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I. Introduction
Introduction
Aim of the course
Give a general overview of classical and modern control theory Give a general overview of modern control tools
Prerequisites
Mathematics : complex numbers, linear algebra
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I. Introduction
Introduction
Tools
Matlab / Simulink
Book
Feedback Control of Dynamics Systems , Franklin, Powell, Amami-Naeini, Addison-Wessley Pub Co Many many books, websites and free references...
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I. Introduction
Introduction
270 BC : the clepsydra and other hydraulically regulated devices for time measurement (Ktesibios)
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I. Introduction
Introduction
1136-1206 : Ibn al-Razzaz alJazari
The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices crank mechanism, connecting rod, programmable automaton, humanoid robot, reciprocating piston engine, suction pipe, suction pump, double-acting pump, valve, combination lock, cam, camshaft, segmental gear, the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and especially the crankshaft, which is considered the most important mechanical invention in history after the wheel
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I. Introduction
Introduction
1600-1900 : pre-industrial revolution
Thermostatic regulators (Cornelius Drebbel 1572 1633) Water level regulation (flush toilet, steam machine)
Windmill speed regulation. 1588 : mill hoper ; 1745 : fantail by Lee ; 1780 : speed regulation by Mead
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Introduction
1800-1935 : mathematics, basis for control theory Differential equations first analysis and proofs of stability condition for feedback systems (Lagrange, Hamilton, Poncelet, Airy-1840, Hermite-1854,
Maxwell-1868, Routh-1877, Vyshnegradsky-1877, Hurwitz-1895, Lyapunov-1892)
1940-1960 : classical period Frequency domain theory : (Hall-1940, Nichols-194, Bode-1938) Stochastic approach (Kolmogorov-1941, Wiener and Bigelow-1942) Information theory (Shannon-1948) and cybernetics (Wiener-1949)
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I. Introduction
Introduction
1960-1980 : modern period, aeronautics and spatial industry Non linear and time varying problems (Hamel-1949, Tsypkin-1955, Popov1961, Yakubovich-1962, Sandberg-1964, Narendra-1964, Desoer-1965,Zames1966) Optimal control and Estimation theory (Bellman-1957, Pontryagin-1958,Kalman1960) Control by computer, discrete systems theory : (Shannon-1950, Jury-1960, Ragazzini and Zadeh-1952, Ragazzini and Franklin-1958,(Kuo-1963, Astrm-1970) 1980-... : simulation, computers, etc...
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I. Introduction
Introduction
What is automatic control ? Basic idea is to enhance open loop control with feedback control This seemingly idea is tremendously powerfull Feedback is a key idea in control
Perturbation Input reference Open loop Controler Input Process Output
Measurement
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I. Introduction
10
Introduction
Example : the feedback amplifier Harold Black, 1927
R2 R1 V1 - A +
V2 R2 = V1 R1
1+
1 R2 1 + A R1
R2 R1
Resulting gain is determined by passive components ! amplification is linear reduced delay noise reduction
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Introduction
Use of block diagrams Capture the essence of behaviour standard drawing abstraction information hiding points similarities between systems
Same tools for : generation and transmission of energy transmission of informaiton transportation (cars, aerospace, etc...) industrial processes, manufacturing mechatronics, instrumentation Biology, medicine, finance, economy...
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Introduction
Basic properties of feedback (1)
k V1 A + V2
V 2 (1 + A k ) = A V1 1 V2 1 1 = k V1 k 1 + 1 Ak
V 2 = A (V1 k V 2)
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I. Introduction
13
Introduction
Basic properties of feedback (2) : static properties
e kc d
r e kc d u kp y
kp
y = kp kc e + kp d
k p kc 1 + kp kc
r +
kp 1 + k p kc
Introduction
Basic properties of feedback (2) : dynamics properties Closed loop control can : enhance system dynamics stabilize an unstable system make unstable a stable system !
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I. Introduction
15
Introduction
The On-Off or bang-bang controller : u = {umax , umin}
u u u
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I. Introduction
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Introduction
The proportional derivative controller
de(t ) u (t ) = k p e(t ) + k d dt
Gives an idea of future : phase advance The proportional integral controller
u (t ) = k p e(t ) + k i 0 e( ) d
t
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I. Introduction
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Cruise control
A cruise control problem : Process input : gas pedal u Process output : velocity v Reference : desired velocity vr Disturbance : slope
F
mg
Construct a block diagram Understand how the system works Identify the major components and the relevant signals Key questions are :
Where is the essential dynamics ? What are the appropriate abstractions ?
Cruise control
vr Controller
Throttle
Engine
Body v
ext. force
We made the assumptions : Essential dynamics relates velocity to force The force respond instantly to a change in the throttle Relations are linear We can now draw the process equations
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Cruise control
dv(t ) + k v = F mg dt
dv(t ) + 0.02 v = u 10 dt
Cruise control
Process linear equations :
dv(t ) + 0.02 v = u 10 dt
PI controller :
u (t ) = k (v r v(t )) + k i 0 (v r v( )) d
t
e=0!
II. A first controller design 23
Cruise control
Now we can tune k and ki in order to achieve a given dynamics
d 2 x (t ) dx (t ) + 2 0 + 0 2 x (t ) = 0 dt dt
How to choose 0 and ?
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Cruise control
Compare open loop and closed loop
Open loop
Closed loop
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Cruise control
Compare different damping (0 = 0.1) = 0.5 =1 =2
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Cruise control
Compare different natural frequencies 0 (= 1) 0 = 0.05 0 = 0.1 0 = 0.2
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Cruise control
Control tools and methods help to : Derive equations from the system Manipulate the equations Understand the equations (standard model)
Qualitative understanding concepts Insight Standard form Computations
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Standard models
Standard models are foundations of the control language Important to : Learn to deal with standard models Transform problems to standard model The standard model deals with Linear Time Invariant process (LTI), modelized with Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE) :
d n y(t ) dt
n
+ a1
d n 1 y(t ) dt
n 1
... + a n y(t ) = b1
d n 1u (t ) dt
n 1
... + b n u (t )
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Standard models
Example (fundamental) : the first order equation dy(t ) + a y(t ) = 0 dt
y(t ) = y(0 ) e a t
y(t ) = y(0 ) e a t + b 0 e a (t ) u ( ) d
t
dy(t ) + a y(t ) = b u (t ) dt
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Standard models
A higher degree model is not so different :
d n y(t ) dt
n
+ a1
d n 1 y(t ) dt
n 1
... + a n y(t ) = 0
Characteristic polynomial is :
A(s ) = s n + a 1 s n 1... + a n
If polynomial has n distinct roots k then the time solution is :
y(t ) =
k =1
C k e k t
n
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Standard models
Real k roots gives first order responses :
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Standard models
General case (input u) :
d n y(t ) dt
n
+ a1
n
d n 1 y(t ) dt
n 1
... + a n y(t ) = b1
t
d n 1u (t ) dt
n 1
... + b n u (t )
y(t ) =
k =1
C k (t ) e k t + 0 g(t ) d
g(t ) = C ' k (t ) e k t
n k =1
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Standard models
Transfer function without knowing anything about Laplace transform it can be useful to store ak and bk coefficients in a convenient way, the transfer function :
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The output (y) of the the system is related to the input (u) by the convolution :
y(t) = h(t)
h(t) is called the impulse response, h(t) describes completely the system Causality : h(t) = 0 if t < 0
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x(t)
X(s) = x ( t ) e st dt
X (s)
Y(s) = H(s) . U(s)
X(s) = 1
X(s) = 1/s
d y(t) = x ( t ) dt
Y(s) = s.X(s) x (0 + )
1 s 2 + 2
38
Sinusodal fonction :
y(t) = sin( t )
Y(s) =
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Delay :
y(t) = x ( t t d )
Initial value theorem :
y( + ) = lim(s Y(s ))
s 0
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From t to s
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From s to t
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(a
= (b 0 + b1 s ) U(s ) b1 u (0 + )
+ a1 s + a 2 s 2 X(s ) (a1 + a 2 s ) x (0 + ) a 2 x (0 + ) o
X(s ) =
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x (t ) = h (t ) u (t ) + i (t )
Initial conditions are generally assumed to be null !
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u(t)
System
y(t)
Y(s)
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u(t)
y(t) System
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poles : p1, p2, p3 Poles and zeros are either into the left plane ore into the right plane Complex poles and zeros have a conjugate
III. Laplace transforms 47
p2
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First orders
Complex system response is the sum of first order and second order systems responses
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Second orders
Y(s ) =
1 U(s ) s + p1
y( t ) = e p1 t
Table of transform
Y(s ) =
1 s + p1
50
Y(s ) =
Example 2 : step response u(t) is a step
1 U(s ) s + p1
1 y( t ) = 1 e p1 t p1
Table of transform
Y(s ) = H(s ) U(s ) Y(s ) = 1 1 s + p1 s
51
H(s) =
Y(s) =
Step response t1 = 1/p1 is the time constant of the system : after t = t1, 63% of the final value is obtained
1 U(s) s + p1
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y( t ) =
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t
Table of transform
Y(s) =
1 s 2 + 2 0 s + 0
2
53
y( t ) = 1
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t + ar cos( )
Table of transform
Y(s) =
1 s 2 + 2 0 s + 0
2
1 s
54
H(s) =
Step response : y( t ) = 1
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t + ar cos( )
overshoot
0 1 2 is the pseudo-frequency
5% of the final value is obtained after :
t 5% 3 0
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Im Re
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Stability
Stable
Im
Unstable Re unstable pole, deverges like exp(t) stable pole, decays like exp(-4.t)
Any pole with positive real part is unstable Any input (even small) will lead to instability See animation
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fast slow
Im
Re
slow pole, decays like exp(-t) constant time : t1 = 1s fast pole, decays like exp(-4.t) constant time : t1 = 4s
58
Effect of zeros
See animation Im Fast zero : neglected Slow zero : transient response affected Positive zero : non minimal phase system, step response start out in the wrong direction
Re
dv(t ) + 0.02 v = u 10 dt
Transfer functions :
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V(s ) =
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Introduction
Standard problems are often first orders or second orders Standard problem standard solution
d r C(s) u P(s) y
b P(s ) = s+a
P(s ) =
b1s + b 2 s 2 + a1 s + a 2
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P(s ) =
b s+a
ki C(s ) = k + s
Step 3 : combine equations and tune k and in ki in order to achieve the desired closed loop behavior (mass-spring damper analogy)
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y( t ) =
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t
Table of transform
Y(s) =
1 s 2 + 2 0 s + 0
2
66
y( t ) = 1
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t + ar cos( )
Table of transform
Y(s) =
1 s 2 + 2 0 s + 0
2
1 s
67
H(s) =
Step response : y( t ) = 1
1 0 1
2
e t sin 0 1 2 t + ar cos( )
overshoot
0 1 2 is the pseudo-frequency
5% of the final value is obtained after :
t 5% 3 0
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Im Re
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Step 1 , step 2 : idem (PI controller) Step 3 : Transfer function is now third order
CL(s ) =
2 s2 (1 + a s )1 + s + 2 0 0
1 + b's
2 dof (k and ki) : the full dynamics (order 3) cannot be totally chosen
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Simulation tools
Matlab or Scilab Transfer function is a Matlab object Adapted to transfer function algebra (addition, multiplication) Simulation, time domain analysis
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Conclusion
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V. Frequency response
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V. Frequency response
73
Introduction
Frequency response : One way to view dynamics Heritage of electrical engineering (Bode) Fits well block diagrams Deals with systems having large order electronic feedback amplifier have order 50-100 ! input output dynamics, black box models, external description Adapted to experimental determination of dynamics
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V. Frequency response
74
The system is a black box : forget about the internal details and focus only on the input-output behavior Frequency response makes a giant table of possible inputs-outputs pairs Test entries are enough to fully describe LTI systems
- Step response - Impulse response - sinusoids
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V. Frequency response
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Time Invariant
(u1(t),y1(t)) is an input-output pair then (u1(t-T),y1(t-T)) is an inputoutput pair
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V. Frequency response
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V. Frequency response
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y(t ) = G (i 0 ) e i0 t + R k e k t
G (i 0 ) Rk 1 = + s i 0 s i 0 s k
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V. Frequency response
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V. Frequency response
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Real =0 L(i.)
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V. Frequency response
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Nyquist theorem
When the transfer loop function L does not have poles in the right half plane the closed loop system is stable if the complete Nyquist curve does not encircle the critical (-1,0) point. When the transfer loop function L has N poles in the right half plane the closed loop system is stable if the complete Nyquist curve encircle the critical (-1,0) point N times.
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V. Frequency response
82
(-1,0) STABLE
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(-1,0)
UNSTABLE
V. Frequency response 83
Nyquist theorem
Focus on the characteristic equation Difficult to see how the characteristic equation L is influenced by the controller C
Question is : how to change C ?
Strong practical applications Possibility to introduce stability margin : how close to instability are we ?
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V. Frequency response
84
Stability margin
Stability margin definitions :
M Phase margin
1/gM
45- 60 gM Gain margin 2-6 d Shortest distance to critical point 0.5 - 0.8
(-1,0)
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V. Frequency response
85
dB scale for gain Logarithmic frequency axis Linear scale for phase
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V. Frequency response
87
One criteria is sufficient in most cases because gain and margin are closely related
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H bf ( j ) =
H bo ( j ) 1 for << c 1 + H bo ( j )
H bo ( j ) H bf ( j ) = H bo ( j ) for >> c 1 + H bo ( j )
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V. Frequency response
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c Log10
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V. Frequency response
90
c Log10
Open loop Bode plot Close loop Bode plot (phase margin 90 ) Close loop Bode plot (phase margin 30 )
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V. Frequency response
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Static gain
H bo ( j ) H bf ( j ) = 1 + H bo ( j )
For small value of (low frequency) : If Hbo() << 1 If Hbo() >> 1 If Hbo() then then then Hbf() Hbo() Hbf() 1 Hbf() 1
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V. Frequency response
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Controller specifications
e(s) u(s) y(s)
C(s)
G(s)
Open loop transfer function : OLTF = C.G Close loop transfer function : CLTF = C.G / (1 + C.G)
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V. Frequency response
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Controller specifications
Static gain close to 1
Low frequency : high gain
Perturbation rejection
High frequency : low gain
Stability
phase margin > 0
|C(j).G(j)|
Bandwith
Cross over frequency c
Overshoot 25%
phase margin 45 Gentle slope in transition region
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Controller design
Proportionnal feedback
Effect : lifts gain with no change in phase Bode : shift gain by factor of K
C (s ) = K
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V. Frequency response
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Controller design
Lead compensation
1+ s C (s ) = K 1 + A s
Effect : lifts phase by increasing gain at high frequency Very usefull controller : increase phase margin Bode : add phase between zero and pole
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V. Frequency response
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V. Frequency response
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Introduction
More complete standard problem :
n y
Controller : feedback C(s) and feedforward F(s) Load disturbance d : drives the system from its desired state x Measurement disturbance n : corrupts information about x Main requirement is that process variable x should follow reference r
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Introduction
Controllers specifications : A. Reduce effects of load disturbance B. Does not inject too much measurement noise into the system C. Makes the closed loop insensitive to variations in the process D. Makes output follow reference signal
Classical approach : deal with A,B and C with controller C(s) and deal with D with feedforward F(s)
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Introduction
Controllers specifications : A. Reduce effects of load disturbance B. Does not inject too much measurement noise into the system C. Makes the closed loop insensitive to variations in the process D. Makes output follow reference signal Classical approach : deal with A,B and C with controller C(s) and deal with D with feedforward F(s) : Design procedure Design the feedback C(s) too achieve
Small sensitivity to load disturbance d Low injection of measurement noise n High robustness to process variations
P PC PCF d + n + r 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C P 1 PCF y= d + n + r 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C PC C CF u= d + n + r 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C x=
Six distinct transfer functions
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From: r
-20 -40
0 -20 -40
0 -20 -40 10
-1
10
10 10
1 -1
10
10 10
1 -1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
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From: r
10
20
300
10 20 Time (sec)
300
10
20
30
104
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Sensibility functions
P PC PCF d + n + r 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C P 1 PCF d + n + r y= 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C PC C CF d + n + r u= 1+ P C 1+ P C 1+ P C x=
L = PC 1 1 S= = 1+ L 1+ P C L PC T= = 1+ L 1+ P C
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Sensibility functions
L=PC tells everything about stability : common denominator of each transfer functions
Bode Diagram Magnitude (dB) Phase (deg) 0
-20
-40 -90
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
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Sensibility functions
S=1/(1+L) tells about noise reduction
d r=0 e C u P x n y
Without feedback :
y ol = n + P d
With feedback control : 1 P y cl = n+ d = S y ol 1+ P C 1+ P C Disturbances with |S(i)| < 1 are reduced by feedback Disturbances with |S(i)| > 1 are amplified by feedback
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Sensibility functions
It would be nice to have |S(i)| < 1 for all frequencies !
log S 0
(i ) = 0
log S 0
(i ) > 0
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Sensibility functions
Nyquist stability criteria :
, CP < 1 + L P P
(-1,0)
d = 1+ L CP
<
1 T
1/T tells how much P is allowed to vary until system becomes unstable
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Sensibility functions
Nyquist stability criteria : Minimum value of d tells how close of instability is the system dmin is a measure of robustness : the bigger is M=1/d the more robust is the system
(-1,0) log|S(i)|
d = 1+ L CP
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Introduction
Feedforward is a useful complement to feedback. Basic properties are: + Reduce effects of disturbance that can be measured + Improve response to reference signal + No risk for instability - Design of feedforward is simple but requires good model and/or measurements + Beneficial when combined with feedback
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Y = P2 (1 P1 F ) D
Disturbance is eliminated if F is chosen such as: F = P1-1 Need to measure d P1 needs to be inversible
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System inverse
The ideal feedforward needs to compute the inverse of P1. Thats might be tricky Examples:
P (s ) = 1 1+ s
F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = 1 + s F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = (1 + s ) es
F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = 1+ s 1 s
Differentiation
e s P (s ) = 1+ s
P (s ) = 1 s 1+ s
Prediction
Unstable
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The ideal feedforward needs to compute the inverse of P1. Thats might be tricky Examples:
P (s ) = 1 1+ s
F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = 1 + s F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = (1 + s ) es F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = 1+ s 1 s
Differentiation
e s P (s ) = 1+ s P (s ) = 1 s 1+ s
Prediction
Unstable
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Where:
V = PXU
And where U is a particular input (ex: a step signal). This gives for instance:
P (s ) = 1 1+ s 1 s 1+ s
P 1 ( s )
1+ s 1+ T s
P ( s ) = e s
P (s ) =
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P 1 ( s ) 1 F ( s ) = P 1 ( s ) = 1
VII. Feedforward design 118
ym is the desired trajectory. Choose Mu = My / P Design concerns: Mu approximated My adapted such that My/P feasible
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Feedback Closed loop Acts only when there are deviations Market driven Robust to model errors Risk for instability
Feedforward Open loop Acts before deviation shows up Planning Not robust to model errors No risk for instability
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Introduction
Simple design becomes difficult for high order systems What is the State concept ? - State are the variables that fully summarize the actual state of the system - Future can be fully predicted from the current state - State is the ideal basis for control
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State feedback
Let us suppose the system is described by the following equation (x is a vector, A, B and C are matrixes) :
dx = A x + Bu dt y = C x The general linear controller is :
u = K x + L u
The closed loop system then becomes : dx = A x + B ( K x + L u ) = ( A B K ) x + B L u dt y = C x The closed loop system has the characteristic equation:
P ( s ) = det ( s I ( A B K ) )
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State feedback
Let us suppose the system is described by the following equation (x is a vector, A, B and C are matrixes) :
dx = A x + Bu dt y = C x The general linear controller is :
u = K x + L u
The closed loop system then becomes : dx = A x + B ( K x + L u ) = ( A B K ) x + B L u dt y = C x The closed loop system has the characteristic equation:
P ( s ) = det ( s I ( A B K ) )
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Pole placement
Original (open loop) system behavior depends on its poles, solution of the characteristic equation:
POL ( s ) = det ( s I A )
Closed loop system behavior depends on its poles, solution of the characteristic equation:
PCL ( s ) = det ( s I ( A B K ) )
Needs to tune N parameters (N : dimension of x and K) Appropriate choice of K allow to place the poles anywhere ! (Needs simple mathematical skills (not detailed here ) Two problems : observability, controllability
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Pole placement
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126
Only u and y accessible, A and B known. Solution is to estimate internal state x with a state observer of gain Ko :
dx obs = A x obs + B u + K obs ( y yobs ) dt y = C x obs obs
Appropriate choice of Kobs minimizes yobs y : xobs tends to x Poles of the observer are the poles of:
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P ( s ) = det ( s I ( A K obs C ) )
127
Only u and y accessible, A and B known. Solution is to estimate internal state x with a state observer of gain Ko :
dx obs = A x obs + B u + K obs ( y yobs ) dt y = C x obs obs
Appropriate choice of Kobs minimizes yobs y : xobs tends to x Poles of the observer are the poles of:
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P ( s ) = det ( s I ( A K obs C ) )
128
P ( s ) = det ( s I ( A K obs C ) )
Poles of the system Poles of the observer
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In most cases : yes Sometimes, the state is not observable : The observer does not converge to the true state, whatever Kobs is. Can be derived from a mathematical analyses of (A,C):
rank(A,AC,AAC,AAAC) = N
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True (with x) state feedback can be replaced by an observed (xobs) state feedback:
u = K x obs + L u
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rank(A,AB,AAB,AAAB) = N
Problem if : - A state is not controllable and unstable - A state is not controllable and slow No problem if : - A state is not controllable and fast (decays rapidly)
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