DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS
1. Ingestion
2. Mastication
3. Propulsion
4. Mixing
5. Secretion
6. Digestion
7. Absorption
8. Elimination

HISTOLOGY OF DIGESTIVE TRACT

1) Mucosa - innermost tunic, consists of three layers.
a) Mucosa epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium
b) Lamina propria, loose connective tissue.
c) Muscularis mucosae, outer thin smooth muscle.
2) Submucosa – thick connective tissue layer containing nerves blood vessels and small glands.
3) Muscularis – inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle.
a) Exceptions superior esophagus has striated muscle, and the stomach has three muscular layers.
4) Serosa or Adventitia – connective tissue.

ORAL CAVITY

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Lips & Cheeks
Lips Mastication, speech, & entrance
Frenula Mucosal folds attach upper lip to alveolar process of the maxilla, and
from the alveolar process of the mandible to lower lip.
Cheeks Mastication ,speech, & facial expression
Palate
Palate (hard & soft) Mastication, soft palate prevents food from entering nasal cavity.
Tongue Movement of food in mouth for mastication, swallowing, taste, speech.
Intrinsic muscles Flattening and elevating tongue for swallowing.
Extrinsic muscles Protrude and retract, side to side, and shape change.
Teeth Mastication and speech
Incisors Cutting or nipping off food
Canines Tear and pierce
Premolars Grinding and crushing
Molars Grinding and crushing

Salivary glands
Structure Location
Parotid glands Just anterior to the ear, bilaterally.
Submandibular glands Inferior border of the posterior mandible
Sublingual glands Immediately below the mucus membrane in the floor of the mouth

Saliva
• Secretion rate 1 to 1.5L/day
• Salivary amylase – serous saliva breaks down apart glucose molecules in starch and other
polysaccharides into disaccharides.
• Prevents bacterial infection together with lysozyme
• Mucin – proteoglycan that gives saliva a lubricating quality.
• Stimulated primarily by the parasympathetics and less by sympathetics.

ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy
• Approx. 25 cm.
• Between pharynx and stomach
• Located in the mediastinum anterior to vertebrae and posterior to trachea.
• Esophageal hiatus – opening in diaphragm and ends at stomach.
• 4 tunics, mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
• Upper esophageal and Lower esophageal sphincter – regulate the movement of materials into and
out of esophagus.

Histology
• Mucosa stratified squamous epithelium with mucous glands that secret a thick lubricating mucus.

STOMACH
Anatomy
• Enlarged segment in left superior part of abdomen.
• Gastroesophageal opening (cardiac) – opening of stomach from esophagus.
• Cardiac region – located around the cardiac opening
• Fundus – left and superior to the cardiac region.
• Body – largest part of stomach curves to the right forming the greater and lesser curvature.
• Pyloric region – region where body narrows
• Pyloric opening - joins to the small intestine.
• Pyloric sphincter – thick smooth muscle surrounding the pyloric opening.

Histology
• Serosa – visceral peritoneum, outer most layer.
• Muscularis – three layers, longitudinal layer, circular layer, and an inner oblique layer.
• Rugae – large folds of submucosa and mucosa, allows stomach to stretch.
• Stomach is lined with simple columnar cells, with tube like gastric pits, which are openings for
the gastric glands.
 • Surface mucous cells – produce mucus on the surface and lines the gastric pit.

Gastric gland cells

• Mucous neck cells – produce mucus.
• Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.
• Chief cells – produce pepsinogen.
• Endocrine cells –produce regulatory hormones.

SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH

Chyme – food and stomach secretions mixed.

SECRETION SOURCE FUNCTION

Mucus Surface and neck mucus cells . Lubricates, protects
Intrinsic factor Parietal cells in gastric glands of the Binds with and makes more readily
pyloric region. absorbed in the ilium VITAMIN B12
Hydrochloric acid Parietal cells Low pH bactericidal, denature proteins,
provides proper pH for pepsin.
Pepsinogen Chief cells Converts to pepsin, catalyzes the
cleavage of peptide bonds in proteins.
 Functions of Gastrointestinal Hormones
Site of Production Method of Stimulation Secretory Effects Motility Effects
Gastrin
Distention, partially
Increased gastric emptying
digested proteins, Increases gastric
Stomach & duodenum by increasing motility and
autonomic stim., alcohol secretions
relaxing pyloric sphincter.
& caffeine
Secretin
Inhibits gastric secretions,
stimulates pancreatic
secretions, increases the
Duodenum Acidity of chyme Decreases gastric motility
rate of bile and increases
intestinal secretions;
mucus secretion

Cholycystokinin

Slightly inhibits gastric

secretions, stimulates
pancreatic secretions,
Fatty acids and other
Intestines contraction of gall Decreases gastric motility
lipids
bladder, relaxation of
hepatopancreatic ampular
sphincter.
Gastric Inhibitory
Polypeptide
Fatty acids and other
Duodenum & Jejunum Inhibits gastric secretions Decreases gastric motility
lipids
GASTRIC MOVEMENTS
Mixing of Stomach Contents
• Gentle mixing waves which are peristalsis like contractions proceed from the body toward the
pyloric sphincter. 80%
• Peristaltic waves occur less frequently, significantly more powerful, force chyme near the
periphery of the stomach toward the pyloric sphincter. 20%

Stomach Emptying
• Fluids remain in the stomach approx. 1.5 to 2.5 hours, food approx. 3 to 4 hours.
• Each peristaltic contraction is strong enough to force a small amount of chyme through the
pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, this is referred to as Pyloric Pump.

Regulation of stomach emptying

• Hormonal - Gastrin
• CNS - distention of stomach wall and local reflexes
• All promote increased in stomach emptying.

SMALL INTESTINE
Consists of three parts; the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ilium.
• Length approx. 4.6 to 9 meters (14 to 29 feet).
• Site of greatest amount of digestion and absorption.
• 8 to 8.5 liters of water enter the small intestine per day.

Duodenum
• Begins with a short superior end, which is where it exits the pylorus of the stomach, and ends in a
sharp bend, where it joins the jejunum.
• Major duodenal papilla & lesser duodenal papilla - two small mounds 2/3 of the down the
descending part. At the major papilla the common bile duct and pancreatic duct join to form
the hepatopancreatic ampular sphincter which empties into the duodenum.
• Hepatopancreatic sphincter - regulates the opening of the ampular.
• Internal surface has modifications which increase surface area about 600 fold.
• Circular folds - mucosa and submucosa form a series of folds.
• Villi- tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosa, simple columnar epithelium, contains blood
capillary network and lacteals.
• Microvilli - most of the cells of the surface of the villi have these numerous cytoplasmic
projections to further increase surface area.
• Brush border - the combined microvilli on the entire epithelial surface.

Cells of Duodenum
Cells Function
Absorptive Microvilli, produce digestive enzymes, absorb digested food
Goblet Produce a protective mucus
Granular cells Protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria
Endocrine Produce regulatory hormones

JEJUNUM & ILEUM

Similar in structure to duodenum, EXCEPT
1. Except a gradual decrease in the size of the lumen.
2. Decrease in thickness of the intestinal wall
3. Number of circular folds decrease
4. Decrease in number of microvilli.
• The duodenum and jejunum are major sites of nutrient absorption.
• Lymph nodes called Peyer’s Patches are numerous in the mucosa and submucosa of the ileum.
 o Ileocecal junction – junction between the ileum and the large intestine.
o Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle.
o Ileocecal valve – one-way flow.

SECRETIONS
Duodenal glands, intestinal glands, and goblet cells secrete large amounts of mucus.
o Mucus provides most of the wall with protection from the acidic chyme, and digestive enzymes.
o Secretin & Cholycystokinin are released from the intestinal mucosa and stimulate pancreatic and
hepatic secretions.
o Enzymes of the intestinal mucosa are bound to the membranes of the absorptive cell microvilli.
1. Disaccharidase – breaks down disaccharides to monosaccharides.
2. Peptidase – hydrolyze the peptide bonds of amino acid chains.
3. Nucleases – break down nucleic acids.

MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINES

o Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary mechanical events.
o Mechanical movement occurs due to segmental or peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle
wall, only propagated small distances.
o Segmental contractions – mix intestinal contents.
o Peristaltic contractions – propel the intestinal contents along the entire length of the intestine.
o Wave of contraction can begin in the stomach.
o Rate of movement 1cm/min

Regulation
1. Distention of intestinal wall
2. Hypertonic or hypotonic solutions
3. pH of contents

Ileocecal sphincter – the juncture between the ileum and the large intestine, remains mildly contracted,
peristaltic wave will relax and allow movement of chyme from the small intestine to the large intestine.

LARGE INTESTINES
o Extends from the ileocecal junction to the anus.
o Consists of; cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal.

Cecum
o Proximal end of the large intestine.
o Extends approx. 6cm. Inferiorly past the ileocecal junction to form a blind sac.
o Vermis Appendix – a small blind tube extending approx. 9cm from the blind sac. Contains many
lymph nodes.

Colon
Consists of four part;
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon

o The circular muscular layer of the colon is complete, but the longitudinal layer of muscle
is incomplete
o The mucosal lining consists of simple columnar epithelium.
o Lining is not folded or villi, but has numerous straight tubules glands called crypts.
o Crypts are similar to the glands of the small intestine, with absorptive, goblet, and
granular cells.
 o The major difference is goblet cells are the predominate cell type while the others
decrease in number.

Rectum
o Straight muscular tube that begins at the termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at the anal
canal
o Simple columnar epithelium.
o The muscular tunic is relatively thick compared to the rest of the digestive tract.

Anal Canal
o Last 2 to 3cm. Of the digestive tract.
o Begins at the inferior end of the rectum an ends at the anus.
o The smooth muscle layer is even thicker than that of the rectum.
o Internal anal sphincter – superior end of anal canal.
o External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle, inferior end of the canal.
o Simple columnar to stratified squamous from superior to inferior anal canal.

Secretions of Large Intestines

o Major secretory product MUCUS.
o Mucus lubricates and helps fecal matter to stick together.
o Numerous microorganisms inhabit the colon and constitute approx. 30% of the dry weight of
feces.
o These microorganisms break down vitamin K for absorption and breakdown a small amount of
cellulose to glucose.
o Flatus – bacterial action produce gases, which are released. The amount of flatulence depends on
the number of microorganisms and the type of food.

Movement in the Large Intestines

o Peristaltic waves are largely responsible for moving chyme along the ascending colon.
o Mass Movements – several strong contractions in the transverse and descending colon. This large
contraction propels the colon contents a considerable distance toward the anus.
o Defecation Reflex – local reflex distention of the rectal wall by feces, weak contractions of the
rectum and relaxation of internal and external anal sphincters. Parasympathetic reflexes cause
strong contractions of the rectum, normally responsible for most of defecation.

LIVER
o Production of bile.
ANATOMY
o Largest gland in the body
o Occupies most of the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions. Inferior to diaphragm,
protected by ribs.
o Four lobes:Right lobe – largest; Left lobe; Caudate lobe – posterior; Quadrate lobe – inferior to
left lobe
o Falciform Ligament separates right and left lobes, suspends liver the liver from the diaphragm.
o Porta hepatis – entrance for the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein, and common hepatic duct.

HISTOLOGY
o Each functional unit is called a liver lobule. Roughly hexagonal in shape.
o Hepatocytes – liver cells, plates of hepatocytes are arranged around a central vein.
o Portal triad – located at each of the six corners, three basic structures are always present, Hepatic
artery, Hepatic portal vein, and bile duct.
BILE
o Fat emulsifier
o Yellow green alkaline solution
o Contains
Bile salts, Bile pigments, Cholesterol neutral fats , Phospholipids, Electrolytes

GALL BLADDER
o Storage of bile
o Concentration of bile.
o Thin walled, green, muscular sac.
o Located in a shallow fossa on the ventral surface of the liver.
o Secretes bile by muscular wall contracting, bile travels out the Cystic duct and then flows to the
bile duct.

PANCREAS
o Lies deep to the stomach.
o Produces a broad spectrum of digestive enzymes.
o Pancreatic juice- exocrine product, drains via the Main pancreatic duct.
o Acini – small clusters of secretory cells.
Secretions
Pancreatic juice, Trypsinogen, Carboxypeptidase, Chymotrypsin, Amylases, Lipases,
Nucleases

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Carbohydrates
Salivary amylase, Pancreatic amylase, Dextrinase, Glucoamylase, Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase

Proteins
Pepsin, Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase, Aminopeptidase, Dipeptidase

Lipids
Lipases

Nucleic acids
Pancreatic nucleases, Nucleosidase, Phosphatases.
ABSORPTION
Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides are transported thought out the epithelial cell walls with protein carriers.

Proteins
• Amino acids are transported using several types of carrier molecules, before entering the blood
via diffusion.
Lipids
• Micelles – collection of fatty elements clustered together with bile salts.
• Easily diffuse through microvilli.
• Fat digestion completed in the ileum.

Nucleic acids
• Transported actively across epithelium by special carriers.