Antennas in Systems

1
EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation
5. Antennas in Systems
Basic antenna concepts; antennas for low, medium and high frequencies; terrestrial and satellite propagation links; environmental eects on electromagnetic radiation. [3-0-0]
EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)
Prof. David G. Michelson
During these lectures, the instructor will bring up many points and details not given on these slides. Accordingly, it is expected that the student will annotate these notes during the lecture. The lecture only introduces the subject matter. Students must complete the reading assignments and problems if they are to master the material.
Introduction
There are considerable dierences in the physical realization of antennas for dierent purposes and frequencies. Those involved in the manufacture and deployment of antennas are obviously very interested in the physical details. Those involved in systems design can take a more abstract view and describe antennas in terms of system-level parameters. Such system-level parameters must be carefully designed to form a minimal yet self-complete set that lends itself to both numerical calculation and experimental measurement.
Objectives
Upon completion of this module, EECE 483 students will be able to: Explain the advantages of employing a systems approach to wireless systems design. Describe the key features of the isotropic radiator concept. Dene the common system-level properties of antennas. Given the radiation pattern of an antenna, estimate the relevant antenna parameters. Use the reciprocity theorem and the concept of eective area to solve problems involving receiving antennas. Given a description of a transmission or radar system, estimate the signal and noise power at the receiver.
EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*) Prof. David G. Michelson
Outline
1. The Systems Approach 2. The Isotropic Radiator 3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas Radiation Pattern Gain Input Impedance Bandwidth Polarization 4. The Reciprocity Theorem and Eective Area 5. Wireless Transmission Systems 6. Radar Systems 7. Noise in Wireless Systems
1. The Systems Approach

It is useful to separate the functional properties of an antenna from the implementation details. By focusing on functional requirements, we are less likely to force the designer to take a predetermined (and possibly suboptimal) path. This separation also allows a small group of systems engineers to eectively coordinate the eorts of many teams of implementers, including antenna engineers, RF designers, software developers, etc. Because contractual obligations are often negotiated based upon system level descriptions, it is necessary to carefully dene a consistent set of parameters that can be used to describe the performance of an antenna. Many of these parameters are dened in IEEE Standard Denitions of Terms for Antennas, IEEE Std 145-1983.
2. Isotropic Radiator
An isotropic radiator radiates uniform spherical waves into space, i.e., it has a uniform radiation pattern. If the transmitted power is Pt (W), we can show that the power density S (W/m2) at a distance r is S= Pt . 4r2
Because electromagnetic elds are vector elds, it is not possible to realize an isotropic radiator. (How can one prove this?) Although an isotropic radiator cannot be realized in practice, it is a convenient (albeit hypothetical) reference against which to compare the performance of antennas with more complicated radiation patterns.
Hairy Ball Theorem

The hairy ball theorem of algebraic topology states that, in laymans terms, one cannot comb the hair on a ball smooth. This fact is immediately convincing to most people, even though they might not recognize the more formal statement of the theorem, There is no nonvanishing continuous tangent vector eld on the sphere. Less briey, if f is a continuous function that assigns a vector in R3 to every point p on a sphere, and for all p the vector f (p) is a tangent direction to the sphere at p, then there is at least one p such that f (p) = 0. This implies that a device that radiates vector waves, i.e., waves with transverse components, cannot radiate isotropically.
Plane and Solid Angles

The measure of a plane angle, , is the radian. One radian (rad) is dened as the circular arc with length equal to its radius. Because the circumference of a circle is 2r, there are 2 rad in a circle.
The measure of a solid angle, , is the steradian. One steradian (sr) is dened as solid angle that subtends the spherical cap with area equal to the square of its radius. Because the area of a sphere is 4r2, there are 4 sr in a sphere.
10
The Steradian
The solid angle may be thought of as the area of the spherical cap A normalized with respect to the square of its radius r, i.e., = A/r2 .
11
3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas

Practical antennas radiate more intensely in some directions than others. That is, they are directional. If the antenna is 100% ecient, integrating the power density observed at a given distance over the entire sphere will yield the total radiated power. That is, 2 Prad =
0 0
S(, ) r2 sin d d .
This implies that directional antennas simply focus power in some directions at the expense of other directions. As we shall see, almost all system-level antenna properties of interest are consequences of the inverse square law and conservation of power.
12
Fundamental Performance Parameters

From a systems perspective, fundamental: radiation pattern gain input impedance bandwidth polarization For a linear and passive antenna, all of these antenna properties are identical for both transmission and reception (by virtue of the reciprocity theorem).
ve performance parameters are
13
Secondary Performance Parameters

Other performance parameters may be derived from the above and are considered to be secondary, e.g., directivity eciency beamwidth beam eciency sidelobe level As we shall later see, these functional properties (taken together with our understanding of how antennas function) form the basis for distinguishing antennas which: (1) electrically small, (2) resonant, (3) broadband, or (4) based upon a radiating aperture.
14
Other Systems-Level Performance Parameters

Certain mechanical properties may also be considered to be systems-level parameters, e.g., weight size sail area (or wind area) power handling capabilities environmental limitations (temperature, vibration, weather) When designing an antenna, it is often dicult to enhance one performance parameter without sacricing another. Managing such trade-os lies at the heart of the antenna design problem.
15
3.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern

The antenna pattern or radiation pattern describes the manner in which the power density of the radiated eld at a given distance varies with elevation and azimuth angle. It can be expressed in the form of a three-dimensional surface in either spherical or rectangular coordinates. It is more typically expressed in the form of two-dimensional cuts through the principal planes (x-y, x-z, y-z). In the case of both directional antennas and omnidirectional antennas, it is usually sucient to specify the vertical and horizontal planes alone. (Why?)
16
Plotting Radiation Patterns

The antenna radiation pattern is typically plotted in dB relative to the maximum observed value. A lobe is the portion of a radiation pattern that is bounded by nulls in the pattern. The main lobe is the lobe with the strongest peak. All other lobes are referred to as minor lobes or sidelobes.
17
Derived Parameters
The half-power beamwidth in a particular plane is dened as the angular extent over which the pattern is within 3 dB of its maximum value. The beamwidth between (specied) nulls is dened as the angular extent between nulls in the antenna pattern. The sidelobe level is expressed in decibels with respect to the maximum of the main beam. Beam eciency is dened as the fraction of the total radiated (or received) power that is transmitted (or received) within a specied solid angle, e.g., the solid angle that is subtended by the main lobe. Beam solid angle A is the solid angle through which all the power would be radiated if the radiation intensity equalled the maximum value over the beam area.
18
Alternative Conventions for Plotting Radiation Patterns

If the entire pattern (or pattern cut) is of interest, the radiation pattern is usually plotted in spherical (or polar) coordinates, e.g., if the antenna has a broad beamwidth. if the utility of the antenna in rejecting interference is of interest. If only a portion of the pattern is of interest, the radiation pattern is usually plotted in rectangular coordinates, e.g., if the antenna is highly directional. if one wishes to compare sidelobe levels.
19
Four Antenna Pattern Plot Types
20
NSMA Standard Format for the Electronic Transfer of Antenna Patterns

Most antenna vendors can supply their products antenna patterns in electronic, albeit, proprietary formats. Study Group 16 - Antenna Patterns of The National Spectrum Managers Association (NSMA) has sought to establish a standard format for the electronic transfer of antenna pattern data between manufacturers, consultants, coordinators and users. The intent of the standard is to increase the accuracy and facilitate the transfer of antenna pattern data. For details, see http://www.fcc.gov/oet/info/software/nsma/. Would an XML-based format make more sense? Why or why not?
21
NSMA File Format Details

[Antenna Manufacturer] + CRLF [Antenna Model number] + CRLF [Comment] + CRLF [FCC ID number] + CRLF [reverse pattern ID number] + CRLF [date of data] + CRLF [Manufacturer ID Number (see filenaming convention)] + CRLF [frequency range] + CRLF [mid-band gain] + CRLF [Half-power beam width] + CRLF [polarization (char 7) + chr\$(32) + datacount (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF] [angle(1) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB(char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF] . . [angle(datacount) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF] . . [polarization (char 7) + chr\$(32) + datacount (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF] [angle(1) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB(char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF] . . [angle(datacount) (char 7) + chr\$(32) + relative gain in dB (char 7) + chr\$(32) + CRLF]
22
Software for plotting NSMA antenna patterns is available from FCC. A UNIX-based version would likely be most welcome!
23
3.2 Gain
The directional characteristics of an antenna are frequently expressed in terms of a gain function G(, ). The gain function is the ratio of: (1) the power density observed in a particular direction at a particular distance to (2) the power density that would be produced at the same location by an isotropic radiator driven by an identical transmitter. The power density S at a distance r in the direction (, ) is S = Pt G(, ) . 4r2
The maximum value of G(, ) is conventionally referred to as G, the gain of the antenna.
24
Absolute and Relative Gain

In all cases, gain is determined under free space conditions, i.e., no reections or multipath. Because the gain of an antenna is typically expressed with respect to the power density produced by an isotropic antenna, it has units of dBi. Because the reference is absolute, this is referred to as absolute gain. In some cases, the reference antenna is a half-wave dipole. In such cases, gain is expressed in dBd. It is common to experimentally compare the gain of one antenna to another, i.e., to determine the relative gain of an antenna. It is much more dicult to experimentally determine the absolute gain of an antenna. Why?
25
Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity is a distance independent measure of the power radiated from an antenna. It is dened as the power radiated in a given direction from an antenna per unit solid angle and has units of Watts/steradian (W/sr). Radiation intensity is related to the time-averaged Poynting vector S as follows: 1 r Re(E H) r2 U (, ) = 2 = S(, ) r2 . Radiation intensity can be expressed as U (, ) = Um |F (, )|2 ,
26
where |F (, )| is the normalized power pattern, i.e., |F | = 1 in the direction max, max . The total power radiated by an antenna is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity over all angles, Prad = where d = sin d d . For a given antenna, the average radiation intensity is given by Uave = 1 4 U (, ) d = Prad . 4 U (, ) d ,
27
Directivity
Directivity, D, is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity (averaged over all solid angles). In essence, we are comparing the antenna to itself rather than to another antenna. We pay a price, though: When estimating gain, it is sucient to characterize radiation intensity in the direction of interest for both the antenna under test and the reference antenna. When estimating directivity, we must characterize radiation intensity over all solid angles.
28
Directivity, Gain, and Eciency

For an antenna which has no conductor or dielectric losses (and which is 100% ecient), directivity and gain are equal. Otherwise, G = D where is the eciency of the antenna. Return loss, ||2, is a related concept that refers to the fraction of power lost due to impedance mismatch at the antenna terminals. Return loss is not included in the IEEE standard denition of gain because it is usually included as a separate line item in the system link budget.
29
Calculating Radiated Power
Recall that the power radiated by an antenna is: S(, ) dS 1 Re 2 1 Re 2 (E H) dS

(E H EH ) r2 sin d d
= = =
where E H is the vertically polarized component and EH is the horizontally polarized component.
30
We can simplify this by recalling that H = yielding P = 1 2 (|E |2 + |E|2) r2 d . E and H = E
31
3.3 Input Impedance

The input impedance, Zin, of an antenna is the impedance presented by the antenna at its terminals: Zin = Rin + jXin . The input resistance, which accounts for power dissipated by the antenna, has two components: Rin = Rrad + Rohmic . The input reactance Xin represents energy stored in the near eld of the antenna. In most cases, Rohmic << Rrad. This is not necessarily true for electrically small antennas!
32
Radiation Resistance and Ohmic Resistance

Radiation resistance, Rrad, can be estimated by determining Prad using the techniques outlined in previous sections, then solving the equation Prad = 1 2 |I| Rrad 2
where I is the peak value of the current applied to the antenna terminals. The ohmic resistance, R, can be estimated by determining the power dissipated P using whatever techniques are appropriate for the antenna geometry in question, then solving the equation P =
1 2 |I| R . 2
33
For the special case of a cylindrical wire, the ohmic resistance, R, can be estimated by: (1) determining the skin depth in terms of the RF frequency and material properties of the metal, (2) using this information to determine the eective cross-sectional area A of the wire (in square metres), then (3) applying the formula R = L A
where is the resistivity of the material in ohm-metres and L is the length of the wire in metres.
34
Antenna Eciency
Antenna eciency is the ratio of the power actually radiated by the antenna to the power applied to the input terminals = Prad/Pin We dene Prad, P, and Pin as follows: Prad = P = 1 2 I Rrad 2 1 2 I R 2
Pin = Prad + P .
35
Therefore, we can also show that if = Prad Pin
then = = Rrad Rin Rrad . Rrad + R
36
3.4 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is dened as the range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specied standard. For narrowband antennas (e.g., dipoles), bandwidth is normally expressed as a fractional bandwidth in percent, i.e., F BW = 100 f %. f0
For broadband antennas (e.g., horn antennas), bandwidth is normally expressed as the ratio of the upper to lower frequency, i.e., n:1=
fu . f
37
Antennas that have multiple resonances and are usable in dierent frequency bands are referred to, naturally, as multi-band antennas. Such antennas are in great demand as dierent services (cellular and PCS, or ISM 2450 and U-NII band devices) are integrated into a single device. Antennas with extremely large bandwidths are referred to as frequencyindependent antennas. Examples include log-periodic dipole antennas and spiral antennas. Such antennas were originally developed for use in Electronic Warfare and other applications that require frequency agility over a wide range. They are once again in demand as interest in UWB technology grows.
38
3.5 Polarization
In general, an arbitrarily polarized wave can be decomposed into components with electric eld vectors that point in the vertical and horizontal directions.
39
Depending upon the relative amplitude and phase of the two components, the amplitude and orientation of the electric vector will change over time.
40
Denition of Polarization
The polarization of an electromagnetic wave refers to the behaviour of the electric eld over time as observed at a xed point in space. In general, the electric eld vector will trace an elliptical locus. Special cases include linear and circular. The shape of the locus, and the direction in which E is rotating, specify the polarization state of the wave.
41
Why is Polarization Important?

Antennas are designed to radiate or receive waves with a particular polarization state in the direction of maximum radiation intensity. If the polarization state of the incident wave and the antenna are dierent, a mismatch will occur that we must account for. Apart from physically rotating the antenna, reection (and transmission) of a wave from (or through) a boundary or complex scatterer can alter the polarization state of the wave. For example, we know that reection and transmission of electromagnetic waves from the boundaries between dielectric media is dependent upon the orientation of the electric eld vector. The polarization states of the incident, reected, and transmitted waves are rarely the same. We need to characterize them in a systematic way.
42
Characterizing the Polarization State of a Wave

Because the locus traced by the electric eld vector is always an ellipse of some shape and orientation, characterizing the polarization state of a wave is not dicult. An ellipse can always be characterized by a pair of parameters, e.g., its major axis a and minor axis b its axial ratio AR and tilt angle its ellipticity angle and tilt angle its polarization ratio E1/E2 and phase angle its polarization angle and phase angle We also need to account for the direction of rotation of the locus, either right hand (clockwise when the wave is receding from the observer) or left hand (counterclockwise when the wave is receding from the observer).
43
The Geometry of a Polarization Ellipse
44
The Ellipticity and Tilt Angles

Visualizing the manner in which polarization state depends upon the ellipticity and tilt angles is particularly straightforward. Here, the wave is approaching the observer.
45
Denitions of , , , and
The axial ratio AR is given by the ratio of the major and minor axes or a/b where 1 |AR| . It is positive for left-hand polarization and negative for right-hand polarization. The ellipticity angle is given by cot1 AR where 45 +45.
The tilt angle is the angle between the horizontal and the major axis a where 0 180. The polarization ratio is the ratio of the vertical and horizontally polarized components, E2 and E1, where 0 E2/E1 . The polarization angle is given by tan1 E2/E1 where 0 90. The phase angle is the phase dierence between E2 and E1 where 180 +180.
46
The Poincar Sphere e

Both ( , ) and (, ) are ordered pairs of angles and can be mapped onto the surface of a Poincar sphere where 2 = the latitude, 2 = e the longitude.
47
The Relationship Between , , , and

We can use spherical trigonometry, including the law of cosines, to deduce the precise relationship between , , , and : cos 2 tan tan 2 sin 2 = cos 2 cos 2 = tan 2 sin 2
= tan 2 cos = sin 2 sin
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A

48
Polarization Mismatch
In free space, an antenna which presents a particular polarization will receive nothing if the transmitting antenna (and, as a consequence, the incident wave) is orthogonally polarized. Vertical and horizontal, and left and right circular are special cases of orthogonal polarizations. In the general case, any pair of polarization states which are 180 apart on the Poincar sphere will be orthogonal. e
49
If we know the polarization vector Ei that describes the relationship between E2 and E1 for the incident wave and the corresponding vector Ea for the antenna, the reduction in received power compared to when the polarization states are identical is given by = Ei Ea . |Ei| |Ea|
Alternatively, if the great circle angle between the polarization states is , the polarization mismatch factor is given by = cos2(/2) . The polarization mismatch factor can be included as a line item in the system link budget.
50
4. The Reciprocity Theorem and Eective Area

So far, we have assumed in our analyses that that the antenna is radiating. However, the performance of an antenna when it is used to receive signals is equally important.
51
The reciprocity theorem and the concept of eective area are the keys to understanding the receiving properties of antennas. Lets start by considering the reciprocity theorem for linear, passive, bilateral two-port networks. The transfer impedance V /I will not change when the positions of the generator and ammeter are interchanged. Proof: We generally assume that the generator and ammeter have zero impedance, but the result also holds if the generator and ammeter have equal impedances. If we make the impedances very large (Z ), what form do the generator and ammeter take? Here, we drive the antenna with a current I, but we measure a voltage V across the terminals of the receiving antenna.
52
From the above, if the transmitting and receiving antennas are passive, and the intervening propagation medium is linear, passive, and isotropic, the received signal strength is unchanged when the transmitter and receiver are exchanged Thus, we conclude that the transmitting and receiving patterns of an antenna are identical.
53
Eective Area
It can be shown that the gain of a radiating aperture containing a uniform electric eld over an area A is Ga = 4A . 2
We can use the result to dene the eective area Ae of any antenna as 2 Ae = G. 4 What is the signicance of Ae?
54
If a plane electromagnetic wave with power density S (W/m2) is incident upon a uniform aperture antenna with matching polarization and physical area A, the power that it receives is Pr = S A . If we invoke the reciprocity theorem, we can show that an antenna with gain G will receive G/Ga as much power. Thus, P r = S Ae . We can interpret Ae as the eective collecting area of the antenna during reception.
55
Interesting Implications
If the area of the antenna is constant (as in the case of a horn antenna or reector antenna) then the gain of the antenna, then the gain of the antenna will increase with frequency G= 4A 4Af 2 = . 2 c2
That is, the radiation pattern of an aperture antenna will become narrower with increasing frequency. If the radiation pattern is xed (as in the case of a wire antenna), then the Ae of the antenna will decrease with frequency. c2G 2 G = . Ae = 4 4f 2
56
That is, a wire antenna of given size/length (in wavelengths) will become less sensitive with increasing frequency.
57
5. Wireless Transmission Systems

In wireless transmission systems, a transmitting antenna launches a propagating wave which is intercepted by a receiving antenna some distance away. As engineers, we are quite interested in predicting how much power will appear at the output port of the receiving antenna relative to the amount of power applied to the transmitting antenna. For the free space or line-of-sight (LOS) cases with no reections, the calculation is very straightforward. For cases where the path is obstructed (non-line-of-sight or NLOS), there are multiple propagation paths, or time-varying factors such as weather or moving objects (people, vehicles) aect transmission along the path, the calculation is much more involved. (More on this in Module 9 Radiowave Propagation!)
58
Path Loss and the Friis Transmission Formula

The results derived in the previous section allow us to derive an expression for the power received by a receiving antenna from a transmitting antenna with both oriented for maximum power transfer and in free space (no obstructions or reections). The power received over a wireless link under free space conditions is given by Pr = Pt G t 1 Ae 4r2 4r
2
= Pt G t G r
If either antenna is not aligned for maximum power transfer, Gt or Gr can be replaced by the gain function G(, ) for the appropriate direction.
59
We can account for polarization mismatch by resolving the elds into co-polarized and cross-polarized components. The free space path gain is given by Gp = 4r
2
The free space path loss is given by Lp = 4r

2
A complete description also accounts for polarization mismatch and impedance mismatch 1 ||2.
60
Link Budget
It is useful to summarize the factors that reduce the power applied at the transmitter to the power levels observed at the receiver in the form of a spreadsheet. This allows us to assess the eect of trading o dierent design parameters on system performance.compare the received power Pr to the receiver sensitivity Psens. Simple link budgets compare the received power Pr to the receiver sensitivity Psens. More complicated link budgets will compare the received power Pr to the noise power at the receiver input in order to estimate the input signal-to-noise ratio.
61
A Simple Link Budget for a Wireless LAN
Pt - transmitted power Lt - cable loss Gt - transmit antenna gain Lp - path loss Gr - receive antenna gain Lr - cable loss Pr - received power Psens - receiver sensitivity System Margin
20 (-)3 5 (-)95 0 (-)3 -76 -85 9
dBm dB dBi dB dBi dB dBm dBm dB

62
Notes on A Simple Link Budget

Cable losses are typically between 1 and 10 dB. Typical antenna gains include: 0 2.2 15 24 dBi dBi dBi dBi normal mode helix half-wave dipole directional antenna parabolic reector
Receiver sensitivity may range from -70 to -120 dBm. A reliable link generally requires a margin of at least 10 dB. EIRP = Eective Isotropic Radiated Power = Pt Gt.
63
Rayleigh or Far-Field Criterion

The Friis transmission formula is based upon the assumption that the wave incident upon the receiving antenna is a plane wave. In practice, the waves radiated by antennas are spherical. If r (both the separation between the antennas and the radius of curvature of the spherical wavefront) is suciently large, the wave will be eectively plane. How large is sucient? It depends upon: The size of the receiving antenna. The variation in phase across the antenna aperture that we can tolerate.
64
Assuming that the angle is small d and 2r
d . 2
Thus, the additional phase shift encountered at the edge of the aperture is 2 d d r = . 2r
65
The Rayleigh criterion for the transition to an eectively plane wave allows a phase variation across the aperture of the receiving antenna of 45 or 22.5. This occurs when r = 2d2/. In the worst case, if both antennas are of signicant extent with maximum aperture dimensions d1 and d2, respectively, the far-eld criterion becomes r = 2(d2 + d2)/. 1 2 Exercise: Prove this.
66
6. Radar Systems
The possibility of detecting objects at a distance by measuring radio waves reected from them was appreciated soon after Hertzs pioneering experiments in the late 1880s. By 1904, Christian Hlsmeyer, a German inventor, had used radio waves u in a (relatively) short-range collision avoidance device for ships. By the 1930s, researchers at the US Naval Research Lab had demonstrated detection of aircraft using radio waves. In 1940, the Chain Home radar system played a decisive role in helping the British win the Battle of Britain. From 1940-1945, the Radiation Lab at MIT was the focus of AngloAmerican eorts to develop microwave radar technology in support of the war eort.
67
Together with the cryptology and cryptographic eorts centered at Bletchley Park and Arlington Hall and development of nuclear weapons by the Manhattan Project, the development of microwave radar at the Radiation Lab represents one of the most signicant, massive, secret, and outstandingly successful technological eorts undertaken by the AngloAmerican alliance during the Second World War. The development of radar technology created the impetus for developing a host of technologies, including microwave electronics, spectrum analyzers, digital signal processing, and minicomputers. From the outset, both the military and civilian sectors made great use of radar in both aeronautical and maritime applications. During the last twenty-ve years, radar remote sensing (especially synthetic aperture radar) has emerged as an important method for mapping the earths surface (land, water, and ice), tracking changes in surface features, and classifying terrain and ground cover.
68
Function and Operation of Radar

Microwave radars function by: emitting a train of modulated pulses with a given pulse duration , pulse repetition time T , peak power P , and carrier frequency f0 detecting the strength of the signal returned by the target and measuring the time interval between transmission and reception.
69
A Typical Radar
70
Radar Equation
If the transmitting and receiving antennas are co-located (or one and the same), the radar is said to be monostatic. For a monostatic radar, the time interval t between transmission and reception of the radar pulse is the round-trip travel time. Accordingly, distance to the target d is given by d= where c = 3 108 m/s. Exercise: How does the choice of and T aect the minimum detection range and maximum unambiguous range?
c t 2
71
Radar Range Equation

The maximum range of a radar is determined the strength of the radar return compared to the noise oor. Determining the strength of the radar return is a two-step process. The power density S i of the incident wave at the target is given by Si = Pt G t . 4r2
Let the eective area or radar cross section of the target be given by . The power incident upon the target Pi is given by Pi =
Pt G t . 4r2
72
If we assume that the signal reected by the target is radiated isotropically, the power received by the radar is Pr = Given that Ae = Pi Ae . 4r2 2 Gr 4
and combining the previous expressions yields Pr = Pt 2 Gt Gr . (4)3r4
73
Radar Cross Section

The scattering cross section of a target is formally dened as the area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered isotropically, would produce an echo equal to that actually returned by the target. Thus, |Es|2 r |Ei|2 where Ei is the incident electric eld, Es is the scattered electric eld, and r is the range at which the scattered eld is measured. = lim 4r2
Exercise: Show that this denition is consistent with the derivation on the previous slides. Radar cross section or RCS refers to the portion of the scattering cross section that is associated with given transmit and receive polarizations.
74
Radar Detection
The chief problem of radar is to detect targets of interest and estimate their position and physical characteristics in the presence of interference from clutter returns and noise. For a point target in space, e.g., an aircraft or spacecraft, the maximum detection range is generally set by the minimum detectable signal-tonoise ration and can be determined using the radar range equation and knowledge of the noise characteristics of the radar receiver (see 4.7.) For a point target in ground clutter, e.g., a man-made object on the earths surface, the maximum detection range is limited by the target-toclutter ratio that is determined by: (1) the RCS of the target and (2) the radar reectivity of the terrain and the extent of the terrain illuminated by the radar beam, i.e., the radar resolution cell.
75
Detection of a Point Target in Clutter
The area of the radar resolution cell may be determined by either: (1) the beamwidth of the antenna, yielding the elliptical region above, or, if it is suciently short, the length of the radar pulse, yielding the shaded portion of the ellipse.
76
Probabilities of Detection and False Alarm
The strength of the returns from clutters and targets are statistical in nature and are best described by probability distributions. Once a decision threshold is set, there is a nite probability that we will detect something that isnt there (false alarm) or not detect something that is.
77
Radar Cross Section Enhancement

It is often necessary to enhance the radar cross section of a cooperative target, either: to increase the maximum range at which the target can be reliably detected, or, to provide a target with a known response which may be used to assist in radar calibration and performance verication. A at plate with area A has a large RCS at plate = 4 A2 2
at a wavelength but acts as a retroreector only when the angle of incidence is normal to the plane.
78
If two at plates are placed orthogonal to each other, the resulting dihedral corner reector will act as a retroreector for any ray that strikes the interior and whose angle of incidence falls in the plane that is normal to both plates. If a third at plate is placed orthogonal to the rst two, the resulting trihedral corner reector will act as a retroreector for any ray that strikes the interior. In both cases, the RCS of the corner reector will have a maximum for only one angle of incidence. At 10 GHz, all of the corner reectors on the following slide present the same maximum radar cross section, = 4500 m2. Those that are physically small have a much smaller RCS beamwidth. A sphere with the same RCS will have a diameter of over 75 metres.
79
Relative Size of Corner Reectors with Identical
80
7. Noise in Wireless Systems

Receiving systems must contend with both internally generated noise and noise that the receiving antenna collects from the surrounding environment. We need to predict the noise developed at the antenna output for two reasons. First, in most communications and radar systems, we must take steps to ensure that the desired signal is suciently above the noise oor. Second, in passive remote sensing systems (radiometers), the noise power is the signal of interest. It is convenient to express the noise power at the output of the antenna in terms of a ctitious antenna temperature.
81
Antenna Temperature
82
Antenna Temperature - 2
If a resistor has a physical temperature T (K), the noise power developed at the output over a bandwidth B (Hz) is PN = k T B where k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 1023 J/K. In the same manner, the antenna temperature TA is a ctitious quantity that relates the radiation resistance of the antenna to the noise power developed at the antenna output, i.e., PN A = k T A B
83
The brightness temperature of an object or scene is given by TB (, ) = (, )Tphysical where is the emissivity of the object.
Neither the brightness temperature of the scene TB (, ) nor the radiation pattern of the antenna G(, ) are uniform with direction. In particular, TB (, ) has two main components: sky noise (TB = 5 K toward the zenith, 100-150 K toward the horizon) and ground noise (TB 300 K). Accordingly, TA = 1 A
0 0
TB (, ) G(, ) d
84
where A =
Gmax is the beam solid angle.
G(, ) d =
|F ((, )|2 d
If the temperature of the scene is uniform, T0 TA = A

0 0 2
G(, ) d =
T0 A = T 0 . A
For a small discrete source with angular extent s and temperature Ts, G(, ) 1 over the source, so TA = s Ts . A
85
System Noise Temperature
For the purposes of determining the signal-to-noise ratio at the demodulator or detector, the system noise Psys can be expressed as Psys = k(Tr + TA)B = k(Tsys)B where the system noise temperature Tsys is given Tr + TA and the receiver noise temperature is Tr .
86
The receiver temperature Tr is related to the noise factor of the receiver, F = by the relation Tr = 290(F 1) . The noise gure of the receiver is related to the noise factor by 10 log F (dB). SNRi SNRo
87
The Figure of Merit G/Tsys

Consider an antenna used with a satellite earth station. If the antenna has high sidelobes in the direction of the earth (e.g., due to spillover from the primary feed), then it will pick up substantial ground noise and have a relatively high TA. Conversely, if the antenna has low sidelobes in the direction of the earth, then it will have a much lower TA. A gure of merit often used with satellite earth terminals is G/Tsys, which is the antenna gain divided by the system noise temperature. It is usually expressed in dB/K. High values of G/Tsys, indicating high antenna gain and low system noise temperature, are desirable.
88
Summary
We have introduced (or, in some cases, reviewed): The advantages of the systems approach to design. The nature of isotropic radiators. The system-level properties of antennas, including fundamental properties such as the radiation pattern, gain, input impedance, bandwidth, and polarization; secondary properties such as directivity, and mechanical properties. Use of the reciprocity theorem and the concept of eective area to reveal the properties of receiving antennas. Use of the Friis transmission equation and link budgets to predict the performance of wireless transmission systems.
89
Use of the radar and radar range equations to predict the performance of radar systems. Use of antenna and system noise temperature to characterize noise in wireless systems
90
References
[1] F. Gross, Smart Antennas for Wireless Communications with MATLAB. McGraw-Hill, 2005, chap. 2. [2] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory - Analysis and Design, 3rd ed. Wiley, 2005, chap. 2. [3] W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd ed. New York, Wiley, 1998, chaps. 1, 2, 9. [4] IEEE Standard Denitions of Terms for Antennas, IEEE Std 145-1983.

Antennas in Systems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Antennas in Systems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

1. The Systems Approach

Hairy Ball Theorem

Plane and Solid Angles

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

3. The Fundamental Properties of Antennas

Fundamental Performance Parameters

ve performance parameters are

Secondary Performance Parameters

Other Systems-Level Performance Parameters

3.1 Antenna Radiation Pattern

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Plotting Radiation Patterns

Alternative Conventions for Plotting Radiation Patterns

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Four Antenna Pattern Plot Types

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

NSMA Standard Format for the Electronic Transfer of Antenna Patterns

NSMA File Format Details

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Absolute and Relative Gain

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Directivity, Gain, and Eciency

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Calculating Radiated Power

Recall that the power radiated by an antenna is: S(, ) dS 1 Re 2 1 Re 2 (E H) dS

We can simplify this by recalling that H = yielding P = 1 2 (|E |2 + |E|2) r2 d . E and H = E

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

3.3 Input Impedance

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Radiation Resistance and Ohmic Resistance

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

Therefore, we can also show that if = Prad Pin

then = = Rrad Rin Rrad . Rrad + R

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)

Prof. David G. Michelson

EECE 483 - Antennas and Propagation (Fall 2008*)