A Hybrid Energy-dissipation Device for Intelligent Buildings

H.M. Uras and H.M. Aktan

ABSTRACT--This paper describes the concept, design, development, and testing and evaluation of a hybrid energy-dissipation device, the active slip bracing device (ASBD). The device is a Coulomb-friction-based energy dissipater. It consists of multiple friction surfaces and an active clamping (normal) force mechanism.The ASBD is installed as part of the structural bracing in buildings. It will activate under low amplitude vibrations for assuring human comfort, and also under large amplitudes to avoid or reduce damage to the building, and to enhance the safety and comfort level of its occupants during high winds and earthquakes.The device was tested in a uniaxial testing frame. Experimental results reveal that the ASBD is a viable device with linear friction and energy-dissipation characteristics. The prototype device has proven to be reliable and durable.

Introduction

Background
The intelligent building concept is developed to improve building response to intermittent load effects such as high winds and earthquakes. The approach is to implement intelligence such that structure provides strength and stiffness when demanded. Several concepts for providing intelligence to buildings based on active control principles are described by Kobori ~ in Japan, by Melcher and Breilbach2 in Europe and by Soong3 in the United States. Hybrid methods, where the building energy-dissipation characteristics are altered, appear to be the most promising in the near term. ~-~The primary objective of this paper is to describe the design, development, and testing and evaluation of a full-scale hybrid energy-dissipation device called the active slip bracing device (ASBD). The device will be used in buildings and activate during high winds and earthquakes. The device will improve serviceability and strength of the building structural system. The ultimate limit state seismic performance criteria described in current building design codes allows significant damage to the building as long as loss of life is prevented. 4This design criteria allows the building structure itself to be used as a means of energy

dissipation by local plastification of the material. However, the future trend in seismic design is damage control. In fact, significant numbers of buildings in high seismicity zones are being renovated with damage control in mind. The building structure itself will not be used as a solid damping source to defend against seismic action. To provide economy in building cost, several new concepts are being tested, such as: base isolation, energy-dissipation devices and active control. Hybrid systems such as base isolation in conjunction with active mass dampers and energydissipation devices are being proposed. The hybrid device described here is an intelligent energy dissipater that has the potential to provide an economical solution to damage control during earthquakes. This device can be easily implemented as a retrofit in existing buildings. The device also reduces building vibrations under low-level excitations due to wind and mild seismic events. This will satisfy human comfort (serviceability) criteria in buildings with stiffness deficiencies. Passive energy-dissipation devices designed to reduce or prevent building damage during major earthquakes have been successfully tested on a l/3-scale building model on the experimental earthquake simulator.5Numerical simulations depicting building response with the ASBD have been performed and reported in the literature.6 The success achieved with passive devices, and the encouraging results of the numerical simulations provided the motivation for the development of the ASBD.

H.M. Uras is Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering, and H.M. Aktan is Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, M148202. Original manuscript submitted." January 30, 1991. Final manuscript received: September 23, 1992.

Fig. I--Installation of the active slip bracing device (ASBD) as part of the building structural bracing

Experimental Mechanics 9 15

Damage Controlby EnergyDissipation

Earthquake effects are observed as accelerations of the ground. The buildings are flexible in principle and will deform when they are subjected to earthquakes and high winds. Taking a singlestory building as an example, whose mass is primarily concentrated at the slab level, and knowing that the slab is very rigid in its plane the building response is described by the horizontal displacement time history of the concentrated mass. The ASBD is installed as part of the building structural bracing as shown in Fig. 1. The device consists of friction interfaces and a clamping mechanism. The clamping force is the normal force acting on the friction surfaces. The ASBD allows the bracing to retract or telescope through slippage when the internal brace force reaches the slip strength which is defined as clamping force times the composite friction coefficient of the ASBD: Thus, the brace force is bounded by the slip strength. In passive energydissipation devices, the clamping force is invariable. However, ASBD has an active clamping mechanism. The clamping force on the friction interface is regulated so that controlled amounts of slippage along the friction interface can take place continually during response at a deformation level much below the structural damage threshold. This action of continuous energy dissipation reduces building response amplifications significantly which improves building serviceability under low amplitude excitations, and reduces building damage under high amplitude excitations. The ASBD response bounds are designed strictly for damage control such that the energy-dissipation capacity provided is sufficient for the ultimate limit state earthquake. The effectiveness of the ASBD is demonstrated in Fig. 2. The frame in Fig. 1 is subjected to a single earthquake pulse and the response of the frame with ASBD is compared to the undamped elastic response. The horizontal displacement dies out when controlled slippage is allowed and energy is dissipated. In this case, an equivalent viscous damping of ten percent is achieved by the ASBD. The response is also demonstrated as the brace force versus brace deformation in Fig. 3. The continuous change in the clamping force is observed as the steps of the brace force. The decay of the building vibrations is due to the hysteretic energy dissipations developed by the ASBD which is depicted in Fig. 3.

will be reduced linearly with height. The top floor will require installation of ten devices. The slip range of the prototype are determined based on a displacement bound described by human comfort and maximum allowable building displacement. Design codes specify that interstory rotation should be kept below 0.25 percent for human comfort5 The upper bound of slip range is defined by damage control objective. The building's nonstructural components will be damaged beyond repair if inter-story drift exceeds one percent. This horizontal displacement range corresponds to 9-36 mm (0.36-1.44 in.) for an average story height of 3.7 m (12 ft). Also assuming the bracing in Chevron arrangement at a bay width of 6.1 m (20 ft), the slip range needs to he 47 mm (1.875 in.) if each story displaces 36 mm (1.44 in.) horizontally. Based on these considerations, the ASBD's slip range will be +50 mm (2 in.). The following design considerations are established based on architectural, mechanical and performance requirements. (1) The physical size of the device is an important architectural constraint, because i.t will be installed within a wall unit. The dimension of the device in the direction perpendicular to wall surface must not exceed 200 mm (8 in.). This assumes that the cross-members are W8 I-beams or 200 mm (8 in.) square channels. The device's width, height and length must be smaller than 200, 600 and 1000 mm (8, 24 and 40 in.) respectively.

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Design Objectiveand Considerations

The primary objective was to design and develop a prototype of a mechanical device that will dissipate energy and can be utilized to improve the response of the buildings subjected to different levels of wind and earthquakes. The device will be installed within an interior or exterior wall unit along the length of a building bracing. Coulomb friction is preferred over viscous damping as an energy-dissipation media. The coefficient of dry friction is significantly higher compared to viscous damping and thus yields higher energy dissipation. In addition, the friction force is relatively independent of the sliding velocity and directly proportional to the clamping force in dry friction interfaces. 7 On the other hand, the viscous damping depends highly on velocity and thus on building frequency, and cannot be uniformly implemented in buildings. The ASBD prototype is designed for a realistic building with ten stories and 1840 m2 (20,000 ft2) floor area per story. The average building weight is computed as 142.3 MN (32,000 kip). The slip strength is the peak resistance of the ASBD against slippage. The maximum slip strength required is computed as 267 kN (60 kip). This assumes installing 80 devices on the first floor which is sufficient to mitigate the major earthquake effects in California. The number of devices required on the upper floors

Fig. 2--Building displacement response to a single earthquake pulse

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16 9 M a r c h 1993

(2) The maximum slip strength must be 267 kN (60 kip) in both tensile and compressive directions, with a relative slip of +50 rnm (2 in.). (3) The device must maintain the structural integrity of the brace and provide adequate lateral support. (4) The energy-dissipation level of the device must be adjustable as a linear function of clamping force. (5) In the event of a component failure, the device must act as a passive device and apply the highest clamping force. (6) The device must deliver at least 10,000 operating cycles in an expected life-time of 50 years. (7) The device must function continuously for 60 seconds or more without any significant temperature rise. Performance must not be affected by thermal cycling due to high rates of energy dissipation or by long periods without operation. (8) The device must not contain any part that needs periodic maintenance.

will function as a passive device at its full energy-dissipation capacity. This is an important fail-safe requirement.

Testing of The ASBD Prototype

Experimental Objectives
The test objectives were: (l) to verify the design and evaluate the performance of the ASBD prototype, based on the design specifications; (2) to uncover design flaws; (3) to check the structural integrity/durability of the device; (4) to get input for necessary improvements; and (5) to develop confidence in the ASBD.

Experimental Setup
Prior to testing, the ASBD prototype is instrumented to measure relative displacements and normal force on the friction

Description of The ASBD Prototype

The ASBD prototype, shown in Fig. 4, consists of inner and outer channels, 21 friction plates, inner and outer mounting plates, and a clamping mechanism that generates clamping force on the friction surfaces. The overall dimensions are 1000-ram (39.54n.) long, 200-ram (8-in.) deep and 450-ram (18-in.) high. Ten inner friction plates are rigidly mounted together with the two inner alignment plates, while the remaining 11 outer friction plates are rigidly mounted together by two outer alignment plates. The friction force generated between friction plates is transmitted to the inner and outer channels through the alignment plates. The friction pads are bonded on both sides of the inner plates. The inner alignment plate is rigidly mounted to the inner channel but is free to move in 100-ram (4-in.)-long slots on the outer channel. The outer alignment plate is rigidly mounted to the outer channel. The inner channel is fitted inside the outer channel. This arrangement allows +50 mm (2 in.) of relative displacement between the two sets of friction plates. The current arrangement of 21 friction plates results in 20 friction interfaces. The clamping force range was minimized by using the maximum number of friction plates that the inner channel (made out of a standard-size structural steel) can accommodate and by using a friction pad with a high-friction coefficient. The ASBD design was based on the friction coefficient of 0.5 specified by the manufacturer of the friction material. Twenty friction surfaces with a friction coefficient of 0.5 require about 26.7-kN (6-kip) clamping force exerted by the clamping mechanism to attain 267-kN (60-kip) slip strength. The ASBD is expected to dissipate 27,1-kJ (20,000-ft.-lb.) energy during each full stroke. An active clamping mechanism is employed to regulate the amount of energy dissipation. This is accomplished by varying the normal force acting on the friction surfaces. The outer channel provides a base for the clamping mechanism, which consists of four springs, a pressure plate, a single-acting hydraulic cylinder and an electric motor-driven pump. Normally, the springs are preloaded to 26.7 kN (6 kip) of constant clamping force. When the ASBD is activated, the electric motor runs continuously and the pump supplies 10.3 MPa (1500 psi) hydraulic pressure. An adjustable pressure valve regulates the oil pressure and activates hydraulic cylinder. Force generated by the hydraulic cylinder is in the opposite direction of the prenormal load. Under full hydraulic pressure the load on the friction interface is reduced to zero and under zero hydraulic pressure the load on the interface is restored to a full value of 6 kips. Different levels of clamping force are obtained by adjusting the hydraulic pressure. This is how the normal load on the plates, and consequently the amount of energy dissipation, is regulated. In the event of an hydraulic pump or cylinder failure, the ASBD

Fig. 4---Active slip bracing device (ASBD) prototype

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Experimental Mechanics 9 17

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plates, and then installed in a uniaxial testing frame. The schematic diagram and photograph of the test setup are presented in Figs. 5 and 6. Five direct current differential transformers (DCDTs) are mounted to measure relative displacements between different parts. The DCDTs are made by TRANSTEK, Model Series 240. They are calibrated using a micrometer with a resolution of 250 gmm. In addition, the total displacement of the ASBD is measured by the testing frame' s internal displacement transducer. A 13.5-ton (30-kip) capacity load cell manufactured by Sensotec, with 3-mV/V output, was fitted to measure the clamping force acting on the friction plates directly. The load-cell output was amplified using a MicroMeasurements Model 2300 signal conditioner. Brace force, the total friction force generated by the ASBD, is also measured by the testing frame's force transducer. The data-acquisition system consisted of two Analogic Corporation Data Precision Model 6100 oscilloscopes interfaced with an IBM PC/AT computer. These are programmable digital oscilloscopes with a 14-bit resolution and a 100-kHz sampling rate. A dedicated software was written to program the oscilloscopes and to acquire the data. The data-acquisition system is able to sample signals from eight sensors simultaneously and to capture up to 31,000 consecutive data points. Both oscilloscopes were triggered by an HP Model 8904A waveform generator.

Experimental Procedure and Results

The ASBD was loaded in displacement control. The hydraulic servocontroller was programmed to produce a periodic triangular displacement cycle with an amplitude of 6,4 mm (0.5 in.) at a period of four seconds. The ASBD was subjected to ten displacement cycles at each different clamping force. The experiments

were conducted for 20 clamping force settings which are obtained by regulating the hydraulic pressure of the clamping cylinder. The clamping forces varied during the experiments between 7.9 kN (1780 lb) and 29.6 kN (6660 lb). Because dry friction is independent of sliding velocity, a longer period is not expected to present any uncertainty in the evaluation of the device. Five cycles of data were recorded at a sampling rate of 300 points per cycle. Each data set includes six displacement and two force measurements at each clamping force. A typical history of clamping and brace forces as a function of time are presented in Figs. 7 and 8. The data displays an excellent cycle-to-c),cle repeatability with no evidence of drift. The clamping force is very stable. Phase shifts between the outputs of different sensors are evident. This is due to the clearances in different joints and to the elastic deformations. The amplitude of the small perturbations observed in clamping force measurements, seen in Fig. 7, is a good indication of the measurement accuracy. The magnitude of these perturbations is about 20 mV, which translates into 90 N (20 lb) out of 29.4 kN (6500 lb). This change in the clamping force, shown in Fig. 7 is probably due to Poisson's effect on the friction plates. That is, when the displacement cycle is causing a compressive force on the ASBD, the friction plates will be under compressive stresses and the Poisson's effect will increase the clamping force due to a slight increase in the thickness of the friction plates and thus further compression of the springs. The reverse action takes place when the friction plates are under tension. High-frequency fluctuations are noticeable in both brace-friction-force and the clamping-force measurements. This is believed to be due to the stick and slip motion between the sliding surfaces. In addition, the ASBD' s hydraulic cylinder is powered by a gear pump. Due to the pump characteristics, high-frequency, low-amplitude pressure fluctuations are unavoidable during the tests at reduced clamping forces which corresponds to high cylinder pressures. The effects of pressure fluctuations were evident in the measurements of both clamping force and brace force.

Analysis of Experimental Results

The experimental data were further analyzed. Energy dissipation by friction, energy stored by elastic deformations, energydissipation loss due to the clearances, and the total clearance are

18 ~ March 1993

estimated from brace force versus relative brace displacement relation, one of which is shown in Fig. 9. If all the connections of the ASBD were tight-fitted and all the components were rigid, one would expect a perfectly rigid-plastic brace force versus displacement response. In Fig. 9, free slip around the zero brace force represents the total clearance in the joints. When the direction of the motion is reversed, the elastic energy is released (between points a and b in Fig. 9) and then the additional displacement (between points b and c) is the free slip equal to the sum of all the clearances between moving parts. This will be followed by the elastic portion (from points c to d), and finally the slip between the friction plates initiate from point d. The response is similar in the other quadrants. The area enclosed by the brace force versus relative brace displacement relationship represents the energy dissipated by the ASBD. At different clamping forces, the energy dissipated by the device is computed and plotted as a function of brace force, and presented in Fig. 10. In these experiments, the relative brace displacements are kept constant. Figure 10 infers that the device's energy-dissipation response is linear. Further evidence of the linearity of the device is shown in Fig. 11, which shows single interface friction force as a function of clamping force. The brace force measured by the testing frame was divided by the number of interfaces to obtain the friction force generated along one interface. More importantly, the slope of this line is the average coefficient of friction between friction pads and the steel plates. The friction coefficient from these experiments is computed as 0.3, which is significantlylower than the 0.5 coefficientused in the design. The energy-dissipationdata presented in Fig. 10 also indicates that the actual friction coefficient is less than the design value. Estimated energy dissipations are about one-third less than expected from the prototype. The total clearance estimated from brace force and displacement is between 3.81-4.06 mm (0.150-0.160 in.). Referring to Fig. 5, the clearances measured by DCDTs at different joints are: Load frame and outer channel = 0.51 mm (0.020 in.) Outer channel and alignment plate = 0.61 mm (0.024 in.) Friction and alignment plates = 1.27 mm (0.050 in.) Alignment plate and inner channel = 0.89 mm (0.035 in.) Inner channel and load frame = 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) The summation of joint clearances is 3.66 mm, and agrees reasonably well with the clearance estimated before.

The ASBD has a fail-safe feature: in the event of a component failure it will convert to a passive dissipater with a constant maximum Clamping force on the friction interface. This feature guarantees its reliability to be comparable to passive devices. The maximum brace force (and therefore energy dissipation) achieved was less than the design specification of 267 kN (60 kip). This is due to the poor performance of the friction material. Another design and manufacturingdeficiency was the excessive clearance in the joints. Before experimentingwith initial control strategies, the ASBD should be redesigned and improved based on the experience gained during testing. Additional friction plates, in conjunction with higher levels of clamping force, will be incorporated to generate 267 kN (60 kip) of brace force. The joints will be tightened to eliminate clearances. The inner and outer channels will be redesigned to increase the overall stiffness of the ASBD. An electric pressure valve will be adopted.

Summary and Conclusions

An active energy-dissipation device based on Coulomb friction, called the active slip bracing device (ASBD), is developed and tested. The overall conclusion of this work is that the ASBD
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The ASBD prototype met overall design objectives. The geometry and dimensions of the ASBD are such that it can be installed within a wall unit in a typical building. The inner and outer channels are designed for easy connection to building structural bracing. It does not contain any material that is harmful to humans or the environment. The experiments demonstrated that the ASBD behaves linearly. The brace force and energy dissipation are directly proportional to the clamping force. The device's response is predictable under repeated cycles of operation. It is easy to model and predict ASBD's performance. The linear behavior of the device will minimize control-related difficulties. The ASBD prototype was subjected to approximately 800 displacement cycles during the experiments. This is equivalent to 40 or more major earthquakes in terms of loads on the device and operating time. No component wear or failure have been experienced. No wear debris from friction material or any other component was evident. No major temperature rise was experienced during the experiments. The device did not require any maintenance.The device functionedfor extended periods of time, much longer than the design goal of 60 seconds without thermal problems.

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is a viable device and can be utilized to improve the response of buildings subjected to high winds and earthquakes. Based on data obtained during the testing of the ASBD, the following additional conclusions have been drawn. (1) The device's size and geometry is such that it can be installed within a wall thickness. It can be easily adapted for upgrade of existing buildings, and can be used in new buildings. (2) The ASBD behaves linearly. The brace force and the amount of energy dissipation are directly proportional to the clamping force on the friction plates. (3) The ASBD is capable of dissipating large amounts of energy without thermal problems. The amount of energy dissipation is controlled by changing the normal force on the friction plates. The device is an active dissipater and categorized as a hybrid device. (4) In case of an hydraulic or electrical failure, the device functions as a passive device with maximum energy-dissipation capacity. (5) The ASBD has proven to be reliable and durable.

Kirk, Don Pham, Jamal Schuakani, and Kevin Scwenskowsky during a senior design class. The testing of the device was performed with the assistance of Mr. Nazar Salih, graduate assistant in Wayne State University's Civil Engineering Department. Funds were provided by Wayne State University Small Grants Program. The friction material was donated by Scan-Pac Manufacturing, Detroit, MI. 3M Corporation of Minneapolis, MN donated the adhesive for installing the friction pads.

References
1. Kobori, T., "State-of-the-Art of Seismic Response Control Research in Japan," Proc. US Nat. Workshop on Structural Control Research, eds. G.W. Housne and S.L Masri, 1-22, (Oct. 1990). 2. Melchew, J., and Breilbach, E., "A Survey of German and European Acrivities in the Field of Adaptive Structures," in Proe. US Nat. Workshop on Structural Control Research, eds. G.W. Housne and S.L Masri, 23-47, Oct. 1990. 3. Soong, T., "State-of-the.Art of Structural Control Research in USA," in Proc. US Nat. Workshop on Structural Control Research, eds. G.W. Housne and S.L Masri, 49-65, Oct. 1990. 4. "'Recommended Lateral Force Requirements, " Structural Engineers Assoeiation of California, San Francisco (1986). 5. Whittaker, A.S. Bertero, V.V., Aktan, H.M, and Giacchetti, R., "Seismic Response of a DMRSF Retrofitted with Friction-Slip Devices," Proc. EERl Annual Conf. San Francisco (Feb. 1989). 6. Akbay, Z., and Aktan, H.M., "Intelligent Energy Dissipation Devices," Proc, 4th US Nat. Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, III, 427-435, Palm Springs (May 1990). 7. Fuller, D.D., Theory and Practice of Lubrication for Engineers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2ndEd. (1984).

Acknowledgments
Detailed design and fabrication of the ASBD prototype was performed by Wayne State University, Mechanical Engineering Department students Daryl Almasy, Scott Chynoweth, Daniel

20 * March 1993