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Rural buildings in Kashmir are generally made by the people for their own use without the help of architects. The various forms of construction have evolved over time with the input of each generation of artisans. Traditional rural buildings use locally available materials and skills.
Manual for Restoration and Retrofitting of Rural Structures in Kashmir 13
raditional architecture in many places continues to evolve, and Kashmiri rural architecture is no exception. A number of building systems in various parts of Kashmir have developed over time to accommodate local natural and cultural factors, including the impact of earthquakes. These systems are not only part of the cultural heritage of Kashmir but also add to its beautiful landscape. Historically, the buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing as well as walling. Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid option for local constructions. They were expensive, and their use added logistical complications to the construction process. However, in recent times new materials have made their way into the valleys of Kashmir on account of their favorable economics as well as peoples aspiration to modernity.
Traditional flat mud roof on timber understructure with stone masonry walls
Until the 1970s the most common building systems in Kashmir were brick or stone walls. Some of them timber framed, with timber and mud roofs. But as durable wood like Deodar became very expensive, corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets came to replace wood planks and shingles. In areas where it is easy to transport these sheets, the change has been so far-reaching that CGI sheeting now constitutes the most common form of roofing in the region. Even in areas where just twenty years ago houses were mainly built with flat mud roofs, CGI sheets have become the predominant roofing material. Apart from this, the reinforced concrete (RC) slab is gradually replacing the timber floor and load bearing masonry walls are replacing the timber framing. Again, changing economic forces as well as peoples aspirations to a more contemporary lifestyle are encouraging such changes.
Architecture constantly adapts to suit the changing context so that it can best meet the common persons needs. There is, however, a risk that new materials and construction methods imported from outside may be introduced at a speed that does not allow for the traditional way of testing novelties over time and adapting them to the local situation. Furthermore, the social, climatic, economic and technical impacts of new interventions are often not fully understood, and this may have negative effects on peoples lives. These impacts include the reaction of buildings to earthquakes and other natural disasters. RC, for example, is a material that requires a high level of engineering, but the people who use this material often know little about this. This is why, in many cases, new materials and techniques applied in an unprofessional way will threaten the safety of buildings and the people who live in them.
Economics
This is demonstrated most clearly by the use of brick for construction, which is most economical in the plains of the Kashmir Valley, and the use of stone, which is most economical in the hills, on account of their easy availability in the respective areas. The valley has soil that is most suitable to make bricks, baked or unbaked. The mountains, on the other hand, offer very little soil but have lots of stone and rock. When people in the hills consider switching from stone to brick, these economic factors become very relevant. The cost per brick, which is Rs.1-2 in Baramulla town (in the valley), can be Rs.3-4 at a roadside village 60 km away, or even as high as Rs.5-6 in a village a mere 2 km away from the road side where it has to be transported on mule back. Where roofing is concerned, even today CGI sheets have made no inroads where timber is cheaply available and where access to the area is only by foot over long distances and steep terrain. In other areas, cheaper timber varieties with shorter life are gaining acceptability, since the CGI roofing protects such timber from the natural
elements and timber no longer gets exposed as it did when it was used for shingles or plank roofing.
Maintenance
Maintenance requires materials and skills. Since these are no different from what is required in construction, the maintenance of rural structures is easy and within the reach of ordinary people. However, if materials from outside the locality were to be used, the maintenance of the structure would become expensive.
Wood shingle roofing on timber placed on brick masonry and dhajji walls
The most common wall types are load bearing: (a) baked brick (external wall) masonry with mud or cement mortar, with or without plaster, (b) unbaked brick (internal wall) with mud mortar and mud plaster, or (c) unbaked brick with baked brick veneer (external wall) masonry with mud mortar, with or without plaster, or (d) Dhajji timber framed constructions with infill of baked brick in cement mortar or unbaked brick masonry in mud mortar, both 4" thick with timber frame. Many structures which are typically single- and double-storey have Dhajji walls in the upper storey and the gables. Roofs slope steeply in two directions. Although planks or shingles of hardwood like Deodar were formerly the main roofing materials, today CGI sheets on timber supports have become the most common type of roofing.
Burnt and unburnt brick masonry walls with CGI roofing on timber
Unbaked brick wall with timber element Unbaked brick with baked brick veneer
pitched. The wood shingle roofing that was once used in most structures has been replaced by the CGI sheeting on account of economics and availability. This manual does not cover the traditional Dhajji Dewari and Taaq constructions since these have heritage value and thus call for a different approach to restoration and retrofitting than half-modern/halftraditional composite rural constructions.
Coursed random rubble masonry without plaster & brick Dhajji gable
structure is built in one go. But the upper storeys are enclosed and finished at a later date. The ground-storey rooms are used as a sitting area, bedrooms, and kitchen. The upper storey rooms may be used as for storage as well as bedrooms. On account of the joint-family system with several families living under one roof, there is often more than one kitchen in the house. The attic area is invariably used for storage, since the people are predominantly agriculturists. In the case of single-storey houses, the attic space is often divided with lightweight internal walls to create more utilizable spaces. Traditionally, timber has been the most used domestic fuel in the region. Wood-burning stoves are made from mud by the lady of the house. An
ingeniously efficient water heating system used to be incorporated in the construction of the kitchen wall just to one side of the stove. The system consisted of a copper vessel embedded in the masonry wall with openings for a water inlet and outlet. A cavity is made in the wall such that the hot gases from the stove go round the tank and heat its content. While cooking is in progress the water is heated continuously. In recent years, however, with cooking gas slowly replacing wood, people have been heating water on a gas stove. Electric water heaters have begun to come in, too. For space heating, traditionally the houses had fireplaces. But today, the simple wood-burning space heating stoves called Bukhari, made out of galvanized iron sheets, have become very popular since they do not involve additional expense in construction.