Solutions Manual to accompany

Principles
of Digital Communication
and Coding

Andrew J.Viterbi
Jim K.Omura
Solutions Manual to accompany

Principles
of Digital Communication
and Coding

Andrew J. Viterbi
LINKABIT Corporation

Jim K. Omura
University of California
Los Angeles

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland
Bogota Dusseldorf
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Solutions Manual to accompany
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
AND CODING
Copyright 1979 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. The contents, or
may be reproduced for
parts thereof, use with
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
AND CODING
by Andrew J. Viterbi
and Jim K. Omura
provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not
be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without
permission of the publisher.

0-07-067517-1

1234567890 WHWH 7832109

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Graduate students Dariush Divsalar, Enyltho Coelho

Filho, and Pil Lee have made significant contributions

to this solution manual.
 CHAPTER 1

3 1-3 in 1 ^
iii) H&) =
log
^ + log = .77 bits

(d) i) H(fair die) = log 6 = 2.58 bits

ii) P(k) = kC k = 1,2,3,4,5,6

6 6

cx; k = i >
c = J-
k=i

X) 2^ lo
k=l
^ = 2 39 bits

1.2 Inequality (1.1.8) gives

2u P (u)lo g
N -^-r-
NV ~;

-E P (u)log -r-r-r-
M
-
(= iff Q (-) = p (.))

Choose Q N (u) - TT (u where

p )

n=l
 (n)
P ("
n
) =Z Z P
N (u)
n = 1,2,..., N
u

are the marginal probability distributions. Then

TT p( n
"

\~~i
\n=l u
(,,
^
>

*
n

N
I
n=l\ u
n

n=l
N *^\
with equality iff P (U) r p (l4 w^
N JJ*
nr|

1.3 (a) Given discrete random variables x,y e ^Tx^with joint

probability P(x,y), we can define marginal probabilities

P(x) =J^P(x,y), P(y) =^P(x,y) and conditional probability

y x

P(y/x) = P(x,y)/P(x). Then using inequality (1.1.8),

p y
x y

y \ x

(1)

Now fix N and consider sequences ue^ =ty/ x...x^ where

(k) = is the alphabet of the k tn term in the sequence.
>,

<%/
Using

2
the relations

V u
i,
= P(UN
N
TTPCu.n u ) P(u l )
1, . , n 1
n=2

we have
(2)

and
(3)
n=2

Note that from (1) we have

(A)

where the second equality comes from the stationary property. Hence

(3) is bounded by

(5)

Using (5) in (2) gives

or
(6)

Then

for k <
n.
n k

(b) This follows directly from the proof of Theorem 1.1.1

when we define

S(N, ) =u ~ : <P
H (u)
M ~n
<

and use lim F = from (1.1.31) to (1.1.33).

N
N-K)
 2 2 2
1.4 (a) a = E{(x-m) }
= E{(x-m) jx-ml >
e} Pr{ |x-m >
e}

E{(x-m) x-m <

e} Pr{|x-m| <
e}

>

E{(x-m) x-m e} Pr{|x-m >

e} >
e Pr{|x-m >
e}.

Var/1 V Z I
N
E Z -
(N ^
n=l
nf
(b)
n I n Z| ^ e>

n=l

1.5 For ue S(N,e) n=l

we have 1 <_
2 , s >
0.

rA l
Hence, S E
^n=l
z ~ N (H+e)
n
r-4-
= ^r P
E ^ T^
E P
N (u) N (u)2
<

Fj
ue S(N,e) ue S(N,e)
+ +
S Z
[E n -N(H+e)J

N 1
U -N(H+e) h
J --

= 2 -NG(

where G(s )
= s(H+e) - log

= s(H+e) -log
k=l

and G(0) = 0.

Next note that

dS
1-S
where
dG(5) = e >

dS
5=0

and 2 A
(a
k ) log P
k-l <V.

<

since this is negative of the variance of log . . with respect to

distribution
1-3
P(u)
Q (u) =
5

k-1

Thus, there is a unique maximum of G(s) for some $*> where

1G ^ S
G(S*) >
0. Then we have F* 2~ \ Similarly we get
**
2 where G(s"~) >
0. Then

+
F = F -f F- - <
2~ NG(S) + L2-
N N N

1.6 Multiply the inequalities

-
log (u) <

by P xN,(u)
~
and sum over all ue^.
~ . Then
NT

>
<L

But from (1.1.14), H(^ N >

= NH(^) giving us (a) and (b) To show

(c) note that in (a) the inequality log

-^-r- (u) <=>
J
^ <

P( u )

Hence we satisfy the Kraft-McMillan inequality,

~ (u)
2 p( u ) = 1.
The solution is best understood in terms of a tree d /agram where

left directed branches correspond to "0" and right to "1". Each

node corresponds to a binary sequence so that code words can be

represented as nodes in a tree such as

11

000 001 100 101 110 111

If node (a) is selected as a codeword of length 2, then in order

that no other codeword have 01 as a prefix no nodes that branch out

from node (a) can ever be selected as a codeword. Hence we can ter

minate the branching at this node. Thus uniquely decodable codes

with the property that no codeword is a prefix of another codeword

corresponds to nodes in a tree where no codeword node branches out

from a shorter codeword node. In general, let JL , _;...,. be the

A
If
V* -i
set of codeword lengths where JL <_
JL <_
... _<
.. /. 2

then we can easily find such a code with these lengths where all

branch paths of the code tree terminate in a codeword node. If

A
1 then some branch paths can continue forever without
"

53 2~ <

encountering a codeword node. Let X.-i

be any node sequence with JL
branches leading to it and denote it the first codeword. There re-

main 2 1-1 unterminated nodes at the same level that can be a code

word or a prefix of a codeword. If = _ choose any one of these

remaining nodes as the codeword node of sequence X_ . If ~ >

JL

then use any one of these as a prefix and -

proceed along any _
^t _L

additional branches to find a codeword node of X . There now remains

A*
o

(2 * -1) 2 ^ 1-1 nodes at the level - that can be a codeword or a

prefix of a codeword. Continue in this manner until X. is selected.

A
If at any point this procedure cannot be completed because of no
A
remaining nodes then * which is a contradiction.
2^ 2 >

1,

*)
1.7 (a) I0r 5 *> P(y.x)lo 8
x *gy ) (x)
y

y x y x

But H(^T^) >_

(see 1.1.9) so I(^T;^) H(^T) and by symmetry

) 1
(b) Use P(x,y) = P(y)q(x|y) in

x y P(x,y)

E EP(x,y)iog
*
^ + Ex EP(x,y)iog
y

a - i o P(0) = q(l-p)

E P(E) = p
 qp log (l-q)p log

1
q
= TT maximizes J*f(q) so C = 1-P.
/

(b) q o<
1/2

iog
l-.
=
q log + (1-q) log /-M
U-q/

= 1 = =
f- K3T;^) y logl-^M-
=>
q
y
V ?

Hence C = log .

Since the encoder keeps sending the information symbol until an

unerased channel output is achieved there is no error and P =0.

e

The probability that n channel symbols are transmitted for an infor

mation symbol is P = The average length of a codeword

(l-p)p .

is thus
oo oo
^ %
^-^ n-1 1
1 1

Thus R = = 1
-p bits per channel use is the rate which also equals

the channel capacity (see problem 1.8a).

1-10 There are two coins G and C where P(H|C )

= and P(H|C ) =
I 2 |- 2 -|.

Here = q(C) =
q(C^) y are tne probabilities of selecting each coin.
We can interpret this as a BSC with p = -7- as follows:

3/4

3/4 = 3
(a) I(C H) = log log bit
I;

1/4 = 1
= - 1 bit
I(C ;H) = log log y
2 f^-

(b) I(T;30 = 1 bits -

-J?z
1.11 (a) There are 13 ways one coin may be heavier, 13 ways one coin

may be lighter, and the possibility that all coins weigh the same.

Thus we are attempting to determine one of 27 possible situations

using a balance and a known standard coin. We are thus asked to ob

tain at most log 27 = 3 log 3 bits of information on the average.

Each weighing has 3 possible outcomes (left, right, balance) and

provides at most log 3 bits of average information. Two weighings

has 9 possible outcomes and at most 2 log 3 bits of average informa

tion. Three weighings has 27 possible outcomes. Clearly two weigh

ings cannot guarantee determining one of 27 possible situations

while with three it may be possible.

(b) The maximum amount of average information from three weigh

ings is log 27 which is achieved if all 27 weighing sequences are

equally probable. This means that we must choose a weighing strategy

where the outcomes of each weighing are equal probable and each

weighing outcome is independent of other weighing outcomes. Clearly

each weighing must reduce the number of possible cases by 1/3.

Strategy: Let S denote the standard coin, C denote a coin that can

be heavy, light, or normal, h denote a coin that is heavy or normal,

and denote a coin that is light or normal. We start with 13C and

an S.

1st Weighing: Set aside AC and place 5C on the left pan and 4C + S

on the right pan.

f Balance ==> 4C remain

Left =>
5h, 4 remain

Right =>
5, 4h remain

Note that for each of the three possible outcomes we have 9 remain

ing unknown possibilities to be resolved with two more weighings.

2nd Weighing When 1st Outcome is Balanced; Of the 4C set aside C

and place 2C on the left and C + S on the right.

t Balance => C remain

Left =>
2h, remain

Right ===>
2, h remain
2C

Note that here each outcome leaves only 3 remaining unknown possi

bilities to be resolved with one more weighing. The third weighing

given the 2nd weighing outcome is as follows:

10
 (i) Balance: Place C on the left and S on the right,

(ii) Left: Place h on the left and h on the right,

(iii) Right: Place on the left and on the right.

2nd Weighing When 1st Outcome is Left; Of the 5h and 4 remaining

set aside h + 2 on the left and 2h + on the right.

f Balance =>
h, 2 remain

Left =>
2h, remain

Right =>
2h, remain

2h + 2h +

One more weighing easily resolves the 3 remaining unknown possibili

ties by placing the same type of coin on the balance. That is, if

2h, remain then place h on the left and h on the right.

(c) Without a standard coin we cannot always reduce the number of

unknown possibilities by 1/3 with each weighing. This is a neces

sary requirement .

1.12 Using (1.1.8) we have

Hence AH. P (u) log

2 ]

1.13 Let p(y) = . Then (1.1.8) gives

27TQ

11
 00 00

- dy = log e +
J p(y)log -^y dy
J p(y)log
2a
-

dy
L y

1 2 \ = 1 2
= 1 / /

T2 log e + -log 27TQ -log 27iea I

2 V y /
J
I y
\ y

with equality when p(y) = p(y) or y is a Gaussian random variable

For the additive Gaussian noise channel we have

9
=
p(y|x)

With input probability density q(x), the average mutual information

is

dy - dx
CO _OO

But

dy = x) 4- og (27ra)dy
bo /P (y
* 2a

2
(27rea ) .

Using this plus the above bound we have

with equality if and only if y is a Gaussian random variable. It is

Gaussian if

q(x) =
t N

o
with the result that a z = + a . Hence
y

12
 2
a \ = 1.
max !#; ^ -
flog ^- -y- j ^B \
l
n
2

which is channel capacity.

1.14 From problem 1.6(b) we have inequalities

-
log P N (U) (u) <
- log P (U) + 1.
N

Thus

- log P(u)

and

- log P (U) (u)

- 1
N "
x " "

(u) I(u)
-
log P N (u)

But
M M
=
* = p(u *xN
P
N
(U) f]"p(u n )
iTT p(u } )

n=l n =l

and

log P (u) N log P(u*)

Hence

N log P(u*)

and

1 + <_
H <_
1.
N log P(u )

-
log P (u)
If H = 1 for all N then N -

(u)
N
Hence P (u)= 2 ^ for all N which is possible only if P N (U)

and the source is a BSS.

13
1.15 For u e S(N,e),

N[H(?/) + e] (u) <

N[H(<aO + e] + 1

and

N[H(W -
--
e] log P N (U) N[H(W + e]

Thus for u e S(N,e),

- e]
e]
- (u)

For u e S(N,e) ,

N log A (u) N log A + 1

and
- N - - N
log P(u*) log P N (U) log P(u**)

** = min P(u)
where P(u) >
0. Thus for u e S(N,e),
u

N - N
^ Iog-P(u**)
N log A + 1 (u) N log A

Define F = Pr e S(N,e) and using the form

N
>

|u

- -
log P N (u) log P (u)
-

we have from inequalities (1) and (2),

N [ H- - N log P(u*)
H
^ - >
] .
n _ rF N .

1 + N[H+e] N; N log A + 1

L ^ -
"

los ^"

"nee F
N
- -
,

N -*

14
and
- N log P(u**)

_
F . log P(u**) F
N log A N

Hence for any e >

0,

H - e lim H
< <
1
H

or
lim
H,,-!.
N -*

15
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 (a) The noise compo

nents in the per

pendicular coordi

nate directions are

independent with

variance NL/2.

Let q = Pr{n>a}

16
(a)

= 10a
= P. = P = Pr{n <a,n <a}
= (1-q)*
16

P - P - P = P = P = P = P =*P = Pr{n =
C C C C C C
<a,-a<n <a} (1-q) (l-2q)
5 8 9 12

P = P = Pr{-a<n
=
r
L r
L 1
<a,-a<n
2
<a}

6 7 10

Hence
= 2
P
C 16 8d-q)(l-2q) + 4(l-2q) ]

2
)(l-2q) + (l-2q) ]

-i [a-,)
and

(b) Rotation and translation does not change P .

JL

16
2.2 (a)

(b) A = m= are
m
the optimum decision boundaries. We

2 = 1,2,. ..,7
S {y:
4 I
n--
ly-x <
C Am m
m i
a |
>
|
i

Hence

; x <
x j

m -m -m
n

N
= Pr >
^1= e m - 1,2,. ..,7
<f

and
P = P e
^E 7 ^>

m=l
E
m
<

17
 P <

P_(m-m ) where
E j

m
s -s
-m -m ,
1

Here we have
ysr
m = 2,
r m i 3,..., 7

m 1
= 3,7

S -S m 1
= 4,6
-2 -m ,
1

m 1 = 5

By symmetry P = P = P = P = P = p
E
<
P
E E E E E
3 4 5 6 7 i

Hence

E 2N
o

A.
4N,
<4JN

rom problem 2.2 we have P e which is "exponentially" the

same since Q(x) is bounded as shown in

(2.3.18).

2.4 (a) Choose (t) = m - 1,2,..., M as the orthonormal

<|>

(t)

basis. Then x 2
UU.1
m,n = 1,2,..., M and | |x for all m.
_JQ

The decision boundries become

A =
m for all

(Z5m i-) for

for m =
Hence by symmetry,

P = P = l p
E for
c
E;L
18
(b) Given x was sent we have probability density functions for the
*^X

independent random variables y , y ...,yM given by

2>

1
e

N
p.. (y)
- m = 2,3,. .,M .

m 7TN,

Hence
Pr{y for all m 4 l| x
<y
1 ]}
CO

= /Pr{y <a for all m4l|x..,y =a) p (a) da

+/ j_
CO

(c) Using = S. log-M, the fact that as e gets small In(H-e)

b 2
2
-x /2
behaves as e, and Q(x) behaves like e for large x,

1M-1
lim Inl- logM/N

= lim (M-l) x/2 f logM/N

M-H
ln["l- Q(x+
\
<

b () jl
/--

/ / \
= -lim M Q. x+x/2 <f
v logM/N_ |

M-x \ /

= -lim M exp - x+ ^2
b logM/N Q
( 1

M^<
<

ix
y \ / I
/

= -lim M exp <

-
N.

N ln2
= -lim Q
M

C5 1_
b
N

19
Hence

; rr- <
In2

llm I
1- Q

But
Pr{y <a for x-jy =a}

M
Tl
msi
M-l

Hence
N,
P_ = da

*
M-l
_ 1

/
.5 (a) K = -1]

and (x n ,x ) = [1 1] = 0.
l /
-1
1 1 A
Let h^
"

denote the i row of and h the i row of

~Jx J. . X
K
The codewords of length M = 2 are given by

= K~ 1
for all i =)= j <
2

Then
K-l
aU i + J <
2

and
= K-l
for all i, j <
2

20
yields
/ f*\ f -sM
for

/ (i) (i)\
J st
Note that = 6... Hence if we subtract the 1
(b) I
h^ ,
h^ I

product term of this inner product we have

A_ll !
& , j
- k

_ = _ __ A
J
JL k
M M-l

(c) Let a = v/^M [100 ... 0] . Then the orthogonal signal set

and the simplex signal set are essentially related by a simple

translation of the signal set given by,

~i
J
x=h^
~K
1
-a
- )
i=l,2,...,29
K

st ^
(Since the 1 component of x. is always "0" we can ignore it.) This

means the error probability of the orthogonal signal set of energy

./ M \
G = <5
f
j )
is the same as the error probability of the simplex signal

set of energy <f

.

M
(d) Let W = ** X)i x 1-r Then
t

01 (W,W) = (X.,x
i J

S (x. tX ) + (x ,x )

J=i

or

21
or

AV
<fM(M-l) ifj

Let
M be an orthogonal signal set of energy
(e) z ,z_,..., Z

Then (z ,z.) *<<$...

Let M
a
i=l

and consider the translation set formed by

Then
= (z.-a z.-a)
(y^.y,,) i ~,~j

/M)

-2a)/M

Choosing
and a to satisfy the equations,

= 2
<?(l-2a/Mfa /M)

and

yields a signal set with the same energy and inner products as
{y^}
the signal set {x } . It then has the same error probability and

)-
e -e sinTrWt
TTWt
-TrW

22
 y(t) -h(t-T)z(T)dT -

dt

(c) In Figure 2.9, y (t) is integrated over (n-l)T/N,nT/N]

2^
(t)<J> [

where

Thus
8in[5w(t -|J]
2n / y(t) \/2 sinw dt .

(n-l)T/N

Replace the integration over [ (n-l)T/N,nT/N to [0,) we obtain

dt

which is the process in Figure 2.11.

2.7 (a) Here y(t) = y (t) where $ (t) = x/2N/T sin co

n t for (n-l)T/N
n n n
4>

_<
t _<
nT/N whereas we compute

nT/N
y
1

n
=
f y(t)
/
<|>
(t)dt
(n-l)T/N

where
(t) = /2N/T sin[a)+Ao))(t-(n-l)T/N) + 0] ,

(n-l)T/N<t<nT/N.

23
 T /N 0) T
%
-~
J/
Using cos[(2( o n +Aw)t+(|)]dt =
J
since 1

nT/N
we have yn = y J ^nCO <l>i(t)dt

(n-l)T/N

nT/N
=
yn
^/
/ (2N/T)sin co^t
U
sin[ (w_+A(jo) (t-(w-l)T/N)+d)]

(n-l)T/N

T/N
= y
n y (2N/T)sin
u^t sin[ (WQ+AOJ) t-h})]dt

T/N
/xT/mx
yn (N/T)
f {cos(Acx3t+0)
r
-
j/ cos[(2a)A+Au))t+<6]}dt

T/N-
= y c
cos(Aa)t+(f))dt
n (N/T)y

T/N
= - sin Awt
y (N/T)
+/ / {cos Atot cos({) sin({)}dt .

We assumed here that coJT/N is a multiple of IT. Also since Ao)T/N

we have sin Awt = for <_

t <

T/N .

Hence
T/N
=
y y^(N/T)cos0
n +s
/cos Aoot dt

/sin(AcoT/N);
( (AcoT/N)

(b) Here nT/N

=
y
n J y(t) \/2N/T
(n-l)T/N

24
 nT/N
2N/T cos(o) t+<J>)dt

(n-l)T/N

where

y(t) ::
X (t)
"
X (t)
2n *2n 2n+l *2n+l

nT/N
Thus Y 2n = X 2n J (2N/T)sin w Q t sin(u +t(J>)dt

(n-l)T/N

//
nT/N
/
(2N/T)cos w n t sin(oj n t+<l))dt

(n-l)T/N
nT/N nT/N
cos<J>
dt + x- (N/T) J dt

(n-l)T/N (n-l)T/N

i +

Similarly

= X Sln * + X C
y 2aH 2n 2n+l S<t>

(c) The four possible phases are given by

Suppose x 2 = v<^,
X = 0. Then the signal components in the ob-
2 4.1

servables become =
cos<f>, y =/^ sin .

25
 2n+l

26
The error probability is the probability that the noise components

cause the observable vector to lie outside the correct decision re

gion. Hence

P = l - p = d }
E c 2

Pr

= 1 - 1-

- a .f-

- a m
(a) The boundries

of the optimum de

cision regions are

shown as radial

lines. Each deci

sion region is a

cone of radians.
o

27
(b) The distance from any signal vector to the boundary is d =

sin(ir/16). Suppose x =( Y<^0) ^ s tne transmitted vector and n 1 and

n are the two noise components that are perpendicular to the two
?

nearest boundries. Then an error occurs if the event {n _>

d}

no &} occurs. Hence

P = P {{n. >

d} \J(n >

d}}
L - -
r 1 /

In general n. and n~ are not independent. However we have the bounds

Pr{n. >
d} <
P_ <
Pr {n,1- >

d} + Pr(n_ >

d}
1~ 1- f.
-

or
P P <
2P

where
P = P^(n n >
d}

is the probability that the noise forces the observation vector to

lie in the shaded region above.

(c) In problem 2.1 the average energy is & = lOa or a =

The error probability is

-I Q

which is generally smaller than P = Q / (.20)1.

Hence the signal set of Figure 2. 12 (a) is superior to the set of

Figure 2.12(b).

28
2.9 (a) Before quantization the random variable y has conditional

probability density 2

)
= k = 1,2
p(y|a

The transition probabilities to the quantized outputs b^,

b are given by
o

/ k = 8.

where
a, =

a. 4a - ja j
= 1,2,. ..,7

5a - ja j
= 2, 3,.. .,8

- . ft.
JL

(b) Let x = (x- ,x_, . . . ,3O be any sequence of N symbols from {a. ,a

and z = be a sequence of N quantized outputs where

(z ,z_,...,z )

z e{b- ,b , . . . ,b }. Then the maximum likelihood (optimum) estimate

n 1 z

29
of x e t = {x-,x , .. . is given by
2 ,2^}

x = max P
x N (z- |x)
-
>T

N
= max -1
P( z x
n=l n 1

n)

N
= max -1.log f P(z |x )
x _!J, n 1

n
n=l

N
=
max logP(z |x )

n=l

where y(z x) = - log P(z x) .

1 z -
2.10 (a) Let u(z) = ;

;
z <

Then if u(z) f(z) for all z, we have

Pr{zX)} = E{u(z)} E{f(z)}.

(b) Since u(z) e pz , p _>

for all z

pZ
Pr{zX)} E{e } , p _>

(c) Note that

1
= Pr{z(y|x ) >

0}
~ m

30
 (d) Let p
= - = 1 - p in (c) and we have

V?

(e) For x = 00 ... and x ,

=11 ... 1 we have

1 , y = 11 ... 1

,
elsewhere

where w(y) = // of "1" in y. Hence the Chernoff bound is

P -
= 0.
The bound is minimized by maximizing (1 - p) or letting p

N
Then 1
. The maximum likelihood rule is simply: choose
) <_ p

x if y = 11 1; otherwise choose x (
. Then an error occurs
~m ~m
= 11 ... is the output which
only when x~m is transmitted and y
~
1 .

occurs with probability P (m+m

1
)
= . The Bhattacharyya bound is
p

2.11 (a) If H = then G = [I P]

K
:L-K

Here

Oil 1000011
101 0100101
P = => G =
110 0010110
111 0001111
31
 T L K ""

(b) Rows of H consist of all 2 possible binary sequences

T
except the all zero sequence. The rows of H having more than a

single "1" form the rows of the matrix P. Then G = [l P] is the

generator matrix.
f~ Vi T
1

(c) Let h. be the i row of H . Then v = (v_ v ..., v )

~i L 1 2 L
T
is a codeword if vH =
Since no two rows of or Y* v h. = 0.
~ n ~i
n=l
T
H are the same, v must have weight of at least 3. Since the sum
T
of any two row vectors of H form a non zero vector which must also
T
be a row vector of H we see that there are 3 rows that sum

(modulo-2) to 0.
~
Hence d
mm =3.
2.12 (a) If g is the energy per bit then for K bits there is a
V
total of <fT K units of energy. If L = 2 binary symbols per code

word is used then each binary symbol has energy <"

= <f K/L. The
S D

BSC formed by hard quantizing an AWGN has transition probability

p =

1; if an error occurs in the i symbol

Let
i 0; if no error occurs in the i symbol
? 2
Then E{e.) E{ and Var = =
=p , }
=p , { .}
p- p p(l-p)
Since {.} are independent for
L
=
n
i=l

we have

g E{e.}
= ..
Lp

32
and

Var (n) = Var {e.} = Lp(l-p) .

1=1

(b) Keeping <> fixed, as K increases $ .

= @b K/L decreases
s

For small x we have from

t

Q(x) = -*-." dt
/ K /27T

and

dx

The expansion approximation

Q(x) = Q(0) + -; Q(x)

x=0
or

Q(x) = h ~ x

Then

E(n>
= LQ LfJs -

and

Var n = LQ 1 - Q

L. /5
VwN
V 8
2

L
4

33
 (c) (2.10.14) can be expressed as

(d + d odd
mm mm
>

. l)/2> , .

Pr(n d d even
mm /2} mm
>

.
,

or

Pr(n d d odd or even,

P_,
mm /2} mm
< >

. ,
h
= L/2 for the
Using d .
binary orthogonal codes of (a) we have

P_ <

Pr(n >

L/4}.

(d) The Chebyshev inequality gives

Pr{|n-E{n}| >

or for large K,

Pr{ n - -
>-
L/4} ,

Hence

Pr(n <

L/4} = Pr(n - L/2 <

- L/4}

^ Pr{ n -
\
~ (K ~ 2)
<
2 ^>

Hence

Pr(n >

L/4}

2.13 (a) Let x =

^ l
O

P -
(-2) =/ e o dy

Ar ^=
s

34
 (
a+x

P (-:
dy

a -^ y +
-fr n
l
e \ v N /

O dy = P
-A 1/2T
2

e
"

du = r_i_ e du
i/2Tr ^^ x yzrr

""

/""
e du
4+x y^F

= Q(x) - +
Q(x a)

o dy
V/2TT

1)

e du = du -
"

1 2
e du = Q(x - a) - Q (x)
/CO
X V/27T

co -J

/ S \
Jj(y +

V^TT 1

35
 2
u
x-a "
,
1 2
^7 e du = 1 - Q(x-a)
/" i

(b) d = -ln2[/P (2)P (-2) + /P (1)P (-1)]

o o o o

= + N/[Q(x-a)-Q(x)] [Q(x)-Q(x+a) ]}
-ln2{N/[l-Q(x-a)]Q(x+a)

For <

s
/N
o
=2 we have x = 2. We find "a" to minimize

f(a) = ^/[T^Q(2-a)]Q(2+a) + VfQ(2-a)-Q(2) ] [Q(2)-Q(2+a>]

by solving ^^- del

= .

2.14
i "
(a) Since x n
12 , x_, ..., x__ are orthogonal the noise in the 2M
M
observables , , ...
lndependent .

2 2 2
Since we have noncoherent detection let V =
m \l
/(7r~)(y
V
N mc w + y )
*ms
o
m = 1, 2, . . .
, M. Assuming x 1 is sent then

P(y 1 =
|x 1 )

and

exp( - ym /2) m = 2 ""

M

The maximum likelihood decision rule is simply: choose x/s that

m
corresponding to the largest y m = 1, 2, . . .
, M. Hence

P^
c.,
= 1 -
Pr{y- 1m >

y for all m # l|x n }

1
a
- 1 - r for all m
I p <7

1 x^)
Pr{y <y-

yl M-l
r
%
"i

= 1 - x
i^lf p(y 2 l

x)
dy i
"0

36
 y M-l
f dy.

(b) Here

2 /9
-y -y/2
dy 2 = 1 - e

(c) Using the binomial expansion

2 , M-l M-l
/2
l =
1 - e 13 (-:
)
j=0

/ 2 , n \. M-l
1 -

and the integral

we get

P
=!
TTT e
E PE

M
= e
M

37
 2 - 15 (a) Define events A =
{y >

y} m = 2, 3, M.

Then

>

y for some m * 1 x }

M M
Pr{ u AJx } = 1 - pr { n A |x n }
m=2 m 1
m=2

M
- 1
/ 2
/o\ M -l
=
-TT PHAJV !-(,. .T /)
M
A |x.}
Certainly Pr{ u
m=2
ml <

1 and also

M M
Pr{ u A x- } <

m 1 m
m=2

2
/2
= (M - 1) e -y

Hence

M "
1
1 - y2/2
)
^^n [(M-l)e-
y2/2
,
l]
,1

and for <

p <
1

2
.-y /2
min (M - , 1 <

(min (M -

V/2 P

(b) Note that

00

P =
P(y 1 |x ) >

y for some m * 1
E J 1

TO
r
-J PCyJx^

38
 /2
M- e- py l
p
X l) dy
I)( x

- (M - p -<?/N

P
= (M - 1) _J_//d+P)N

<

(M - IT exp

(c) Although the signal phase is unknown, it is constant

during the signaling time. As signaling time increases our know

ledge of the unknown phase increases and it can be estimated with

increased accuracy. The maximum likelihood detector incorporates

this knowledge so that in the limit of large signal energy (and

corresponding signal duration) the noncoherent performance

approaches the coherent performance.

2.16 (a) Add the first row of G to the second row to get the

standard form

= [I p]

Hence

which is a Hamming code.

39
 T
(b) s = yH =(110) implies an error in the 3rd position

since s is the third row of H. Hence v= (1111111) .

T
(c) s =
yH =(001) implies an error in the 7th position,

Hence v= (1001100).
(d) d . =3 for Hamming codes. See problem 2.11 (c) .

2.17 (a) If x (t) is sent then X- X ..., X,, are independent

m ,
2
,

Gaussian random variables where X has mean b and unit variance.

m
All the other normalized observables have zero mean and unit

variance. Hence

Pr(erasure) = Pr{A_i <

6 all m }

M
TT Pr{X^,
fn
<

6}
1
m -!

"

Pr{X <

6} Pr{X^i <

6}
m
m ^m i

M
Q(b - 6)[1 - Q(6)]

(b) By symmetry assume xm is sent and Pr{correct decision} =

Pr{X
mm>
X , for all m
1
# m, X
mm>
6 x } .

= / <
a for all m
1
* m, X >
6 x ,X = a}p, (a)da
/ m m m

/r
PrfX^,! <
a for all m * m x
m }p,A (a)da
m

AO
 2
(g-b)
,M-1
11
"

1
= /*[! QCa)]
-1-

-^7 e da
v/2~TT

6-b

2.1 Form observable y = Then without loss in

/"

/ y(t)(j)(t)dt .

J
o
optimality we have

H :
y = n
x,n
H- :
y = x + n

and

Since y is a Gaussian random variable with zero mean and unit vari

ance if H and variance 2 if H n . The decision region of H is

o 1 o

given by

A - *
(y :
(y) po (y)>
Pl

1 - 2 /4 2
= {y : e y <
e
-y /2,

2
=
(y :
y <

n4} = {y : -v^n4 <

y <

while A = A = -/n4 and /n4 }

{y :
y <

y >

Here we have error probabilities,

= A - 1 - Pr{y
P_,
Ji,
Pr{y e
o H,l
} e
11
Ajfl.

41
 = 1 - = 1 -
2Pr{y >

2Q(/n2)

and

P_,
= Pr{y A. H } = 2Pr{y >

}
/J>n4|H
Hi J_ O O

= 2Q(An4) .

Hence
E

2.19

Simplex Orthogonal

(a) The signal set is a Simplex signal set with M = 3 and

energy <f
. This is merely a translation of an orthogonal signal

set of energy = 3 Hence we can use the error probability

y<.

expression for orthogonal signals given by (2.11.1), to get the

desired result.

42
 (b) Since = there are only two signals of equal proba
,
2

bility. Hence the error probability is

P = Q =
E Q

since 11
xn - x =
1 o

(c) Here we have two signals X.. and x with priori probabili-
-L 2.

1
ties = T- and = 3
^ _ T Consider distances between these signals

and the decision boundary,

The point z between x and x must satisfy

~ 1 2.

or

z - x, z - x = N
~ ~ j. ||
o
n3

or
22 = N

/N~ \

n3
el j

43
 m
2.20 Let n(t) = n
k=l

where n(t)i|> (t)dt k = 1,2,..., m

k

and

n (t) = n(t) - 2xU

k-1

Then we see that

(t)dt = k = 1, ..., m

and

E{n n.} = E da
o o
T T

da
o o

). (a)ifj. (a) da

Also

E{n.n (t)} = E
i r

in

E{n.n(t)} - E{n.n }T|; (t)

k-1
 (a)dan(t)

/
= ai|; (t) - a = all t
i

m
Hence the processes
k=l
and n are inde P endent of each ^
other and there is no loss in optimality by considering only the

observables,

r
y(t)i|;(t)dt
J

+ n if X - (t) is sent
1C 1C X

+ n if x(t) is sent .
K ix

k = 1,2,. . .
, m .

(a) For y = (y.,,y ..., y we have

~ 1 L
,
m)

2o,

k=l /2TTQ,

m
and P (y| ^
k=l

Hence

A =
i

k=l 2a k=l 2a;

k

45
 m m
1 -
Yi. -5T >

y,
k=l k=l

m JJL

(b) By symmetry P = P = P . For x n (t) sent we have

c.^ Jl^

a. vi a^
k=l
2
k
A
k=l
K
a.
2
k
N

where
m
E{N} = , E(r) =
k=l
E -T
a.

Hence
m
. Pr
y
v?
k-l
k~T
a
k

m m
= Pr
-Q
k=l a! k=l a;

N m
For a -s- and - V <

k
we have

2.21 (a) The union of events bound for any signal set over the

AWGN channel is (assuming x., is sent)

M /ii5..-;iii\
P
E
1
~ ^
m=2
Q

46
But here
2<
,
k * 1 and k * y+ 1
x -
4<? k = ^+ 1

Hence

<

(M - 1)Q (/*")
N /
o W
which is the "Union of events" bound for an orthogonal code.

(b) Since {ly

|y A for more than one m} and {ly <
A for all
m |>

m 1

m} are disjoint events

P = Pr{ y ^ A for more than one m} + Pr{|y <

A for all m} .

m m

Without loss in generality, suppose x- (t) is sent. Then

V = n an d ym =nm m = 2, 3, ..., M/2,

and

Pr{ y >
A for more than one m}
m
"

<

Pr{|y
7
>
A for some m # 1}

M/2
-=- A = MP.
Pr{
m
m=2
Also

Pr{|ym |
<
A for all m} <

Pr{|y ln |
<
A}

\v N /

VN/N
\ o
= P
1

47
 Hence

Next define events

e =
l A all m

e =
k k}

k = 2, 3, ..., M/2 .

Since for k

- A yl <

A}

we have

Pr(e ) <

Pr{ y >

A, y <

A)
k fc

=
Pr{]y K >

A} Pr{y_ <

A} = 2P,P
I 1 z

Since
l+ i
+1
i
we see that the error event e must be less probable than any

other error event e, k

k
Hence

Pr{e } <

Pr{e } <

2P P
L K. 12
and
M/2 M/2
P = P = Pr u e Pr{e } <

MP P .
X Z
k=l k=l
nT
(t = sin ^ COS ^
/*2n
>*

2n+l (t)dt: 11 11 dt

nr
1 /*
= I sin 2co t dt

(n-%)T

48
 nT
cos
_WO i-UU.-
T

= [cos 200- (n - 3g)T - cos 2w nT]

20J n T U

Thus {(f) (t)} are orthonormal functions. The performance would then
K.

be the same as binary modulation of any set of orthonormal functions

such as those for QPSK modulation given by Table 2.1 (b) . Since

(t) is merely the same as QPSK signals only staggered, the spec-
K
<f>,

trum is the same. It is the spectrum of the square wave f(t)

shifted in frequency by OJ-.

(b) y(t) - I x k * k (t) - I tx 2k * 2k (t) +

k k
nT .__

i
= C 2
sin +
y zn I y(t) / (o3_t <b)dt
i V T
(n-l)T
\" ^/

2n-l f /
(n-l)T
C S
^ Sln(
V + * )dt

nT
^^" W
:

2n T /
(n-l)T
nT
2 /*
Xk
2n+l T //
cos
""~ ut
"0"
sln(0)t
-*"^o
+ 4>)dt

= ij x sin + x cos + Jg x sin

Zn-l 4>

Zn
<()
1
zn-rl

y 2n+l y(t)

49
 nT
1A (-

2
/ sin cos (w n t +
2n T /I u)_l
"n* 4>)dt
*
^^ \J

X COS
2n+l f /
(n J)T

2 /*
X
2 (n+l) T /

sin (J)
+ x cos - Jj x sin
(j)

2(n+1)

Note that

X C S * if X
2n 2n-l
y 2n
(x 2n-l sin + x_ cos ,
if x = x
n 4>

2n <{>

2n-l 2n+l
cxi

(O
/* 2n (t) *
2ofl (t)dt

nT
7T
= cos
[~(t-(n-J5)T)]cos[^(t-nT)]
(MOT
sin 03_t cos GO tdt

nT
4
cos + s cos -

sin 2co tdt

-1 /*
I cos [-(2t +
7T
JJT)] sin 2co tdt

(MOT

50
 nT
= - i r
I sin (27Tt/i) sin 2oj tdt
I +/ \J

II I

[cos (2a)
--
2ir/T)t -
cos (2oj + 2TT/i)t]dt
/ Q Q

sin (2a)-2iT/T)t sin (2oJ+27T/T)t 1

(2G0 -27T/T)
J

Again the signals {<J> ,(t)} are orthonormil and binary modulation of

orthonormal waveforms give the same performance over the AWGN

channel.

(d) For (n - ^)T <

t <
nT we have

X + X
2n*2n (t) 2n+l*2n+l (t)

2 FTT
= X cos - (n - sin t
2n -7--
7t
to
n
[T

X C S (t
- nT) COS s
2n+l 7T "0

[f ]
But

cos - (n - = cos t - nr) +

f (t
= - sin -(

Hence

51
 = v(t) cos [oj t

where

V(t) = -X Sin(t ~nT) + X

2n+ l

= 2//F

and

2
COS prr (t
,

2n+ l7F
:

[7

= tan -I/ 2n riT, .

|
tan (t - ni)
X
2n+l

= (TT/T) (t
- H

= (TT/T)t + nTT

Hence

X + X
2n*2n (t) 2n+ l*2n+ l
(t)

= (2/A) cos t (ir/T)t +

[co mrj

= (2//r) cos (oo 7T/T)tl .

(e)
- T/2 t T/2
(/2~sin (TTt/T)
<
<

f(t) =
(0 ,
otherwise

has spectrum
2
2
COS (03T/2)
2 2
a)
- (TT/T)

//

52
 . 3

3.1 ,(.,& = -Ac Z.

V
(2-
X |

6, (14)- -

y-MTMe/v-y a
/
/ IA U Z

^4)
- ^ A^P
r^
)
=. /Z~t
/

(C)

ckanow Is rwcA swr>v\.tt-rc

ywr>v\.t

0* J -e.wcc = =
4 CJ ( <J^

= 6* 2 -

53
ML (*)
CO q = 3j .

By sywvztvy (</
V3,V3)
= - U Z (
v
2x -| p(yU)^f /j *
y

= P
/
l\Z =
U)
Sy
q
=( ^ A ,

Cp)-UI[Z
J y ^ V A
X

(b)

U) p
r
Ui - rp 3.
2 2

^
/
lOUl
\ T5
O\/
y
Sv***7WC^K>J

y y
Q
\-
^
<2

TWe/*A/ /

E
(p)=-^2/2x J.
c
y \ \

54
 Q,

U v

-UZ/Z -L
Q

D t P

55
(c) o = o = <?
- <?

anj o _ Q
"By Synhvwt
(S.2.21)
)5 2

kt
b7

fc ^
To

7
* - CUHO

MA fcr P vjVveve (.!.*>*) **

(. 3 C.

x
>
,,
P^ R
UO Uk vV

ou,

*$

cilice ?/ is

IK ^. 9 <
P< O u>e, uuse,

J,

^ (JO
57
 c=

-to

iS (U)
t fev 12

cases a) av^CU) &

3.2.23

21

58
 v

vw ..

*
}

J
Z rf(7j2,)
*J

Q
iv ovJ-

z 2

k AicU
 v ov

>0
U- a\\ It

VS

v>

T m -T

Or

3.5
 -i
i

1 -I

o
CtvvA

1-1
i

PcO p
Vor yj^ Wvc

V5
*

- ^
_
=
J)
Vor psi \p, <jp

-W2- 1/1

ff

= J. C
2

C -.

=>^
-

63
 =
-f

z =

(a) ^SC. Zs .
f-or(6)(8C)z*f?

(c) (z cktyrw^J Z
fts -
-1U*

2, I ftz.

4X

5. Co-)
^ cWse a Cjc)
= J_ al\ x

= -f>

Js
ItfitOG I

W A ^W
 u

(y s U-v*. EX

i i

=: O
 )

4 )= z .

CU4 Uj

4 .
[

= -
 C

(b) JL

UJlr

{^z
-JL

e^o c

EoCf,*)

(0,4)

/*

68
T

Z2 xx

r
( a
) 5 ex^? I - *(f.fy)
I

so ,

69
\JUe?re

SUVA, Cfr d GorwAte* U

So ICV) is cu L/ -f CCHCAU>X C? <y
. f^JoTx- WicJ. Ci
1 T 7 r L. J
w- . - ^ C divwl o~ covo/eX f uvtcft(7*-

w/viJrvow e^. 9 t-s o-vtotwr covu/uc erf o.

5 v; ;<*,
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