feet, d=midway distance in miles, and f= frequency in GHz. Then .6F=(F1x.6) S P ACE AT TE NUAT I O N Wireless signals get weaker as the distance increases. In the 900 MHz region, the attenuation is -96 dBm for the first mile and increases by -6 dBm each time the distance doubles. 2 miles would equal -102 dBm, 4 miles would equal -108 dBm, 8 miles would equal -114 dBm, and 16 miles would equal -120 dBm. These numbers are important in determining how strong the received signal will be and if a proposed link is practical. DE CI B EL S The term dB is a logarithmic ratio that compares (in this case) two power levels. An easy way to appreciate the magnitude of the ratio is to remember that a loss of 1 dB equals a loss of .2 (x.8 of the whole); a loss of 3 dB equals .5 (x.5 of the whole); a loss of 6 dB equals .75 (x .25 of the whole); and a loss of 10 dB equals .9 (x .1 of the whole). An increase is the reciprocal. 1 dB equals times 1.25; 3 dB equals times 2; 6 dB equals times 4; and 10 dB equals times 10. The term dBm is the same ratio but related to .001 watt. An example: the 1 watt transmitter output power of GINA is the same as +30 dBm. [By definition .001 watt is "0" dBm, then .01 watt (x10) is +10 dBm, .1 watt (x10 again) is + 20 dBm and I watt (x10 again) is +30 dBm. To multiply using logarithms, one must add.]

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 62 of 86

Mukul

ANT E NNA T YPES The next step is to design the antenna system. There are many options in choosing a proper antenna and a very common external array is a 50 ohm, YagiUda or simply Yagi. The Yagi is a directional antenna that has a relatively wide transmitting and receiving angle. It can be mounted for either vertical or horizontal polarity and is offered with several gain figures. The higher the gain, the narrower the angle. Another popular antenna is a panel type used mostly with cellular systems. Then, there are times when it is necessary to install a nondirectional or omnidirectional antenna. These also come in various gains, with the 6-8 dB a good choice. A gain limit can be given by the authorities to reduce range and interference. This limit is termed Effective Isotropic Radiated Power or EIRP and the value will be different based on site to site basis. It means the total power level in dBm of the radio plus the antenna gain must not exceed the limit, so the antenna gain figure will be important in meeting the EIRP requirement. CO AXI AL CABL E How the connection from the antenna to RADIO is accomplished can be as important as the antenna. If much of the wireless signal is lost before it reaches the antenna, or the radio, the system won't work well. The transmission line of coaxial cable must be chosen to match the 50 ohm antenna impedance and to limit the losses due to the cable length. A reasonable choice for up to 100 feet of cable is with a loss figure of about 4.5 dB/100 ft. [NOTE: The loss in dB is linear with distance, so the drop for 50 ft would be 2.25 dB.] DAT A Q UAL IT Y Good CDMA RF network -105 dBm (approximately) of "clean" received signal to provide a minimum Bit Error Rate of 1 error out of 1,000,000 bits sent. It is wise to have some "insurance" or fade margin, so the design signal strength at the radio will be -90 dBm allowing 15 dB of extra margin. S YST E M CAL CUL AT I O NS By putting all of these calculations together, it is possible to determine the viability of a wireless link before installing the equipment. The process is simply to add the gains, subtract the losses with the goal being a received signal better than -105 dBm. S IT E There are some important details that must be considered before the antenna is installed. Check the proposed antenna site for other radio transmitting antennas, the CDMA antenna must be as far as possible from them. If the antenna is a directional antenna, yagi or panel type, it must be pointed away from any other transmitting antennas. If an omnidirectional antenna is used, it should be mounted above or below the field of other transmitting antennas. Stay away from locations that are sites for TV stations, RADAR stations, paging systems, all high powered, pulsing modes of RF energy and other spread spectrum systems. Taking these precautions can save a lot of time and effort. The external antenna parts are vulnerable to many problems and they must be installed for easy repair. If the antenna system fails, the wireless system fails! I NS T ALL AT I O N T I PS If it is necessary to provide a tower to elevate the antenna, then the structure must safely support the weight of any service personnel. When a mast is used, it is desirable that the top be reachable with a self standing ladder for antenna orientation. Lightning protection is very important and the local building codes ought to be consulted for proper grounding procedures, especially on tall buildings. Consider a coaxial cable lightning arrestor as well as an antenna that has a grounded matching network for added protection.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 63 of 86

Mukul

The antenna is usually mounted by "U" bolts, with polarization either vertical or horizontal (Sometimes in some special applications the cross polarization is also used). Vertical is typical for wireless, although sometimes horizontal is used to reduce interference. Either will work, but the polarity must be the same at each end of the link for successful operation. Point the antenna as near as possible toward the far end of the path. When routing the coaxial cable, leave a service loop at the antenna so there will sufficient length of cable to replace a faulty connector, when necessary. Secure the coax so that there is no mechanical stress at the antenna connection. Follow the super structure with the cable to its base to the building. If the cable requires suspension from the base to the building, use a stranded wire to support the cable weight. (The support will prevent a migration of the cable's inner conductor to the shield.) Upon entering a building, leave a drip loop so that water will not follow the cable inside. If the cable lays on a roof or the ground, protect it with a conduit to guard against crushing. Inside, at the radio, use a short flexible patch cable, with the appropriate fittings, from the radio to the main coaxial run for stress elimination at the radio's SMA connector. An electrical test should be performed. After the test, water-proof all outdoor fittings, the ground connections, and the cable entry points into the building. T ES T I NG when the mechanical installation is completed, a Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ("VSWR") test should be done to determine that all electrical connections are correct and that the antenna is properly matched. A test instrument called an inline wattmeter is connected between the radio and the coaxial cable going to the antenna. The transmitter is turned on and its output power is measured on the meter. Next, the reflected power or VSWR" is read, it must be less than 5% of the transmitter power to be acceptable. Each radio site will be checked in this way. If the "VSWR" is acceptable and the antennas are pointed correctly, the link is ready to be tested using data. The data can be two computers, two terminals, any device that will send back "known" information when polled "a DGH module", a Bit Error Rate Test set - called a "BERT". [Or just put the system on line and see if it works!] Using the VOICE OPTION, if it is installed, is a push to talk and release to listen operation, the same as in other two-way radio communication. A bonus with this option is the convenience of easy transmitter keying for RF testing. Unified Power Control, Error Correction Coding, and Scheduling for a CDMA Downlink System Transmitting multimedia data over a CDMA channel presents a new set of challenges. Sometimes, data demands will exceed the system capacity, in which case the system must make the most efficient use of its limited resources. The resources we consider are: fixed bandwidth available for each user and the transmit power budget for each cell. We claim the system design is incomplete if the methods of variable forward error correction (VFEC), power control, and scheduling are not considered simultaneously. For example, consider a design that only controls power: if all active applications consume less than the available bandwidth, then the remaining bandwidth is wasted. Compare this to a system that, instead of wasting this bandwidth, uses it for FEC coding; with the coding gain, we are able to reduce the transmit power while maintaining the same bit-error rate. This illustrates the interaction between power control and FEC. Finally, the result from scheduling affects both the VFEC selection and the transmit power level in order to meet the specific QOS of that data type. This unifies power control, VFEC, and scheduling for a downlink system by allocating the system resources. The Designer's main objective is to maximize

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 64 of 86

Mukul

the overall system satisfaction, which we call "system utility." This objective is achieved by applying a distributed algorithm that divides the overall optimization problem into a hierarchy of three levels (system, cell, and user). At each level, the system performs independent and parallel optimizations; the critical information is then passed to the higher level for further optimization. Finally, an iterative and distributed algorithm is applied at the system level to achieve the overall system optimization. I MP L I CAT I O NS F O R CE LL P L ANNI NG If one extends the distinction between large-area and small-area shadowing, the definition of shadowing covers any statistical fluctuation of the received localmean power about a certain area-mean power, with the latter determined by (predictable) large-scale mechanisms. Multipath propagation is separated from shadow fluctuations by considering the local-mean powers. That is, the standard deviation of the shadowing will depend on the geographical resolution of the estimate of the area-mean power. A propagation model which ignores specific terrain data produces about 12 dB of shadowing. On the other hand, prediction methods using topographical data bases with unlimited resolution can, at least in theory, achieve a standard deviation of 0-1 dB. Thus, the standard deviation is a measure of the impreciseness of the terrain description. If, for generic system studies, the (large-scale) path loss is taken of simple form depending only on distance but not on details of the path profile, the standard deviation will necessarily be large. On the other hand, for the planning of a practical network in a certain (known) environment, the accuracy of the large-scale propagation model may be refined. This may allow a spectrally more efficient planning if the cellular layout is optimised for the propagation environment.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 65 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER TWELVE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 66 of 86

Mukul

FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK ENGINEERING

Network Engineering Within RF Planning Radio Engineering Department plays a key role in the design and site selection process for the network. The ability to design a network grid around a friendly environment that will facilitate zoning and construction issues at the onset is the key to a successful build. This proactive technique eliminates expensive reissues and redesigns, resulting in significant time and cost savings. RF SE RVI CE S

Evaluation and analysis of antenna systems, e.g., cross-polar and technology choice, e.g., CDMA, GSM, TDMA, SMS, etc. Pre design feasibility including topography, morphology, zoning and demographic analysis RF Design of BTS Interconnect analysis for Wireless Local Loop WLL Preliminary site count analysis and search ring evaluation Propagation modeling and analysis Conduct radio tests and signal interference analysis. PN Offset reuse and capacity planning, including expansion analysis System/Network Optimization. S IT E S EL E CT IO N & SI T E ACQ UI S IT I O N

The newly designed wireless networks should recognize and respect local zoning laws and telecommunications ordinances. This is why RF engineering works hand in hand with Estate management to secure sites that promote maximum radio coverage within appropriately zoned areas. By addressing this process up front and selecting sites that conform to pre-approved zoning ordinances Site Acquisition services Identify sites suitable for maximum radio coverage, Constructability and zoning. Identification and procurement of all master friendly real estate sites including Search Area Map (SAM) analysis resulting in primary and alternative sites. I NS T ALL AT I O N & NE T W O RK O PT I MI Z AT I O N

RF Group has to work closely with other teams to ensure accurate equipment installation and optimization of the network. These services include: Antenna systems Tower, monopole and shelters Interconnect options/cost analysis Fiber vs. microwave Backhaul and trunking analysis

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 67 of 86

Mukul

Installation and optimization of network systems Equipment and radio testing Quality assurance and safety planning Conformance of all applicable networks and end user requirements CO MMUNI C AT I O NS S IT E MANAG E ME NT

Team has to provide a maintenance/management service for the network including: Analysis of all BSC, cabling, interconnect and antennas Antenna orientation, Uptilt and downtilt inspections Perform an obstruction/attenuation and interference review Review and inspection of antennae azimuth and traffic capacity Review of tower installations and antenna Uptilt and downtilt design, including cable racking and maximum lengths RF group should provide the full range of spectrum engineering services, including; interference analysis, propagation modeling, S P E CT RUM E NG I NE E RI NG MANAG E ME NT & F RE Q UE NCY

The growth in demand for radio frequency bandwidth necessitates the efficient and effective use of this finite resource. Spectrum engineering is the discipline through which this goal is achieved. One of the most urgent problems faced by spectrum users today is that of frequency sharing, with the associated possibility of conflict between applications wishing to use common frequency allocations. Clearly the identification and rectification of such potential problems is a major part of any system design process. I NT E RF E RE NCE ANAL YS I S RE S OL VI NG CO NF L I CT I DE NT I F YI NG &

The examination of sharing problems arising between applications using common or adjacent frequency allocations invariably demands some form of modeling. We, as a team, will be able to model interference arising between any communication systems, be they fixed or mobile, satellite based or terrestrial. Propagation modeling As part of any interference analysis activity it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the propagation behavior associated with each transmission path, whether it is a wanted or an interfering path. We have to have the required understanding of propagation issues and try that our knowledge remains current. We have to consider all of the activities that are required for spectrum engineering work; from interference analysis and propagation modeling. RF CO VE RAG E ANAL YS E S DE S I G NS AND CAP ACI T Y

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 68 of 86

Mukul

The quality of RF analysis used to develop coverage designs is critical to the success of any wireless system. No other design element can influence service quality and cost as much as the RF design. I believe in producing designs with cell counts and locations that optimize coverage while striking the proper balance with the cost of providing that coverage. Careful consideration of cell site locations and antenna heights and orientations results in optimized coverage. Combining the experience and knowledge effective and efficient designs are produced. RF DES I G N S T ANDARDS & G UI DEL I NE S

The quality of RF signal coverage provided by any RF design depends on the guidelines used and their agreement with the coverage and service objectives specified by the marketing groups. This service develops the design specifications needed to satisfy the coverage and service objectives for the system, and are a necessary input to the RF design activities. RF SI G NAL CO VE RAG E DES I G NS

RF signal coverage designs are developed using a variety of commercially available propagation prediction tools. These designs meet the coverage specification and design guidelines developed for the system. T RAF F I C CAP ACI T Y PL ANNI NG & DE S I G N

Using advanced GIS data, customer profiles and RF coverage designs, subscriber counts and usage are developed and converted into capacity forecasts for the initial deployment and future growth. This provides a planned migration path to higher capacity systems accommodating future growth. MO B I LE DE S IG N S YST E M F REQ UE NCY P L ANNI NG &

In the CDMA system we do not have to plan for the frequency reuse. The processing gain in the CDMA system allows us to use the same frequency in every cell. The frequency planning services provided encompass a variety of formats. In each case, the frequency assignments are made in a manner providing maximum capacity while maintaining interference levels at or below specification. MI CRO W AVE DE S IG N RADI O S YS TE M PL ANNI NG &

MW radio design includes the full range of tasks associated with this activity. These include; path analysis, equipment recommendations, vendor evaluation and selection, site design, test and acceptance.

NE T W O RK DE S IG N

&

S WI T CH I NG

I NF RAS T RUCT URE

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 69 of 86

Mukul

Without a supporting network, a wireless system is just a lot of expensive radio stations. The network ties these radios together and connects them with the public telecommunications network. This network includes switching systems and associated physical plant, such as BSC and MSC switches. Transport media such as cable, fiber, and microwave; intelligent services, voice mail, roaming, and operator services; and customer support networks to monitor the network health, to collect billing, and respond to subscriber issues that arise during daily operation. NE T W O RK I NT E RCO NNE CT I O N

The network interconnection services provided supply recommendations for connectivity to other network providers. These other networks may carry mobile, terrestrial, data, digital, analog, inter-exchange, or other traffic. NE T W O RK SE RVI CE S

Intelligent Network services such as HLR/Roaming, Voice Mail, Short Message Service, Calling Card Services (including Third Party Billing and Automated Directory Services), and Emergency Services are essential to successful operation of a modern telecommunications network provider. RADI O F RE Q UE NCY P E RF O RMANCE Network Performance Services including: NE T WO RK

Review of traffic analysis including: Erlang maps, propagation plots, marketing data, vehicle counts and the local network call model (if possible) Preparation and review of daily network performance reports Identification of high volume sites along with traffic management solutions Integration and testing of remaining sites as needed Performing of Benchmark testing and analysis including: Identification of marketing objectives, development of test plans, forming drive routes, and collecting, analyzing, and presenting data. CO MP RE H E NS I VE DES I G N S E RVI CES

Interaction with the marketing department to review traffic predictions, penetration rates, and development of call models. Development of final coverage objectives. Sample drive tests to determine the local propagation characteristics. Creation of initial paper design based sample drive test data. Propagation and traffic analysis based on the initial paper design, using the available planning tool. Field visits with Site Acquisition personnel. Identification of candidate sites that meet the marketing's coverage and capacity requirements. Perform Continuous Wave (CW) drive testing, process data, and report results on all final candidates. Integration of CW data with the planning tool, and fine tune the propagation model on a site-specific basis. Perform inter-modulation analyses.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 70 of 86

Mukul

CO MP RE H E NS I VE S E RVI CES Prior to Drive Tests:

RF

OP T I MI Z AT I O N

Review all CW drive test data and propagation plots Review of existing sites database including location, heights, azimuths and antenna selection. Site visits to visually verify construction Review of existing frequency or PN codes reuse offset plans and modify as needed ( if necessary) Identify and calculate tilt or azimuth changes as needed. Develop clusters of sites, and drive routes.

Initial Drive Tests: Verify base station power output and calibrate as needed Perform sector testing at radii appropriate to the surrounding clutter and terrain Review and analyze sector test data with the client's engineers Identify any additional specific tilt or azimuth changes.

Cluster Drive Tests Collect and analyze data on established routes Adjust the network and re-drive the system K E Y EL E ME NT S I N DES I G NI NG CE LL UL AR

Several factor should be taken into account, in the cellular system design. A short review of the most important factors follows: Co-channel Interference Reduction Factor (CIRF); Handoffs; Reverse-Link Power control; Forward-Link Power control; and Capacity Enhancement. The designer has to put care in the minimum separation between two co-channel cells, based on the co-channel interference reduction factor. The handoff is the necessary overhead in order to switch the call to a new frequency channel in a new cell site without either interrupt the call or alerting the user. Fortunately, based in its intrinsic characteristics, CDMA has a soft handoff problem. The reverse-link power control is for reducing near-end to far-end interference. The interference occurs when a mobile unit close to the cell site can mask the received signal at the cell site so that the signal from a far-end mobile unit is unable to be received by the cell site at the same time. The forward-link power control is used to reduce the necessary interference outside its own cell boundary. Last but not least, The capacity of cellular system can be increased by handling cochannel interference reduction factor properly.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 71 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 72 of 86

Mukul

QUALITY OF SERVICE

Future wireless networks will provide ubiquitous communication services to a large number of mobile and basic telephony users. The design of such networks is based on an architecture that allows efficient use of the limited available spectrum. This architecture consists of a backbone network with fixed base stations interconnected through a fixed network (usually wired), and of mobile units that communicate with the base stations via wireless links. The geographic area within which mobile units can communicate with a particular base station is referred to a cell. Neighboring cells overlap with each other, thus ensuring continuity of communications when the users move from one cell to another. The subscriber units communicate with each other, as well as with other networks, through the base stations and the backbone network. A set of channels (frequencies) is allocated to each base station When a mobile user wants to communicate with another user or a base station, it must first obtain a channel from one of the base stations that hears it (usually, it will be the base station which hears it the best). If a channel is available, it is granted to the user. In the case that all the channels are busy, the new call is blocked. This kind of blocking is called new call blocking and it refers to blocking of new calls. The user releases the channel under either of the following scenarios: (i) The user completes the call (ii) The user moves to another cell before the call is completed. The procedure of moving from one cell to another, while a call is in progress, is called handoff. While performing handoff, the mobile unit requires that the base station in the cell that it moves into will allocate it a channel. If no channel is available in the new cell, the handoff call is blocked. This kind of blocking is called handoff blocking and it refers to blocking of ongoing calls due to the mobility of the users. The motivation for studying the new call and handoff blocking probabilities is that the Quality of Service in telecom networks is mainly determined by these two quantities. The first determines the fraction of new calls that are blocked, while the second is closely related to the fraction of admitted calls that terminate prematurely due to dropout. Blocking probabilities can be reduced by increasing the capacity of the networks. This can be achieved by applying efficient power control algorithms or by reducing the size of the cells or by increasing the number of channels (frequencies) in each cell. Good power control is not simple and may not always suffice. Reducing cells size necessitates large investments in equipment which of course increase the cost per subscriber. Adding supplementary channels(frequencies) is also a very high cost solution since radio spectrum is a scare resource. Therefore, a good evaluation of the measures of performance can help a system designer to make its strategic decisions concerning cell size and the number of channel (frequencies) allocated to each cell. In this I would like to present a model that captures the differences between new call blocking and handoff blocking. We consider movements of users along an arbitrary topology of cells. The approximation is based on the idea of isolating a set of cells and having a simplifying assumption regarding the handoff traffic into this set of cells. This approach has been used in where a single cell is isolated and it is assumed that

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 73 of 86

Mukul

the handoff attempts into this cell are characterized by a Poisson process. The rate of the Poisson process is related to various parameters of the system such as blocking probabilities, mobility of the users, etc. when no priority is given to handoff call attempts over new call attempts, no difference exists between these call attempts. In other words, due to the PASTA (Poisson arrivals see timeaverages) property, the handoff and the new call blocking probabilities are identical. In the new approximation that is introduced, isolate a group of cells and make no approximations regarding the handoff traffic between the cells in the group. The handoff traffic into cells of the group from cells outside the group is approximated by a Poisson process. It will be clear that a group of three neighboring cells is enough to differentiate between handoff call attempts and new call attempts. Thus this model won't be too complex and results may be easily obtained for any parameters of the system.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 74 of 86

Mukul

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 75 of 86

Mukul

NETWORK DEPLOYMENT AND PERFORMANCE

THE BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS: This part of the document addresses the basic networking concepts of wireless networks, exposing both the theoretical and practical aspects of mobile communication. As an introduction, basic enabling technology was presented, such as the cellular principle and multiple access technologies (e.g., CDMA). Following this introduction to mobile radio, investigated the underlying techniques used in design and operation of cellular networks, including examples of handoff schemes, channel assignment and power control algorithms, common-air protocols etc, and microcellular architectures. Next, I will address the subject of user mobility support in the wireless environment. In particular, call processing functions, which include roaming, routing, and registration will be explained. RF E NG I NE E RI NG CAP AB I L I T IE S

Radio Engineering Design and Planning Network Objective Definition Link Budget Analysis Initial System Design (Propagation & Point-to-Point / Point-to-Multipoint) Coverage and Interference Testing ANAL YS I S AND NET W O RK I MP L E ME NT AT IO N

Demographics and Capacity Estimation Network Expansion Planning Detailed Site Design Propagation Analysis Site Drive Testing Candidate Site Evaluation and Selection Frequency Planning / PN Assignment Site Engineering Specifications Operational Site Parameters NE T W O RK OP T I MI Z AT I O N

Test Plan Development System Drive Testing and Analysis System Parameter Settings Statistical Measurements and Analysis NE T W O RK T ES T I NG P E RF O RMANCE AND Q UAL IT Y

Competitive Network Analysis Site Acceptance Testing

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 76 of 86

Mukul

System Acceptance Testing Network Performance and Evaluation Testing T HE P L ANNI NG TO O L

It is useful to use a software tool for designing wireless systems. A comprehensive set of features makes the best choice of software for small to extremely large projects. It incorporates databases for topography, morphology, demography, map images, geographic and logistic references, and antennas. It also provides conversion utilities to import and export data from different sources. The ability to work with accurate databases facilitates design and improves graphical outputs. The software design tool should include features and capabilities: A project database with one part containing all global parameters of a project, and the other containing individual cell site data Traffic figures automatically generated from demographic or switch (MSC) data, used to calculate the number of traffic channels required in each area. Traffic capacity can be verified by the software through a Monte Carlo simulation at a later stage of the design. Site location based on traffic and guided by a hexagon grid The software tool offers ease of use and completeness, with features that optimize the design of a wireless network. Precise prediction of RF coverage (single, composite, best server, handoff, BER/FER, reverse link, number of servers, and others) calculated through proven, fast propagation analysis in a variety of resolutions A propagation model that does not average or simplify calculations (a drawback inherent in many alternate models). Terrain and morphological data are considered for each propagation profile from the Radio Base Station to each resolution point. Different options for path loss calculations, such as: a. Lee-Picquenard which considers attenuation (one mile and per decade loss, for each morphology type), reflection, effective height, diffraction, and multi-path fading b. Okumura-Hata model, for quick and rough calculations c. Cost 231 model, applicable to medium-size urban cells d. A microcell model that provides accurate results for small cells and uses high-resolution databases Automatic calculation of parameters. 1. Propagation model interacts with field measurement data, and through recursive calculations, ensures a synthesis of the model parameters for each case, thereby eliminating the guesswork for designers. A CDMA option provides all the special features of this technology, such as interactive traffic calculations and soft handoff. Detailed calculations of co-channel and adjacent channel interference Outstanding graphic presentations (on the screen and in printouts/plots), which can be made to different scales and projections (plots are limited only by the capabilities of the printer or plotter) Accurate hand-off algorithms and outstanding graphical outputs to contribute to the uniqueness of CDMA

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 77 of 86

Mukul

By developing an optimal system that most closely matches the demographics, terrain, morphology, and traffic of the cells, the system designer will be able to estimate precise equipment and materials needs. We can use the Qualcomm's QEDesign, MSI's Planet, Motorola's Net Plan or any other as it suits to us.

PROBLEMS & THEIR SOLUTIONS IN THE WLL NETWORK T HE S T AT IC AND DR OPP E D C AL L S T HAT AR E HAUNT IN G T HE C US T OM E R S M AY B E C OM ING F R OM T HE C E L L S IT E . It's late at night, and instead of sleeping the designers are wrestling with the myriad of inexplicable problems that plague one of the cell sites. Test equipment that worked on the bench goes haywire in the building, power supplies don't regulate like they should, weird audio creeps in and out of your signals, and. sometimes just walking in front of a rack causes switches to flip and relays to chatter, as if possessed. Could it be that mischievous little imps have invaded the equipment? No it's not a nightmare come true, only high-power RF interference, an albiet invisible, but controllable, menace. Many interference problems that haunt consumers using cellular phones, or engineers and technicians charged with fixing cellular problems, are traceable to events originating not in the phone system, but at cell or switching sites located near high-power radio frequency (RF) installations several miles away, such as AM, FM and shortwave radio, TV, microwave links and more. As cellular operators expand their systems in urban areas and build new systems in rural areas, they are discovering increasing difficulty in obtaining authority to build new towers where needed. Frequently, the only way to locate a cell site in a particular area is to share an existing tower that is already being used by one or more other transmitters. In either case, there is a distinct possibility that high RF signal levels will be present in the immediate vicinity of the cellular equipment. In some locations, ambient field intensity levels may even exceed and pose personnel hazards. The symptoms of RF interference might manifest themselves during operations or routine repair situations; e.g.,: Unusual power regulation problems Faulty test equipment Inexplicable hand-offs and dropped calls Transient, undesirable audio-on signals Other problems traced to a particular cell site What can a cellular operator do to isolate and correct the basic equipment problem and to understand more about the evolution of the problem at the crowded site contributing to this situation? The practical solution The answer is essentially to enclose the cell-site equipment and/or switch in a "box" that blocks all RF signals, keeping all other signals out of the box and confining the cellular signals inside the box. As a practical matter, a perfect shielding box is neither achievable nor economically desirable. There must always be penetrations of the shield for antenna transmission lines, main power, telephone lines, doors, grounding cables, air conditioners, water and sewer pipes. The trick is to restrict passage through these penetrations so that unwanted RF signals that enter the shielded area are small enough to cause no harm to practical equipment installations.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 78 of 86

Mukul

In the real world, most shielding needs can be met by innovative applications of advanced architectural shielding materials. Using such things as fiber attenuation composites, coating suspensions and more conventional techniques, attenuation of 40 dB or more can be readily obtained in existing buildings. While not to CIA specifications, such attenuation frequently will be adequate to prevent RF ingress into the equipment. In addition to protecting investment in expensive equipment, reducing maintenance costs and increasing reliability and customer satisfaction, architectural shielding can protect the employees from potentially hazardous exposure to high RF signal levels, and may make the difference in the viability of a cell site. S IT E S EL E CT IO N.

Control of RF penetration problems begins with site selection. A careful study, including field intensity measurements where needed, should be made to identify and document existing hazards, and to anticipate future problems. This can be difficult, especially if site acquisition people or land mobile engineers are unfamiliar with electro-magnetic effects. S H IE L DI NG . Most shielding needs can be met by innovative applications of advanced architectural shielding materials. Fiber attenuation composites, coating suspensions, and more conventional techniques can yield attenuations of 40dB or more in existing buildings. O TH E R RF P ROT E CT I O N.

Shielding by itself won't prevent all RF penetration problems. Other techniques might be necessary, such as the use of filters for power lines and possibly RF transmission lines. That is why it is important to accomplish a comprehensive engineering analysis from the outset of the project; to measure and determine the scope of potential RF generated problems and define various fix alternatives for ensuring complete system/environment compatibility. S TE P S F O R AB ATE ME NT

Actual abatement of induced RF interference can be addressed during system acquisition or upgrade by (1) avoidance or (2) design improvements based on a complete collection and analysis of data gathered during the preliminary site selection process. Additional diagnostic measurements will be necessary when using an existing site. P RE L I MI NARY ANAL YS I S .

A database study should be incorporated into initial or site improvement analyses, using proven electromagnetic parametric and geographic data and models. The Network operators should maintain the database typically supporting area site selection and RF interference/hazards analysis such as: Defining regions where high-power fields exceed established radiation hazard criteria and provide information for inclusion in environmental impact statements. Defining constraints due to EMC considerations to support the site-selection process. Comparing the coverage of equipment located at one site with the coverage at another candidate site to ensure an optimum location. Identifying systems in the environment that represent potential sources or victims of interference. Based on these and similar supporting data, shielding and other RF protection techniques can be selected to complement and influence architectural and building construction planning. In some cases, it may be necessary to modify

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 79 of 86

Mukul

standard electronics lay-outs to ensure that existing installations and future site expansion will remain RF interference resistant. T ES T ME AS URE ME NT S .

Test measurements must be built into the overall design process, to include baseline measurements at the suspected "threat" frequencies after the new equipment and shielding installations are in place. These data carry forward a baseline to support future preventative maintenance, which should be done on a regular basis, and problem troubleshooting. No matter how well the equipment installation and site selection process is planned and executed, there will be the invariable, "unauthorized" cable wall penetration, air conditioner replacement, or other change which can corrupt the shield or other EMI preventive procedure. CO NCL US I O N It is never too early to plan for effective RF interference abatement. Shielding and other RF interference preventive actions must be taken into account at the very beginning of building design, equipment selection/upgrade or site selection process. A competent consulting organization or engineer, qualified and experienced in RF compatibility engineering, should be retained early in the design/planning process. A thorough study and analysis of the electromagnetic environment of any potential cell site will prevent expensive surprises in the final product - compatibility between the cell or switch site and the attendant environments.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 80 of 86

Mukul

CDMA in Wireless Local Loop CDMA's primary commercial application will definitely be with cellular wireless phones and pagers, but there are also some other uses of the technology being applied commercially. Wireless local loop technology is a way for a local cluster of telephones to be installed in areas that would normally require expensive or disrupting physical wire installation. The basic idea is that a central CDMA hub is installed where the phone lines come into an area, be it an office building, apartment complex, or even a subdivision. The hub interfaces with the standard phone lines coming into such an area, and then CDMA-compatible phones are installed in each office or house- wherever a wired phone would normally have to be installed. The phones are not designed to be battery-powered portables; they get their power from standard 220V sources, but because they are not tied to a phone jack, they can be moved to different areas easily. This is especially important for preexisting structures where adding more phone lines would be a problem. Wireless local loop can also be applied in the other direction. If a location does not have wired telephone service but has access to CDMA cellular coverage, a building's standard wired phones can be connected to a wireless local loop hub that allows many phones to share a predetermined number of CDMA cellular transceivers. The service is almost transparent in that the users' phone act as if they were connected to a physical phone line except when all the transceivers in the wireless local loop hub are in use.

NETWORK DEPLOYMENT Because the subscriber locations in a WLL system are fixed and not mobile, the initial deployment of radio base stations need only provide coverage to areas where immediate demand for service is apparent. While a system supporting mobile communications would strive to provide coverage for an entire region before inauguration of service, fixed WLL systems can initiate service in stages. Service for a city, for example, can begin neighborhood by neighborhood as the WLL base stations are deployed. This distinction between fixed and mobile applications does not in itself imply any differences in the technology, but other dissimilarities associated with network deployment do. For example, the capacity needed for a mobile system is different than that for a fixed WLL system. While a mobile system's base stations must provide adequate capacity to support worst-case (e.g., busy hour) traffic, a fixed system's base stations must only provide the capacity needed to support a known number of subscribers. That capacity may be greater than that needed by the same number of mobile subscribers, however -- in a fixed WLL system as compared to a mobile system, the grade of service may be mandated to be better, and the traffic generated per subscriber may be higher due to lower tariffs than those charged for premium mobile service and the different usage patterns of homes and offices. Consequently, the ideal fixed WLL system should be fully modular and scaleable so that additional capacity can be readily added to base stations, so that network capacity can be redistributed among existing base stations, and so that base stations can be re-deployed as needed to best meet changes in traffic demand. The nature of coverage is also different in fixed and mobile applications. While a mobile system must effectively provide communications to all areas within signal range of the base station, a fixed system can assume that the subscriber terminal has been positioned to obtain the best possible signal. A fixed subscriber terminal will be oriented for the greatest signal strength upon

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 81 of 86

Mukul

installation, and, if necessary, a directional antenna pointing to the nearest WLL base station can be used to improve the signal quality (in terms of the carrierto-interference ratio) or extend the range. Similarly, a fixed subscriber terminal will not experience the same magnitude of fading effects seen by a mobile terminal. Even fixed terminals will experience fades, however, due to local changes in the propagation environment. While mobile terminals can be expected to move out of such fades, a subscriber terminal adapted for fixed wireless service should employ diversity receive antennas to counter the effects of whatever fades are present. As a result of such differences between fixed and mobile propagation environments, the transmit power levels of a fixed WLL system can be reduced compared to that of a mobile system, assuming the same range of coverage and all other variables held constant. If the fixed subscribers are localized, moreover, then directional antennas may be used at the base station to further improve the system's link margins. Adapted for fixed wireless service in this way, reduced transmit power levels at the base station of a fixed WLL system imply reduced base station costs and improved reliability.

WLL Subscriber Terminals Subscribers in a WLL system receive phone service through terminals linked by radio to a network of base stations. The WLL terminals may be handsets that allow the subscriber some degree of mobility, they may be integrated desktop phone and radio sets, or they may be single- or multiple-line units that connect to one or more standard telephones. Terminals may be mounted indoors or outdoors, and they may or may not include battery back-up for use during line power outages. These differences in WLL terminal designs reflect the use of different radio technologies in wireless local loop systems and the varying levels of services that can be supported -- from Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) to advanced broadband services. Such WLL subscriber terminal design variations highlight how mobile technology can be adapted to suit the variety of fixed wireless applications. As mentioned previously, WLL subscriber terminals adapted for fixed wireless service should incorporate antenna diversity to compensate for fading and should allow use of directional antennas to extend range. Single- and multiple-line units that connect to standard wireline telephones are uniquely suited for fixed wireless services. Unlike any mobile wireless unit, multiple-line subscriber terminals provide more than one independent channel of service, with each line routed as appropriate to support an office, an apartment complex, or a bank of payphones. With such single- and multiple-line designs, the WLL subscriber terminal effectively becomes the analog of a wireline phone jack -- one connects a standard phone and receives standard phone service as if connected by copper lines to the telephone network. To truly deliver "standard phone service" however, requires WLL capabilities above and beyond that offered by many mobile systems. For example, the WLL and its subscriber terminal should support data and facsimile communications as well as voice without requiring any external"digital modem" adapters. Each line provided by a single- or multiple-line subscriber unit should provide the ring current needed to support multiple extensions. And, as required, the subscriber terminals should support the signaling needed for payphone service.

WLL Interfaces to the PSTN Subscribers to a WLL system are linked via radio to a network of radio base stations which, in turn, are tied by a backhaul network to allow interconnection to the PSTN. In general, the WLL system's interface to the telephone network can be supported either by its own switch or through direct connection to the

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 82 of 86

Mukul

local exchange. The manner in which the WLL system interconnects to the PSTN, however, represents a key distinction between systems based on mobile wireless technology or adapted to fixed wireless. WLL systems are available that incorporate their own switch or that connect to only one or a few specific switch types. In part, this approach to WLL system architecture reflects the difficulty of supporting direct connection to the wide variety of switches globally deployed. It can also reflect a given WLL system's reliance on technology designed for the support of mobile services. Due to the history of mobile services as competitive independent networks distinct from wireline service providers, such systems have been developed for use with specific mobile switch centers. The requirement of mobile switch centers or specific switch types as part of a WLL system, however, represents additional cost to the network operator. By contrast, direct connection of a WLL system to existing central office switches effectively makes the WLL network a direct extension of the wireline network and allows use of underutilized switching resources. The WLL system itself can rely upon the PSTN to provide all primary switching functions. Ideally, a WLL network adapted to fixed wireless services as a cost-effective extension of the wireline network should be able to connect to existing local exchanges in a cost-efficient manner that preserves the advanced features provided by the exchange and supports mixed-vendor networks. Direct connection to PSTN switches can be either through analog or digital interfaces. Analog two- or four-wire interfaces are provided by all central office switches to support copper line local loops, and some WLL systems are able to use them effectively. Digital interfaces using 64 kbps PCM voice channels, on the other hand, can be more convenient and less expensive. In particular, the V5.2 landline digital interconnect standard has been standardized by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) as the recommended open digital interface between a landline switching office and WLL system, Remote Switch Unit, or Private Branch Exchange. Unfortunately, while V5.2 would allow interface across multiple switch and WLL vendors, its adoption and introduction by the world's local exchange switch manufacturers have only just begun. In the meantime, WLL equipment manufacturers have developed proprietary digital interfaces to suit specific switches as required by their specific markets.

Microwave Backhaul Connectivity Microwave is used to connect the cities to provide the required backhaul within the city (intra city) and between the cities the (inter city). I NT E R CI T Y MI CRO W AVE B ACK H AUL

Inter city microwave backhaul is transmitted on the 3-21 GHz band. At the MSC (main switching center) total no of E1s are taken from the DDF and fed into the radio equipment. Before sending all the E1 trough the air each E1 is specified for its destination. All the traffic is sent for the specified destination on these specified E1s only I NT RA CIT Y MI CRO W AVE B ACK H AUL

For the Intra City the backhaul transmission is done at 3-21 GHz band. At the BSC (base station controller) total no of E1s are taken from the incoming radio and then fed into the DDF and jumpering is done at the BSC and the output is fed into the outgoing radio equipment. Before sending all the E1 trough the air each E1 is specified for its destination.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 83 of 86

Mukul

All the traffic is sent for the specified destination on these specified E1s only S TE P S F O R T RANS MI T T I NG I NT E R CI T Y

Calculate the total E1 required for the entire path Get the required no. of E1 from the DDF Specify the destination of these E1 Feed into the microwave radio Send it through the air S TE P S F O R RE CE I VI NG I NTE R CIT Y

Receive the required no. of E1 for that destination Feed into the incoming radio of BSC Feed them into the DDF from the receiving radio S TE P S F O R DI ST RI B UT I O N OF E 1 I NT E RCI T Y MI CRO W AVE B ACKB O NE I N TH E

E1 are sent from the MSC for the last city in the route E1 are calculated for all the drop insert point in between At the first add/drop point all the E1 are taken and the required no. of E1 are dropped and the rest E1 are sent forward. This process will be repeated till the last add/drop point S TE P S F O R T RANS MI T T I NG I NT RA CI T Y

Define the destination of each E1 in the BSC Define the primary and the secondary path for each E1 Define the total required no. of E1/time slots( fractional E1) at each cell site Send them to the outgoing radio for the intra city backhaul S TE P F O R RE CE I VI NG I NT RA CIT Y:

Receive the required no. of E1 for that destination Feed into the incoming radio of BTS Feed them into the primary port from the receiving radio S TE P S F O R T HE CI T Y DI ST RI B UT I O N OF E 1 W I TH I N

The E1s are received from the BSC and fed into the incoming radio These E1 are sent in two direction opposite to each other called as primary and secondary paths All the E1 for the city are sent altogether and at each BTS in both the paths First BTS takes the required no. of E1 for its use and the rest E1 are send forward From the DDF these E1 are fed into the BTS primary port Logically each E1 passes through each BTS in both the paths but only required E1 are dropped at each BTS in both the paths Routes should be designed in such a way, that in case of complete termination of E1 links from BSC to a set of BTSs or a single BTS in both the primary and secondary paths, BTSs falling in the remaining routes can provide the coverage for the BTSs/BTS whose E1 links are terminated with the BSC

Conclusion The needs of wireless local loop systems are different and distinct from those of mobile wireless systems, although aspects of the technology may be common. To best suit fixed wireless applications in WLL systems, mobile wireless technology should be adapted to directly address the requirements of fixed wireless. From the point of view of the network operator, the questions to ask any WLL system vendor must include:

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 84 of 86

Mukul

 is the system modular, allowing cost-effective deployment of capacity, capable of future growth, and suitable for re-deployment if needed? Is the system's underlying wireless technology standardized and able to take advantage of economies of scale? Is the system spectrally efficient, especially for high-capacity needs or in regions with severely constrained access to bandwidth? Does the system take advantage of the differences between fixed and mobile propagation environments through directional antennas at the base station and lower transmit powers? Are single- and multiple-line subscriber terminals provided? Do the subscriber terminals support multiple extensions? Can directional antennas be used at the subscriber terminals to extend the range from the base station? Is antenna diversity used at the subscriber terminal to defeat the effects of fading? Are data and facsimile communications supported in addition to voice without external adapters? Can existing switch capacity be utilized by the WLL system by direct connection? Is the deployment and additional cost of a mobile switch center or specific switch type avoided?

Ten Top Advantages Using CDMA

1. Voice Activities Cycles:

CDMA is the only one technique that success in take advantage of the nature of human conversation. The human voice activity cycle is 35%, the rest of the time we are listening. In CDMA all the users are sharing one radio channel. Because each channel user has active just 35% of the entire cycle, all others benefit with less interference in a single CDMA radio channel. So, the mutual interference is in a nice-free way, reduced by 65%; and thus, the channel capacity is increased about three times.

2. No Equalizer Needed:
When the transmission rate is much higher than 10kb/s in both FDMA and TDMA, an equalizer is required. On the other hand, CDMA only needs a correlator, which is cheaper than the equalizer. 3. No Hard Handoff: In CDMA, every cell uses the same radio, the only difference is the code sequences. This feature avoids do handoff from one frequency to another while moving from one cell to another.

4. No Guard Time in CDMA:

The use of guard time between time slots. Of course, the guard time does occupy the time period for certain bits. This "waste" of bits does not exists in CDMA, because guard time is not needed in CDMA technique

5. Less Fading:
Less fading is observed in the wide-band signal while propagating in a mobile ratio environment.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 85 of 86

Mukul

6. Capacity Advantage:
Given correct parameters, CDMA can have four times the TDMA radio capacity; and twenty times FDMA radio capacity per channel/cell.

7. No frequency management or assignment needed:

In both, TDMA and FDMA, the frequency management is always a critical task to carry out. Since there is only one channel in CDMA, no frequency management is needed.

8. Soft Capacity:
Because in CDMA all the traffic channels share a single CDMA radio channel, we can add oe additional user so the voice quality is just slightly degraded.

9. Coexistence:
Both systems, analog and CDMA can operate in two different spectrums, with no interference at all.

10. For Microcell and in-building Systems:

CDMA is a natural waveform suitable for microcell and inbuilding.

CDMA & RF Planning

Page 86 of 86

Mukul