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ch pt ,
III
Extensometers
by M. J. Lebow
Introduction
T h e oldest techniques of strain m e a s u r e m e n t are those which involve direct mechanical measurem e n t of the change in length of a specimen. T h e general disadvantages of direct mechanical measu r e m e n t sometimes overshadow and d e t r a c t f r o m its general use. Weight, bulkiness, low frequency response and limited range of reading are the m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e s when c o m p a r e d with the electrical strain gage. However, m a n y situations arise where dependability of calibration, along with the lack of need for expensive electronic i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , m a k e the use of a mechanical motion-measuring device practical. Also, one mechanical gage m a y be used to t a k e readings for a n y n u m b e r of positions b y using p e r m a n e ~ t gage-length points as a reference. T h e basic principle of m e c h a n i c a l - t y p e gages consists of magnifying the relatively small motions to values t h a t are readable b y eye. One of the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l m e t h o d s of strain amplification is the use of: (a) simple lever. I n this basic category m a y also be placed: (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Multiple levers Wedge magnifiers Optical levers Dial indicators Direct m e a s u r e m e n t over long distances also exists. These devices m a y be classified in the general field of transducers, since t h e y a m p l i f y b y transforming the motion into other energy forms. T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y used devices in this class are;
C o m b i n a t i o n s of the a b o v e two s y s t e m s are c o m m o n l y found in order to obtain additional amplification. T h e inherent factors which m u s t be e v a l u a t e d before selecting a particular t y p e or combination are m a n y , a n d no one m e t h o d can satisfy all the requirements t h a t m a y be listed, e.g.: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Readability Ease of m o u n t i n g Sensitivity Accuracy Required o p e r a t o r skill R e p e a t a b i l i t y of readings R a n g e of m o t i o n Size F r e q u e n c y response
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In general, the straight mechanical magnification provides the most inexpensive and easily operated unit.
Mechanical Extensometers
Readability
For those extensometers which are built using a single pointer and scale, a major factor is the minimum width of division t h a t can readily be differentiated b y the observer. This value is sensitive to t h e care and technique used in forming~ the graduations themselves. I n practice, machined division lines should not be less t h a n 0.004-in. wide, and the minimum spacing should be about 0.025 in. With a fine chisel point on the indicating hand, these divisions can be estim a t e d to 1/10 of a division without the aid of auxiliary devices. T h e pointer width should be less t h a n 0.1 of a division a t its tip.
the pivots is t h a t introduced b y the necessity of transferring the change in length of the test piece to the measuring device. T h e use of mechanical levers for magnification conventionally requires t h a t a sharp point contact the test surface at two positions. T h e distance between these positions defines the gage length of the unit. T o prevent these gage points from slipping on the test surface and to minimize the pressure required to " c l a m p " t h e m to the test surface, the gage points are usually made sharp. T h e digging in of the points minimizes the slip condition. Occasionally, small holes or scratches are purposely formed on the test piece for the above reasons.
Pivots
T h e choice of pivot design for a lever must be tempered b y the magnitude of angular motion required, the friction t h a t m a y be developed, and rigidity or maintenance of a fixed pivot point during handling and operation. T h e m e t h o d which produces the least a m o u n t of variable friction is the knife edge or conical point, b u t this system is limited in its available angular travel. A conventional pin in a round hole produces the greatest a m o u n t of friction especially with increasing pin diameter, b u t does allow unlimited angular travel. T h e possibility of loose fits between pin and hole will tend to destroy repeatability of
Repeatability
One of the problems of repeatability of an instrument is the existence of friction at the pivot points. A desirable instrument design would use components t h a t are as light in weight as possible so t h a t the forces required to support and move the components are as small as possible. A second factor affecting the loads carried b y
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readings. A third m e t h o d is to use thin flexure plates a t all p i v o t points. T h i s eliminates, to a great extent, the v a r i a t i o n or presence of frictional forces t h a t are unpredictable, a t the sacrifice of angular travel and low operating force.
T h e gage consists of two parts, a t a r g e t (a) and a scratch a r m (b). These p a r t s are a t t a c h e d to the specimen b y a n y available m e t h o d - - c e m e n t ing, soldering, or with screws.
Direct-reading Gages
A. T h e W h i t t e m o r e strain gage. This gage, Fig. 3-1, uses no magnification of m o t i o n b u t depends directly u p o n sensitivity of a dial indicator. I n this instrument, two bars are connected b y flexible plates. A dial indicator is a t t a c h e d to one bar, and the indicator spindle bears against the second bar. One gage point is a t t a c h e d to each bar. T h e relative m o t i o n of the bars is indicated b y a dial which reads in 0.0001-in. divisions. B. D e F o r e s t scratch-recording strain gage (Fig. 3-2). A simple, inexpensive recording s y s t e m m a y be used for recording d y n a m i c and static p e a k strains with a m i n i m u m of supervision.
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Multiple-lever Systems
A. Porter-Lipp strain gage (Fig. 3-6). A lightweight, compact, relatively short-gage-length unit. The unit is held to the specimen b y a spring wrapped around the test piece or b y a clamping frame. B. Huggenberger strain gage (Fig. 3-7). This is also a light-weight, high-amplification unit t h a t is self-contained. Knife edge (e) is fixed, while knife edge (f) which is part of lever (c) rotates a b o u t the lower pivot, pushing bar (d) against the pointer. T h e change in length of the gage length is multiplied by the ratio (ll 12)/(al a2). This magnification ratio, which depends upon the particular instrument, is generally from 300 to 1200 in. gage lengths varying from 1/4 in. to about 4 in.
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Optical-lever Gages
A. M a r t e n mirror extensometer (Fig. 3-8).
T h e detrimental effects of bearing friction, flexure plate forces, and inertia of mechanical levers can be overcome b y the use of a b e a m of light for magnification purposes. A small plane mirror is attached to a double knife edge. As the knife edge is rotated due to a change in length of the specimen, the light beam is rotated through twice the angle, as shown in Fig. 3-8. The degree of magnification depends upon the distance between the mirror and the scale, and the scale and the
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Experimental Mechanics I
25A
length of the short lever (double knife edge). F o r the s y s t e m shown, the magnification factor is 2 A / B (within 10 percent accuracy), provided t h a t the r o t a t i o n of the mirror is less t h a n app r o x i m a t e l y 10 deg. T h e distance B is usually 0.2 in. with A 250 times B, giving a magnification of 500. This i n s t r u m e n t is extremely sensitive and, b y using a transit or telescope, readings m a y be estimated to 1/10 m m which corresponds to a length change of 0.000008 in. B. T u c k e r m a n optical strain gage 1 (Fig. 3-9). This is an i m p r o v e m e n t over the M a r t e n ' s single mirror since relative angular motion of the specimen does not affect the readings. I n this instrument, the relative rotation between the fixed mirror and the m o v a b l e mirror is measured with an autocollimator, thus eliminating the effect of specimen rotation.
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using optical flats, dimensional changes of the order of the wavelength of m o n o c h r o m a t i c light can be measured. An application of this principle b y R. V. Vose 3 to the m e a s u r e m e n t of lateral strains is indicated b y Fig. 3-10. C. Air gages 4 (Fig. 3-11). T h e principle of operation of an air gage depends u p o n the relative discharge of air between a fixed orifice and a variable orifice. T h e pressure P which exists in the line b e t w e e n the two orifices is a function of the relative v o l u m e of air discharge of each orifice. T h i s pressure difference m a y be measured b y a sensitive m a n o m e t e r . T h e effective area of the discharge orifice m a y be varied b y changing the distance b e t w e e n the orifice opening and a flat plate against which the orifice discharges. A second m e t h o d used in m a n y commercial air gages is to m o v e a valve which, in t u r n , varies the discharge-orifice area. D. T r a n s f o r m e r coupling (Fig. 3-12). A comm o n commercial f o r m of this s y s t e m is the linear variable differential transformer. T h i s device produces an electrical o u t p u t proportional to the displacement of a separate m o v a b l e core. T h r e e coils of wire are equally spaced on a cylindrical coil form. A rod-shaped magnetic core positioned axially inside this coil assembly provides a p a t h for m a g n e t i c flux linking the coils. W h e n the p r i m a r y or center coil is energized with alternating current, voltages are induced in the two outer coils. T h e outer coils are connected in series, so t h a t the two voltages are opposite in phase. T h e net o u t p u t is the difference of these two voltages. At one central position, this o u t p u t voltage will be zero. T h i s is called the null position. W h e n the core is m o v e d f r o m the balance point, the induced voltage in one coil increases while the other decreases. W i t h proper design, the secondary voltage will v a r y linearly with core displacement. M o t i o n of t h e core in the opposite direction fr(~m t h e null produces a similar voltage characteristic b u t opposite in phase. I n commercially available units, the o u t p u t voltage m a y be up to 0.005 v/0.001-in, displacement. T h e frequency response of these units is a function of the applied i n p u t frequency voltage. P r i m a r y voltage frequencies u p to 20,000 cps can be used, depending u p o n the design of the transformer. E. Capacitance gages. A change in capacity of a condenser m a y be produced b y varying the distance between the plates of the condenser or varying the area. T h e change in c a p a c i t y of the condenser m a y t h e n be observed b y m e a n s of conventional electronic circuits. 5 F. Plate-spacing variation. This s y s t e m conventionally consists of two metallic plates separated
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b y a small distance with t h e t w o plates insulated f r o m each other. A n y small m o t i o n between the plates will change the capacity. For the s y s t e m to be linear, the original gap m u s t be small, and only a small range of m o t i o n is possible. G a p s in the region of 10 -3 in. are conventional with a m o t i o n in the range of 10 -~ in. G. Plate-area variation. I n its simplest form, the sliding of one plate of the capacitor across the other while maintaining a uniform spacing between t h e m will produce a variable-area condenser. T h e c a p a c i t y ctiange is a linear function of area and m a y be sensed b y a p p r o p r i a t e instruments. T h e basic d i s a d v a n t a g e of the capacitancedisplacement gage lies in the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n problems, while its a d v a n t a g e lies in the freedom of design t h a t is available. Capacitance changes 6 f r o m 0 to 20 #f are sensed using carrier frequencies f r o m 1 to 2.5 megacycles/sec.
SuggestedList of ReadingReferences
1. Wilson, B. L., "'Characteristics of the Tuckerman Gage," Proe. A S T M , 44 (1944). 2. Gadd, C. W., and Van DeGri#, T. C., "'A Short Gage Length Extensometer and its Application to the Study of Crankshaft Stresses," J n L Appl. Mech., 9 (March 1942). 3. Vose, R. V., " A n Application of the Interferometer Strain Gage in Photoelasticity," Jnl. Appl. Mech., 2, 99-102 (Sept. 1935). 4. Handbook of Experimental Stress Analysis, M . Hetgnyi, Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 114-116 (1950). 5. Handbook of Experimental Stress Analysis, M . Hetdnyi, Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 295-298 (1950).
ExperimentalMechanics [
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The Observatie
Roscoe Guernsey, Ed/for
Pes :
This month we are featuring, in particular, a number of unconventional testing techniques which the reviewers have come across in the literature. These may not fit your particular project, but you ought to know about them for future reference. The uses for lasers seem to be multiplying rapidly these days. The interferometer for small strain measurement sounds very interesting. Maybe it can be applied to other problems as well.
67. Lindberg, H. E., "Dynamic Plastic Buckling of a Thin Cylindrical Shell Containing an Elastic Core." Journal of Applied Mechanics, Series E, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 803-812, Dec. 1965.
A theory is presented which explains the buckling process and gives a means of calculating core properties which will insure that no buckling takes place for a given maximum impulse. Experiments on magnesium and aluminum shells filled with rigid-foam polyurethane are described. Impulses were applied by detonating a 50/50 mixture of acetylene and oxygen contained at a uniformthickness all aroundthe cylinder.
Reviewer: J. A. Baird, Brown Engineering Company, Inc.
68. Vail, V., Krogstad, R. S., and Moss, R. W., "Laser Interferometer for Earth-strain Measurements." Review of Scientific Instruments, Voh 36, No. 9, pp. 1352-1355, 1965.
Earth strains over a 10-meter gage length were measured with an interferometer using a laser-light source. An electronic readout system is described that allows fringe motion to be displayed on a strip-chart recorder such that displacements of less than 1/10ofringe are easily resolved. According to the authors, the laser interferometer has the advantage of temperature independence over conventional techniques for earthstrain measurements so that gage lengths of 100 meters or more may prove to be feasible. The accuracy of the instrument is limited only by the frequency stability of the laser radiation (one part in 10I~ is achievable) so that it is possible to measure strains of the order of 10. -10
Reviewer: J. S. Whittier, Aerospace Corp.
71. Prigorovski, N. h, Khurshudov, G. Kh., and Ushakov, B. N., "Investigations of Stress State in Region of Connections of a Vessel Subjected to Internal Pressure, Using Tensometric Models" (in Russian). Metody Issledovaniia Napriazhenii. Akademia NaukSSSR. Izdatelstvo"Nauka." Moskva, 1965. Authors used mechanical models of a pressurized vessel for determination of stress distribution and stress concentration in region of connections. Models were made of organic glass. Strain measurements were performed through the use of electric-resistance gages (gage lengths 5 and 10 ram). For each model, from 100 to 150 gages were used. Authors present comparison between results obtained by use of different methods: plane models, three-dimensional models made of organic glass and three-dimensional models made of metal.
Reviewer: J. T. Pindera, University of Waterloo
69. Benedick, W. B., "Nitroguanidine Explosive Plane-wave Generator for Producing Low-amplitude Shock Waves." Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 36, No. 9, pp. 1309-1315, 1965.
Plane low-amplitude (below 100 Kb) shock waves may be generated by planar impact of a flat-faced projectile on a flat specimen, but extreme care is needed to achieve good planarity. Alternatively, the shock wave generated by a conventional explosive plane-wave generator may be attenuated by passage through a series of acoustically mismatched layers. Provision for the proper diameter-to-length ratio to avoid edge effects requires large quantities of explosives. The present paper discusses a third alternative--an explosive plane-wave generator incorporating a low-density explosive (nitroguanidine). Design considerations for good planarity are discussed. With such a generator, nearly two orders of magnitude less explosive were needed than when an attenuator and a conventional explosive plane-wave generator were used.
Reviewer: J. S. Whittier, Ael~)space Corp.
72. Bronov, V. M., and Prigorovski, N. h, "Determination of Stress Concentration Using Plane Electric Models" (in Russian). Metody Issledovaniia Napriazhenii. Akademia Nauk SSSR. Izdatelstvo"Nauka." Moskva, 1965.
Authors discuss different methods of determination of stress concentrations, and describe method and technique based on electric analogy. According to presented results, coefficients of stress concentration obtained by means of electric models and photoelastic models were similar.
Reviewer: J. ~. Pindera, University of Waterloo
73. Aben, H. K., "On Application of Photoelastic Coatings for Investigation of Shells" (in Russian). Izviestiia Akademii NaukSSSR. Mekhanika i Mashinostroenie. No. 6, 1964. Author performed analysis of optical effect due to rotation of principal stresses in photoelastic coatings on shells. An approximate method for calculation of rotation of principal directions is presented. This method is based on effect of dispersion of characteristic quantities.
Reviewer: J . T. Pindera, University of Waterloo
70. Penn, R. W., and Fulmer, G. E., "Recording Creep Tester for Soft Polymeric Materials." Review of Scientific InstruR. Guernsey is associated with TRW Systems, Redondo Beach, Calif.
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