1.

Introduction

Over recent years the nonwovens market has been one of the fastest growing and most
exciting sectors of the textiles market. Boosted by the development of new products for
numerous applications and the expansion of many established Western products into
developing markets, global consumption of nonwovens has grown on average by almost 6%
per annum in weight terms between 1995 and 2000(1).
The world production of nonwovens rose from 2.16 million tonnes in 1994 to 4.43 million
tonnes in 2004 with an anticipated value jump from $9 billion to $15.9 billion, respectively,
during this period. The rising market potential would push nonwovens production to 6.31
million tonnes in 2009 when the total value of production is anticipated to be $25 billion,
Europe and North America, which had the lion's share of 1.35 million tonnes and 1.16
million tonnes, respectively, in 2004 world production figure of 4.43 million tonnes, may
give way to the Asia-Pacific region, which is projected to increase its non-woven products
output from 1.02 million tonnes in 2004 to 1.67 million tonnes by 2009. At present, the total
volume of nonwovens produced from India is estimated at 35,000 tonnes, as compared to
China's non-woven product output of 7.55 lakh tonnes (China is a dominating force in
nonwovens among the Asia-Pacific region and the third largest non-woven producing region
after America and Europe because of life-style changes, the rising middle-class, and its
economy) (23), The non-woven materials produced under these processes are widely used for
technical applications such as surgical gowns, diaper cover stocks, automotive linings,
military applications such as decontamination wipes and geo-textiles such as insulating
tank/lake bunds.
Although a large number of fibers are available, commercially important nonwoven fabrics
have been limited to relatively few types, the dominant fibers include polyolefin, polyester,
and rayon. These three fiber types made up a substantial part of the overall nonwovens
markets for fibers. The increasing importance of olefin-based fibers is well illustrated by data
from major nonwovens-producing regions that show increasing shipments of PP and PE at
the expense of some natural fibers, rayon and polyester. Much of this shift in fiber
consumption can be attributed to the growing use of olefin-based nonwovens in absorbent
products around the world.

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Rayon was a major fiber used in the nonwovens industry until 1985. Over the past decade,
production of rayon has decreased considerably in the US and Western Europe because of the
increasing cost of the fiber. Since cost of PP and PET dropped compared to that of rayon, and
yet they provide superior strength there was big drop in 1989, after which the shipment of
rayon staple kept declining slowly. Nonwovens made of rayon are mainly found in
medical/surgical/sanitary products and wipes. The cleanliness and absorptive properties made
rayon popular in these fields. Similarly, cotton is the preferred fiber in tampon and
incontinence products. Its consumption is stable at 40-45 million pounds. Nylon, which is
more expensive than most other fibers, is used in a lesser extent. The other specialty fiber has
only a limited market share, probably not more than 15 percent of the whole Nonwovens
market.
Generally Nonwovens are highly anisotropy unlike weaving, knitting. However the
properties of the nonwoven is predicted in connection with way in which fibres are oriented
in an nonwoven structure. So the properties like tensile strength, bending rigidity, liquid
distribution, etc of nonwoven is highly depends are the fibre arrangement in an nonwoven.
Nonwovens are applied in various purposes, out of which it is used most predominantly in
baby diapher, feminine product, geotextiles, medical equipments such as gowns, sterilization
covers etc. Where in which Liquid transmission behavior play an vital role in all above
application mentioned. In plane liquid distribution is movement of liquid with in the plane of
fabrics as opposed to the movement of liquid perpendicular to the plane of the fabric which is
referred to a transplaner distribution. Inplane wicking is used to assist the liquid over a given
area, so that either total evaporation of liquid can occur more readily such in case of
perspiration on clothing. So it is well understood that Inplane liquid distribution on the
nonwoven is the important factor which determines the usage of nonwoven positively in
above mentioned key applicational area.
Inplane liquid distribution of nonwoven depends on various fibre and process parameters.
Among these, Pore volume present in the nonwoven significantly affects the liquid
distribution. This report focus on the study of liquid distribution over nonwoven structure by
identifying their pore volume, which in turn responsible for rate of liquid transmission and
change in pore volume pressure.

2
Also this report consists of t study performed by experimenting the existing modified inplane
wicking tester, in order to redesign its structure to achieve higher accuracy in achieving the
results.

2. Objectives

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1. Design modification of existing Modified Inplane wicking Tester: minor and major
modifications are required to be carried out in an existing instrument inorder to increase the
precision of an instrument by controlling vibration, facilitating sample mounting system, etc.

2. Estimation of pore volume of nonwoven material by sophisticated method, and finding

relation ship between the pore volume Vs varying GSM of nonwoven with same fibres and
method of manufacturing.

3. To study the absorbency related parameters of nonwovens viz., absorbent capacity,

spreading time, maximum absorption and rate of absorption through modified GATS
in-plane wicking method after modifying the design of an instrument.

3. Literature Survey

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3.1. Nonwoven
TNonwoven fabricTs are broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by
entangling fiber or filaments (and by perforating films) mechanically, thermally or
chemicallyP(1)P. They are flat, porous sheets that are made directly from separate fibers or
from molten plastic or plastic film. They are not made by weaving or knitting and do not
require converting the fibers to yarn.

Nonwoven fabrics are engineered fabrics that may be a limited life, single-use fabric or a
very durable fabric. Nonwoven fabrics provide specific functions such as absorbency, liquid
repellency, resilience, stretch, softness, strength, flame retardancy, washability, cushioning,
filtering, bacterial barrier and sterility. These properties are often combined to create fabrics
suited for specific jobs, while achieving a good balance between product use-life and cost.
They can mimic the appearance, texture and strength of a woven fabric and can be as bulky
as the thickest padding. In combination with other materials, they provide a spectrum of
products with diverse properties, and are used alone or as components of apparel, home
furnishings, health care, engineering, industrial and consumer goods.

Listed below are some of the more familiar products made with nonwovens,

TDisposable diapers T
TSanitary napkins & tampons T
TSterile wraps, caps, gowns, masks and drapings used in the medical field T
THousehold and personal wipes T
TLaundry aids (fabric dryer-sheets) T
TApparel interlining T
TCarpeting and upholstery fabrics, padding and backing T
TWall coverings T
TAgricultural coverings and seed strips T
TAutomotive headliners and upholstery T
TFilters T
TEnvelopes T
TTags T

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TLabels T
TInsulation T
THouse wraps T
TRoofing products T
TCivil engineering fabrics/geotextiles T
As you can see, there are many uses for nonwoven fabrics. Technology and ingenuity are
creating the capability of these fabrics to provide high quality and functional products.

3.2. Method of Nonwoven manufacturing

Nonwovens are textile assemblies made up of fibers that are neither interlaced nor
interlocked, but instead they are held together through mechanical, thermal or chemical
bonding P(2)P. It is this unique way of producing the materials that results in the materials
being highly anisotropic. The different methods of producing nonwovens result in different
structural, mechanical and absorbency properties like orientation of fibres, porosity of fabric,
and tensile strength of fabric, absorbency in machine and cross direction.
Basically two main step involved in nonwoven manufacturing, they are,
1. Web formation : This is the primary stage in which the mass of individual fibres are placed
either cross, or parallel or random lay inorder to form an sheet of web.
2.Web bonding: After the formation of the web, all the fibres loosely held are made intact
through bonding technique. They are briefly discussed below,
1. Web forming methods 2. Web bonding methods

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a. Dry laid process. a. Mechanical bonding.

b. wet-laid process. b. Chemical bonding.

c. Extrusion process. c. Thermal and pressure.

The anisotropic properties of nonwovens can be utilized for deciding and controlling the
directional spreading of liquid distribution in nonwoven products and achieve the
maximum out of it. The process variables like needling density or needling depth or
web thickness or delivery rate or after calendaring, the bonding area or type of
adhesive or amount of heat and pressure, parallel-laid or cross laid webs, continuous
filament or staple filament etc will finally decide the anisotropic properties of end
product.
3.3. Anisotropy
Anisotropy is Hallmark character of Nonwoven and they are highly anisotropic materials
unlike woven and knitted fabrics where the properties of the material depend on the way in
which the yarns are interlaced or Interlooped, nonwoven’s properties depend greatly on the
way in which the fibers lay within the material. The method in which the fibers are laid down
and any further processing determine the anisotropy of a nonwoven. The anisotropy of a
nonwoven is an important structural characteristic of the material because it allows the user
to isolate directional properties of the nonwoven and, because of this, the structure can be
engineered such that the material serves a specific purpose. Properties of nonwovens have
been studied extensively to determine if they are in fact directionally dependent properties.
Hearle and StevensonP (3)P, among other things, studied the effect of anisotropy on the tensile
properties of the material. Three test groups were examined whose difference was the
directional percentage of fibers. The first group was random laid, the second cross laid, and
the third parallel laid. The anisotropy of these materials were measured using a Visual
technique that consisted of projecting the image of the material onto a screen and manually
determining the anisotropy. Tensile tests were also carried out by using a standard test on an
instron machine. The angles tested varied between zero degrees (Machine direction) and
ninety degrees (cross direction) in 15-degree intervals. They found that the random group had
the highest strength to break in the machine direction and that it this value decreased slightly

7
as it got closer to the cross direction. Although it might be expected that the breaking
strength would be the same in every direction given that it is a random laid material and thus
essentially isotropic, the processing tends to slightly align the fibers in the machine direction
resulting in a slightly higher value in this direction. The cross laid material was found to have
the largest breaking strength in the cross direction as expected and then a decreasing value
until it reached the machine direction. The parallel laid material on the other hand had the
largest breaking strength in the machine direction and decreased until it reached the cross
direction. The trends that both the cross and parallel laid materials displayed were expected
because it is intuitive that the greater number of fibers in a given direction would result in
higher strength. However, the difference in strength in the machine direction and cross
direction of the parallel laid materials was much larger than it was for the cross laid
materials. Once again this is probably due to the processing parameters. Hearle and
Stevenson showed that the fiber orientation directly influences tensile properties of
nonwovens. It is not surprising that tensile tests are used to determine a material’s anisotropy.
The effect of anisotropy on other properties has been examined as well. Pourdeyhimi and
KimP(4)P investigated the effect of bonding temperature and also anisotropy on the bending
rigidity of nonwoven materials. The material utilized for the test was dry staple unidirectional
carded webs. The bonding temperature varied between 140º and 180ºC. It was found that as
the temperature of the bond increased the bending rigidity also increased. What was also
found is that although the bending rigidity increased due to bonding temperature it still
directly correlated with the material’s anisotropy. The effect of anisotropy of a nonwoven
has been shown to be a determining factor on many of its properties. To accurately determine
the effect of anisotropy on liquid distribution a suitable test method must be determined.

3.4. Wetting
Wetting and wetability has clear dissimilarity between each other but some times they are
used interchangeably(5)P .The wetting of a solid surface is understood to be the condition
resulting from its contact with a specified liquid under specific conditions. Wettability is the
potential of a surface to interact with liquids with specified characteristics. According to
Harnett and Mehta “wettability” is the initial behavior of a fabric, yarn, or fibre when

8
 brought into contact with liquid. It also describes the interaction between liquid and the
substrate prior to wicking process.
For a liquid to move in a fibrous medium, it must wet the fibre surfaces before being
transported through the inter fibre pores by means of capillary action. While the interactions
of molecules in the bulk of a liquid are balanced by an equal attractive force in all directions,
the molecules on the surface of a liquid experience an imbalance of forces. Hence, there is
presence of free energy at the surface of the liquid. The excess energy is called surface free
energy which tends to keep the surface area of the liquid to a minimum and restricts the
advancement the liquid over the solid surface. For a liquid to wet a solid completely or for
the solid to be submerged in a liquid, the solid surfaces must have sufficient surface energy
to overcome the free surface energy of the liquid. The surface free energy can be quantified
as a measurement of energy per area. It is usually termed as surface tension quantified as
force per length with units mN/m or dynes /cm.

Fig. 1 Equilibrium state of a liquid drop on a solid surface

The forces involved in the equilibrium that exists when a liquid is in contact with a solid and
a vapor at the same time are given by the following (Young-Dupré) equation
γ BSV B- γ BSL B= γ BLV B cos θ

where γ represents the interfacial tension that exists between the various combinations of solid,
liquid, and vapor; the subscripts S, L, and V standing for solid, liquid, and vapor, and θ is the
equilibrium contact angle (Fig. 1). The term γ BLVB is denoted as surface tension of the liquid
for liquid/vapor interface. The term γ BLVB cos θ, has been called “adhesion tension” or
“specific wettability”. Above Equation is valid only for a drop resting at equilibrium on a

9
smooth, homogeneous, impermeable, and non deformable surface. The equation has been
widely used to explain wetting and wicking phenomena. The contact angle θ is the angle
between the tangent to the liquid vapor (air) interface and the solid-liquid interface.

3.5. Contact Angle

Contact angle is represented by θ which gives clear view about the principle of wetability of
the solid material against contact liquid. Contact angle is a measure of the wetting of a liquid
on a solid surface. It is expressed in degrees, with 0 degrees being complete wetting and 180
degrees being absolute non-wetting. It is a useful measurement for researchers interested in
wetting, adhesion and other phenomena where liquids contact solids. It can also be used to
characterize the solid surface itself when contact angles for various wetting liquids are
comparedP(6)P

This application note provides a brief introduction to the use and measurement of contact
angles. The techniques used for measurement are discussed and compared. Contact angle θ,
is a quantitative measure of the wetting of a solid by a liquid. It is defined geometrically as
the angle formed by a liquid at the three phase boundary where a liquid, gas and solid
intersect as shown below:

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 Fig 2. Represents the significance of varying contact angle Vs Wettability

It can be seen from this figure that low values of θ indicate that the liquid spreads, or wets
well, while high values indicate poor wetting. If the angle θ is less than 90 the liquid is said
to wet the solid. If it is greater than 90 it is said to be non-wetting. A zero contact angle
represents complete wetting.

The measurement of a single static contact angle to characterize the interaction is no longer
thought to be adequate. For any given solid/ liquid interaction there exists a range of contact
angles which may be found. The value of static contact angles are found to depend on the
recent history of the interaction. When the drop has recently expanded the angle is said to
represent the ‘advanced’ contact angle. When the drop has recently contracted the angle is

11
said to represent the ‘receded’ contact angle. These angles fall within a range with advanced
angles approaching a maximum value and receded angles approaching a minimum value.

If the three phase (liquid/solid/vapor) boundary is in actual motion the angles produced are
called Dynamic Contact Angles and are referred to as ‘advancing’ and ‘receding’ angles. The
difference between ‘advanced’ and ‘advancing’, ‘receded’ and ‘receding’ is that in the static
case motion is incipient in the dynamic case motion is actual. Dynamic contact angles may
be assayed at various rates of speed. Dynamic contact angles measured at low velocities
should be equal to properly measured static angles.

3.5.1. Hysteresis

The difference between the maximum(advanced/advancing) and minimum(receded/receding)

contact angle values is called the contact angle hysteresis. A great deal of research has gone
into analysis of the significance of hysteresis. It has been used to help characterize surface
heterogeneity, roughness and mobility. Briefly, for surfaces which are not homogeneous
there will exist domains on the surface which present barriers to the motion of the contact
line. For the case of chemical heterogeneity these domains represent areas with different
contact angles than the surrounding surface. For example when wetting with water,
hydrophobic domains will pin the motion of the contact line as the liquid advances thus
increasing the contact angles. When the water recedes the hydrophilic domains will hold
back the draining motion of the contact line thus decreasing the contact angle. From this
analysis it can be seen that, when testing with water, advancing angles will be sensitive to the
hydrophobic domains and receding angles will characterize the hydrophilic domains on the
surface.

For situations in which surface roughness generates hysteresis, the actual microscopic
variations of slope in the surface create the barriers, which pin the motion of the contact line
and alter the macroscopic contact angles. There has been a great deal of research
investigating the significance of hysteresis and you are recommended to the papers cited at
the end of this note for further details.

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Contact angle can also be considered in terms of the thermodynamics of the materials
involved. This analysis involves the interfacial free energies between the three phases and is
given by,

γ Blv Bcos θ = γ Bsv B- γ Bsl

where γ Blv B, γ Bsv Band γ Bsl Brefer to the interfacial energies of the liquid/vapor, solid/vapor
and solid/liquid interfaces.

3.5.2. Contact angle measurement

Two different approaches are commonly used to measure contact angles of non-porous
solids, goniometry and tensiometry. Goniometry involves the observation of a sessile drop
of test liquid on a solid substrate. Tensiometry involves measuring the forces of interaction
as a solid is contacted with a test liquid. Both techniques are described below with comments
on the choice of either technique for particular research applications.

In the case of porous solids, powders and fabrics another approach is commonly used. This
technique involves using a tensiometer, and the Washburn method. It is the method of choice
when your sample contains a porous architecture which absorbs the wetting liquid. It is
described briefly below.

3.6.Methods of Measurement

3.6.1. Goniometry

A drop of the wetting liquid is placed on the solid sample. The image of the drop shape is
investigated with the contact angle being the tangent between the drop edge and the solid
surface.

Analysis of the shape of a drop of test liquid placed on a solid is the basis for goniometry.
The basic elements of a goniometer include a light source, sample stage, lens and image

13
capture. Contact angle can be assessed directly by measuring the angle formed between the
solid and the tangent to the drop surface.

The production of drops with advanced and receded edges involves one of two strategies.
Drops can be made to have advanced edges by addition of liquid. Receded edges may be
produced by allowing sufficient evaporation or by withdrawing liquid from the drop.
Alternately, both advanced and receded edges are produced when the stage on which the
solid is held is tilted to the point of incipient motion. Using an instrument with high speed
image capture capabilities shapes of drops in motion may be analyzed.

KSV Instruments supplies two instruments for goniometry, theT CAM100T and TCAM
200.T The CAM100 uses a 50mm USB camera for image capture. The CAM200 instruments
use a high speed CCD camera for image capture. The images are analyzed with computer
software.

3.6.2. Advantages

Goniometry can be used in many situations where tensiometry cannot. You can use a great
variety of solid substrates provided they have a relatively flat portion for testing and can fit
on the stage of the instrument. Substrates with regular curvature, such as contact lenses are
also easily analyzed.

Testing can be done using very small quantities of liquid. It is also easy to test high
temperature liquids such as polymer melts.

3.6.3. Limitations

The assignment of the tangent line which will define the contact angle is a factor which can
limit the reproducibility of contact angle measurements. Conventional goniometry relies on
the consistency of the operator in the assignment of the tangent line. This can lead to
significant error, especially subjective error between multiple users. KSV Instruments’
TCAM 200T and TCAM100T remove this problem by using computer analysis of the drop
shape to generate consistent contact angle data.

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The conditions which produce advanced and receded angles are sometimes difficult to
reproduce. Although drops in motion can produce data on dynamic contact angles the
velocity of motion cannot be controlled. It is also less suited, when compared to tensiometry,
to analysis of the effects of wetting on changes in contact angle.

In addition the amount of surface sampled for each measurement is limited and multiple
measurements should be used to characterize a surface. Fibers are not easily studied by
goniometry.

3.6.4. Optical contact angle and surface tension meter

Fig 3.Optical contact angle and surface tension meter with optional automatic dispenser

CAM 200 is a video camera based fully computer controlled contact angle meter for the
measurement of static or advancing/receding contact angles. Also surface tension
measurements can be performed using the pendant drop technique.

The instrument has a 32-bit Microsoft Windows95 based software, which allows analysis of
contact angles, critical surface tension (Zisman plot) and surface free energy of solids
(Fowkes, etc.). Determination of contact angle and surface tension is based on true Young
and Laplace equation.

Instead of using separate files for each measurement the software contains an internal
database system where all the recorded data is stored. This allows a convenient method to

15
keep all the data organized for future analysis. To save space recordings are saved using
proprietary image compression which retains all important information. There are separate
databases for liquids and solids where all information about the test materials is be stored.

3.6.5 Tensiometer

3.6.5.1. Basic Terminology to study Tensiometer

3.6.5.1.1. Surface Tension

Surface tension is a measure of the cohesive energy of a liquid. It is the excess free energy at
the interface of contact between two fluids. When one fluid is a gas the tension is termed
surface tension, when both fluids are liquids it is termed interfacial tension. It is expressed in
units of milliNewtons/meter (mN/m) or dynes/centimeter. It is useful in analyzing fluids are
foaming, spreading, emulsification, washability and other fluid characteristics.

Surface tension is a measurement of the cohesive energy present at an interface. The

molecules of a liquid attract each other. The interactions of a molecule in the bulk of a liquid
are balanced by an equal attractive force in all directions. Molecules on the surface of a
liquid experience an imbalance of forces as indicated below.

Fig.4. represents the Surface free energy of liquid.

The net effect of this situation is the presence of free energy at the surface. The excess energy
is called surface free energy and can be quantified as a measurement of energy/area. It is also
possible to describe this situation as having a line tension or surface tension which is

16
quantified as a force/length measurement. The common units for surface tension are
dynes/cm or mN/m. These units are equivalent. This excess energy exists at the interface of
two fluids. If one of the fluids is the vapor phase of a liquid being tested the measurement is
referred to as surface tension. If the surface investigated is the interface of two liquids the
measurement is referred to as interfacial tension. In either case the more dense fluid is
referred to herein as the ‘heavy phase’ and the less dense fluid is referred to as the ‘light
phase’. Solids also may be described to have a surface free energy at their interfaces but
direct measurement of its value is not possible through techniques used for liquids.

Polar liquids, such as water, have strong intermolecular interactions and thus high surface
tensions. Any factor which decreases the strength of this interaction will lower surface
tension. Thus an increase in the temperature of this system will lower surface tension. Any
contamination, especially by surfactants, will lower surface tension. Therefore researchers
should be very cautious about the issue of contamination.

3.6.5.1.2. Measurement of Surface Tension by Tensiometry Technique

The measurement of surface and interfacial tension as performed by a tensiometer is based

on force measurements of the interaction of a probe with the surface of interface of two
fluids. With any of the techniques described herein you may perform interfacial tension
measurements just like surface tension measurements by insuring that the bulk of the probe is
submersed in the light phase prior to beginning the experiment.

In these experiments a probe is hung on a balance and brought into contact with the liquid
interface tested. The forces experienced by the balance as the probe interacts with the surface
of the liquid can be used to calculate surface tension. The forces present in this situation
depend on the following factors; size and shape of the probe, contact angle of the liquid/solid
interaction and surface tension of the liquid. The size and shape of the probe are easily
controlled. The contact angle is controlled to be zero (complete wetting). This is achieved by

17
using probes with high energy surfaces. KSV probes are made of a platinum/iridium alloy
which insures complete wetting and easy and reliable cleaning.

The mathematical interpretation of the force measurements depends on the shape of the
probe used. Two types of probes are commonly used, the DuNouy Ring and the Wilhelmy
Plate. Both are available from KSV Instruments.

Choice of probes

DuNouy ring: This method utilizes the interaction of a platinum ring with the surface being
tested. The ring is submerged below the interface and subsequently raised upwards. As the
ring moves upwards it raises a meniscus of the liquid. Eventually this meniscus tears from
the ring and returns to it’s original position. Prior to this event, the volume, and thus the force
exerted , of the meniscus passes through a maximum value and begins to diminish prior to
the actually tearing event. The process is shown in the diagram below:

Fig 5. Representation of the variation of Force during ascending and descending of probe

1) The ring is above the surface and the force is zeroed.

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2) The ring hits the surface and there is a slight positive force because of the adhesive force
between the ring and the surface.

3) The ring must be pushed through the surface (due to the surface tension) which causes a
small negative force.

4) The ring breaks through the surface and a small positive force is measured due to the
supporting wires of the ring.

5) When lifted through the surface the measured force starts to increase.

6) The force keeps increasing until

7) The maximum force is reached

8) After the maximum there is a small decrease of in the force until the lamella breaks.

The calculation of surface or interfacial tension by this technique is based on the

measurement of this maximum force. The depth of immersion of the ring and the level to
which it is raised when it experiences the maximum pull are irrelevant to this technique. The
original calculations based on the ring technique were based on theories which apply to rings
of infinite diameter and do not consider an additional volume of liquid which is raised due to
the proximity of one side of the ring to the other. This additional liquid lifted is diagrammed
below as the shaded portion:

Fig 6.Representation additional liquid lifted during upward movement of probe.

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Mathematical corrections which compensate for this extra liquid have been produced. KSV
software utilizes the corrections suggested by Huh and Mason in reference cited below.

3.6.5.2. Dynamic Contact Angle measurement

Measurement of dynamic contact angles provides information on the properties of surfaces
such as porosity and homogeneity, surface topography and reactivity. The method is based
on the Wilhelmy plate principle where the solid sample is held by the electro balance and
then dipped or pulled from the substance. Therefore the weight of the sample alternates
depending on direction of the movement. The force changes obtained are directly
proportional to the contact angle. The contact angle is the angle formed by the tangent to the
point of contact at the solid/liquid interfaces. As the solid sample penetrates the surface and
dips into the liquid a advancing contact angle is determined and the pull of the sample from
the substance provides receding contact angle information. The progress of the experiment is
expressed in form of graphical buoyancy slope where the x axis represent the immersion
depth and the y-axis the force. The contact angles is calculated from the force versus depth
information.

A sample of the solid is hung on a force balance and brought into contact with the wetting
liquid. The change in forces when the solid contacts the liquid are used to calculate contact
angles.

The tensiometric method for measuring contact angles measures the forces that are present
when a sample of solid is brought into contact with a test liquid. If the forces of interaction,
geometry of the solid and surface tension of the liquid are known the contact angle may be
calculated. The user first makes a measurement of the surface tension of the liquid using
either a Wilhelmy plate or DuNouy ring. The sample of the solid to be tested is then hung on
the balance and tared. The liquid is then raised to contact the solid. When the solid contacts
the liquid the change in forces is detected and the instrument registers this elevation as zero
depth of immersion. As the solid is pushed into the liquid the forces on the balance are
recorded. The forces on the balance are

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FBtotalB = wetting force + weight of probe - buoyancy

Sigma70 instrument tared the weight of the probe and can remove the effects of the
buoyancy force by extrapolating the graph back to zero depth of immersion. The remaining
component force is the wetting force which is defined as,

Wetting force = γ BLVB P cosθ

Where γ BLVB is the liquid surface tension, P is the perimeter of the probe and θ is the contact
angle. Thus at any depth data is received which can be used to calculate contact angle. This
contact angle, which is obtained from data generated as the probe advances into the liquid, is
the advancing contact angle. The sample is immersed to a set depth and the process is
reversed. As the probe retreats from the liquid data collected is used to calculate the receding
contact angle.

3.6.5.3. Automatic surface tension/contact angle meter

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 Fig 7. Automatic surface tension/contact angle meter

Above figure illustrates the fully computer controlled and automatic Tensiometer for the
measurement of surface/interfacial tensions and contact angles of liquids. Sigma 70 uses
Wilhelmy plate or Du Nouy ring method for force measurement and its super sensitive fiber
range balance operates at 0.25 mN to 25 mN range. Standard programs include automatic
determination of TCMCT, push and pull Tsurface and interfacial tension Tmeasurements,
Tpodwer wettabilityT and measurement of Tdynamic advancing and receding contact
anglesT. Measuring parameters are displayed on-line in clear digits on the interface unit and
graphical result presentation can be monitored at the computer screen. All experimental data
is stored on the hard disk and the flexible multitasking Windows software allows customized
application development.

3.6.5.3.1. Features

Full computer control and automatic operation of all measuring modes

Expansive Windows software programs

Uses Wilhelmy plate or Du Nouy ring method

Super sensitive fiber-range balance - up to 0.05 µN

Software controlled sample thermostation and stirring
Direct reading of sample temperature
Fully automatic dispenser for TCMC Tmeasurements
On-line digital displays of measuring parameters
Automatic calculation of ring correction values
Automatic calibration, zeroing, tarring and reset to start point
Result and graphics presented on screen
Data export to Lotus 1-2-3 or equivalent, hard disk data storage
Computer requirements IBM PC/AT compatible computer required

3.6.5.3.2. Performance

Surface and interfacial tension measurements, push and pull modes

22
Dynamic advancing and receding contact angle measurements (TDCAT)
Wettability characteristics of Tsingle fibersT
Automatic critical micelle concentrations (TCMCT) determination
Adsorption behavior measurement
Surface recovery and dehydration rate measurement
Measurement of surface free energy
Density of liquids
Critical surface tension (Zisman plot)
Determination of wetted length of solids and fibers

3.6.5.3.3. Options

On-line measurement of sample pH

Special sample vessel for temperatures up to 300º C

Evaporation preventer, thermostated double wall lid made of glass

3.6.5.3.4. Advantages

The use of tensiometry for measurement of contact angle has several advantages over
conventional goniometry. At any point on the immersion graph, all points along the
perimeter of the solid at that depth contribute to the force measurement recorded. Thus the
force used to calculate Ө at any given depth of immersion is already an averaged value. You
may calculate an averaged value for the entire length of the sample or average any part of the
immersion graph data to assay changes in contact angle along the length of the sample.

This technique allows the user to analyze contact angles produced from wetting over an
entire range of velocities from static to rapid wetting. Because the contact angles are
determined from the forces measured by the instrument there is no possibility of subjective
error.

The graphs produced by this technique are very useful in studying hysteresis. Variations of
contact angles, both advancing and receding, for the entire length of the sample tested are
visualized on the same graph. In addition variations generated over multiple wetting /

23
dewetting cycles can yield information on changes caused by wetting(such as absorption or
surface reorientation).

3.6.5.3.5. Limitations

There are two major limitations for the application of this technique. Firstly the user must
have enough of the liquid being tested available so that he can immerse a portion of his solid
in it. Secondly the solid in question must be available in samples which meet the following
constraints. The sample must be formed or cut in a regular geometry such that it has a
constant perimeter over a portion of it’s length. Rods, plates or fibers of known perimeter are
ideal. The sample must have the same surface on all sides which contact the liquid. The
sample must also be small enough so that it can be hung on the microbalance.

It is also more difficult to use this technique in systems which are measured at high
temperatures. Temperatures at or below 100˚ C are easily handled but for measurements
above this range goniometry is recommended.

3.6.6. Washburn Method

This method is chosen when the solid sample to be tested contains a porous architecture
which leads to absorption of the wetting liquid. The solid is brought into contact with the
testing liquid and the mass of liquid absorbed into the solid is measured as a function of time.
The amount absorbed is a function of the viscosity, density and surface tension of the liquid,
the material constant of the solid , and the contact angle of the interaction. If the viscosity,
density and surface tension of the liquid are known the material constant and contact angle
can be solved for.

3.7. Powder wettability

24
If you wish to characterize the wetting behavior of a particular liquid/solid pair you only
need to measure the contact angle. It is possible to characterize the wettability of your solid
in a more general way. Various methods are used but the same basic principle applies for
each. The solid is tested against a series of liquids and contact angles are measured.
Calculations based on these measurements produce a parameter (critical surface tension,
surface free energy, etc) which quantifies a characteristic of the solid which mediates
wetting.

The wetting of powders and porous solids also involves contact angle phenomena but is
complicated by the presence of a porous architecture. Although various methods are
employed to characterize this architecture, contact angles are still the primary parameters
used to characterize wetting.

Rough estimates of wettability can be made by placing powders on any given liquid and
observing if the solid wets into the liquid (the time required for wetting may also be noted).
Solids with contact angles above 90° will not wet into the liquid. A series of liquids of
varying surface tensions can be tested against your solid. Liquids with lower surface tensions
yield lower contact angles. For some liquids the contact angle with a given solid will be
greater than 90° and the solid will not wet while with a liquid of lower surface tension the
contact angle will be less than 90° and wetting will occur. Using this crude approach some
relevant information on wetting of solids may be found. To produce a quantitative measure
of wetting, a contact angle, two approaches are generally used: goniometry and tensiometry.
This is comprehensively discussed in the contact angle measurement topic.

3.8. Wicking

Due to the pressure difference between capillary and capillary forces, wicking occurs in
nonwoven, which enhance the bulk of liquid uptake into the nonwoven system. As we
discussed above in wetting, wicking also involves the interaction of different phases like
solid to liquid, liquid to vapour, solid to Vapour. The capillaries are the major factor in liquid
movement through the material. Capillaries are not always the only force that drives liquid
into the material. Along with wicking, the process of absorption can occur. Although these

25
two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they are actually two separate processes.
Whereas wicking is liquid uptake by the capillaries (interstices) formed by the yarns and
fibers, absorption is the uptake of liquid into the fibers themselves. For instance, materials
such as polyester coated with a hydrophilic finish ,only move liquid through the material by
wicking, but materials such as cotton are naturally absorbent and therefore, both wicking and
absorption occur. Fiber swelling due to absorption can actually hinder the capillary flow
because it changes the capillary geometry. In addition to absorption and wicking a third
process of liquid movement can occur. This process is referred to as adsorption, which is the
movement of a thin layer of liquid on the outside of the material. The pressure difference in
the capillary can be described by the Young-LaPlace equation,

26
r =pore radius
∆P = ( 2γCOS θ) / r

θ =contact angle

γ =liquid surface tension

P =capillary pressure

The specific case of spherical meniscus inside a cylindrical capillary, according to this
equation, the smaller the pore size the greater the pressure within the capillary.
Therefore, when external pressure is applied to a dry fabric and is slowly decreased
until liquid begins to penetrate, the smaller pores will fill first and conversely when
the external pressure, applied to a wet material, is increased, the smaller pores drain
last.

When there is no longer a pressure difference across the meniscus of the liquid in the
capillary, equilibrium has been achieved and wicking ceases. This can be caused by
the meniscus reaching the edge of the capillary or by a drastic change in the radius of
the capillary. It has been demonstrated that the contact angle plays an important role
in the driving mechanism for bulk liquid uptake into a material. It can affect both the
amount absorbed and the rate of absorption.
Wicking can only occur when a liquid wets fibres assembled with capillary spaces between
them. The resulting capillary forces drive the liquid into the capillary spaces. Wicking can be
visualized as a spontaneous displacement of a solid-air interface with a solid-liquid interface
in a capillary system For the process to be spontaneous free energy has to be gained and the
work of penetration has to be positiveP(7)P. This is the case when the interfacial energy of the
fibre surface in contact with vapor (air) γ BSVB exceeds the interfacial energy between the
liquid and the fibre surface γ BSLB
WB = γ rB - γ rB
PB SV B SL

The work of penetration WBP Bis a measure of energy required for capillary penetration.
When a liquid in a capillary wets the walls of the capillary, a meniscus is formed. The

27
surface tension of the liquid causing a pressure differences ∆P across the curved liquid-air
(vapor) interface is related to the curvature of this interface according to Young-Laplace
equation.
∆P= γ LV (B 1/RB1B+1/RB2B)
For a capillary with a circular cross section, the radii of the curved interface RB1B and RB2B
are equal:
∆P= 2 rB LV B/ R
If the capillary is circular with radius r, the meniscus will be approximately hemispherical
with a constant radius of curvature,
R = r/cosθ
The capillary pressure is
∆P= 2 rB LV Bcos θ / r
When the capillary wall is completely wettable by the liquid, then cos θ = 1. For a positive
capillary pressure, the values of θ have to be between 0° and 90°. Capillary pressure is
inversely related to the capillary radius. The term “wicking” involves two kinetically
different processes P(8)Pa spontaneous flow of a liquid within the capillary spaces
accompanied by a simultaneous diffusion of the liquid into the interior of fibers or a film on
fibres. If the penetration of liquid is limited to the capillary spaces and the fibres do not
imbibe the liquid, the wicking process is termed “capillary penetration” or “capillary
sorption”.
For a theoretical treatment of capillary flow in fabrics, the fibrous assemblies are usually
considered to consist of a number of parallel capillaries. The advancement of the liquid front
in a capillary can be visualized as occurring in small jumps. The advancing wetting line in a
single capillary stretches the meniscus of the liquid until the elasticity of the meniscus and
the inertia of flow are exceeded. The meniscus contracts, pulling more liquid into the
capillary to restore the equilibrium state of the meniscus.
The movement of the liquid in a non-homogeneous capillary system such as a fibrous
assembly is discontinuous for another reason as well. The wetting front advances into the
capillary system in small jumps, because the irregular capillary spaces have various
dimensions the wicking rate is not solely governed by interfacial tensions and the wettability

28
of the fibres, but by other factors as well. The wicking rate depends on the capillary
dimensions of the substrate and the viscosity of the liquid alsoP(9)P.
Most textile processes are time limited, and the rate of wicking is therefore important.
However, the wicking rate is not solely governed by interfacial tensions and the wettability
of the fibres, but by other factors as well. The wicking rate depends on the capillary
dimensions of the substrate and the viscosity of the liquid.
The mass rate (M) at which a liquid moves through a porous channel is related to the
pressure difference (p or ∆P) across the channel in the absence of gravitational force and
neglecting inertial forces (as acceleration is small) by Poiseuille’s lawP(10)P.

29
M = π p ρρBLB rP4 P/ 8 η h

If the pressure differences ∆P is due to capillary forces, then

M = π ρBLB rP3 P γ BLV Bcos θ / 4 η h

The volume rate of flow (V) is

V = π rP3 P γ BLV Bcos θ / 4 η h

Linear rate of flow (u) is

u = dh/dt = r γ BLV Bcos θ / 4 η h

Where h is height of liquid rise in the capillary channel.

Lucas-Washburn equation for the rate of fluid flow against gravitational forces, through
porous solid as a bundle of round capillary tubes, each is very small with radius r,
given by:

γ LV r cos θ
dh/dt = - rP2P ρBLB g /8 η
4ηh

where, g is the acceleration due to gravity. The second term is negligible either the flow is
horizontal or r is very small (rP2P = 0).

When the capillary forces are balanced by the gravitational forces liquid rise stops and
equilibrium is reached as given

γ BLV Bcos θ 2πr = πrP2P ρBLB gh

Hence, equilibrium wicking height hBeqB = 2 γ BLV Bcos θ / r ρBLB g

According to Lucas-Washburn equation neglecting gravitational forces, the wicking height, h

is directly proportional to square root of time t:

h= (r γ BLV Bcos θ / 2τP2P η)P1/2 PtP1/2P = ktP1/2 P

30
where, hτ is the actual distance traveled, τ is the tortuosity factor

3.9. Factors affecting Wetting and Wicking

Following are the most critical factor which influence the characterization of wetting and
wicking phenomina
Material Characteristics
1. Fibre characteristics Wetting and wicking depends on the moisture absorption nature of
the individual fibre (hydrophobic, hydrophilic and blends of the two), uniformity of mixing,
cross section of fibre, fibre deniers, inherent porosity or the hollowness of fibre, continuous
filament or staple, crimp etc.
2. Fabric characteristics The way in which the fibres are arranged in nonwoven (cross-laid,
parallel-laid or random-laid), thickness of material, porosity of fabric, the discontinuity of
fibre in web, the type of bonding applied, surface finish applied etc.
3. Fluid characteristics viscosity of fluid, surface tension of fluid, the composition of fluid
(whether saline or distill), the amount of polar and non-polar groups etc.

The capacity to retain large volumes of fluids under pressure and rapidity of imbibition are
important factors in nonwovens used in absorbent applications. Absorbency being the
result of absorbate/absorbent interaction, optimum ultimate performance of a
nonwoven absorbent depends mainly upon interplay above three groups of variables.
Some main factors influencing the direction of liquid spreading and the amount of
absorbency are the orientation of web, porosity of material etc.
3.10. Pore and porosity
Pore and its importance in wicking are considered as a high prior to this project and
comprehensive the theory related to pores are discussed below. Connectivity of the pores in
the fabric influence how fast and how much liquid is transported through the material. The
pores within the structure are responsible for liquid flow through a material. Also the size of
the pore and their volume determines the rate of absorption of liquid. They are generally
discontinuous as because of the discontinuity of the fibres in nonwovens.
Three kinds of pores may be present in a material as shown in fig 8..first; the closed pores are
not accessible. Second, the blind pores terminate inside the material and do not permit fluid

31
flow. Third, the through pores are open to the outside and permit fluid flow. Through pores
are of primary interest for many of the applications of nonwovens. The important through
pore characteristics of nonwovens include the
most constricted pore diameters, the largest pore diameter, the mean pore diameter, pore
volume, pore distribution, surface area, gas permeability and liquid Permeability

Fig. 8. Different kinds of pores.

The porosity ( φ) of a material is defined as the fraction of void space within the material
[2].

φ =1 −( ρb / ρs )
ρb = fabric density
ρs = fibre density

The fabric density can be found by:

ρb = fabric weight / thickness

and the maximum absorption capacity can be found with:

Cm = ( ρl φ) / ρs (1 −φ) Cm = (ρl φ) / ρs (1- φ)

Where,

32
ρl= liquid density .

Wicking can only occur when a liquid wets fibres assembled with capillary spaces between
them. The resulting capillary forces drive the liquid into the capillary spaces. Wicking can be
visualized as a spontaneous displacement of a solid-air interface with a solid-liquid interface
in a capillary system.

A porous medium can be defined as a solid matrix consisting of interconnected empty

spaces. This matrix has a dimension known as the porosity of the material. The porosity is
the percent of the material that is empty space and is usually represented by ϕ . Of interest is
not only the total porous area of the material, but actually the pore size distribution. The
technique of measuring this size distribution is discussed below. Liquid flow analysis has
been used in many ways to describe structural characteristics of textile materials. Rebenfeld
and Miller describeP(11)P ways in which to measure both the pore dimensions and the
directional permeabilities of the material. They argue that the average porosity of a material
can be a deceptive value. That two materials with the
same overall porosity could behave quite differently because of differences in the directional
porosities and also because the pore size can vary greatly within a single structure. Therefore,
quantifying the pore size distribution can help in understanding the behavior of the material.
A more appropriate method is the liquid porosimetry in which pore dimension distributions
are determined using liquids. The most widely used technique is that of the mercury intrusion
method. This method is not valid for many textile structures because of the compression
loading which can cause damage to the structure. Furthermore, it can only measure pores
accurately up to 5μm; textile structures can have pores that are as large as 1000μm. The
method described by Rebenfeld and Miller a pre-saturated material is placed on a membrane
in a chamber. The chamber is then filled with pressurized gas in incremental amounts over
time and the pores begin to drain starting with the largest ones first. A computer controls this
process. A balance monitors the liquid that is drained from the material. The process in
measuring the in-plane flow of the liquid, also described by Rebenfeld and Miller, is much
like that of the liquid porosimetry in that pressurized air is used to force liquid into the
material. A highly viscous fluid is chosen so that the flow is a function of material structure

33
only and not that of the intrinsic wetting properties of the material. The flow is monitored by
a video camera and then analyzed using an image analysis system.
3.10.1. Pore Size Distribution
The total pore space consists of ores of different sizes. It is not possible to specify pore size
geometrically. Since the pores are irregularly shaped and are not well defined entities. The
concept of pore size distribution is therefore equally nebulous(24)P. Scheidegger offered a
possible way out of the dilemma by defining the pre diameter at any point within the pore
space as the diameter of the largest sphere which contains this point and remains wholly
within the pre space. This definition suggests that even in the more simple porous structures.
Short of a capillary tube, there exists a more or less continuous function describing the pre
size distribution.

3.10.2. DARCY Law’s

The Darcy flow can then be determined using the analysis of the images. Darcy described
steady-state unidirectional flow through an isotropic porous medium in 1856 and can only be
applied to systems for which slow laminar flow is found. This equation describes the
relationship between flow rate and the pressure differenceP(12)P.

It should be noted that K is independent of the properties of the fluid and instead is controlled
by the structural characteristics of the material. The quantification of K for simple structural
parameters has been the focal point of many studies. The Carman- Kozeny approach is a
hydraulic radius theory that defines K for a bed of particles or fibers to be P(13)

34
Although the Carmen-Kozeny constant is a popular approach for measuring permeability,
others have tried to quantify it in terms of the geometry of the material. Ariadurai and Potluri
P(14)Phave examined the flow of liquid through woven geotextiles and tried to model the flow
with the intentions of increasing liquid movement through the materials. Ariadurai and
Potluri based their model for fluid flow through a woven geotextile on the actual structure of
the woven material and its yarn. The geotextiles studied in this work can be assumed to be
infinitely wide and therefore it was only necessary to study the unidirectional flow through
the warp direction. This model is based on the Poiseuille’s equation for volumetric flow rate
flow through noncircular channels and is written as:

And where the specific permeability can be written as:

The foundation for the hydraulic radius for the woven structure is based on the basic
geometry of the material. The hydraulic radii (the cross sectional area of the liquid moving
through a capillary divided by the wetted perimeter) for the yarns are determined by
assuming that the yarn has a racetrack sectional geometry. Thus, the volumetric flow rate and
specific permeability can be determined by using these equations if the shape constants can
be determined. Finally, the hydraulic transmissivity (in-plane permeability) can be found.
Ariadurai and Potluri’s tests, carried out to analyze the equations, were conducted with
compliance to British and ASTM standards for determining transmissivity values. The results
were found to correlate well with the proposed model. Rebenfeld et alP(15,16,17,18)P describes in
many papers a way to quantify in-plane liquid distribution within a porous network and how

35
this applies to the directional permeabilities. The process by which the experiments are
carried out is the process described earlier on page 24 for measuring in-plane flow. This
process forces a liquid into the material and the flow front is recorded using a video camera.
An isotropic material will be expected to have a circular fluid front while an anisotropic
material will have a fluid front that deviates from a circular front. Due to the nature of the
fluid front the image can then be analyzed to determine the dominant directional
permeabilities of the material. The process for analyzing these fronts is based on Darcy’ law,
where the equation is written in the form:

For the analysis of a flow in a medium, the continuity equation and Darcy’s Law are
combined to give,

, and

In the above equation 1 and 2 are the principal flow directions. For an isotropic flow
Front (k2 / k1 = 1), and analyzing the front at R = Rf the corresponding Darcy’s equation is
equal to:

where porosity, ε , is equal to:

36
The permeability of the material can then be calculated by obtaining the slope of the least
square line, m , Once this is obtained the permeability for the isotropic flow front k is found
using the following:

An exact solution from the above equations cannot be determined for anisotropic flows.
Instead, Rebenfeld et al. used finite elemental analysis and analytical expansion to determine
the solution for k1 and k2 from experimental data. It was determined from these studies that
the directional in-plane flow of liquid is not determined by the fluid viscosity, driving
pressure, or surface wettability, but in fact was influenced by the structure of the
materialP(19)P.
While in this study Rebenfeld et al. examined the in-plane permeabilities in the main flow
directions, in another study Rebenfeld et alP(20)P examined the local flow rates to determine
the local permeabilities, which are a function of the local heterogeneities. For example, even
though a fluid front may have an overall circular shape, the local curvature will not be
perfectly smooth due to local imperfections in the fabric. Processing and handling of the
material can cause these local imperfections.
Rebenfeld et al. determined a process by which the local permeabilities of the material at
given angles could be estimated by examining an image recorded during testing. Again the
experimental set-up and test procedure are the same as these reported in previous
experiments. Also, like past studies this one is based on Darcy’s law. The liquid fluid front
boundary is extracted at given intervals. This boundary is then subdivided into tendegree
intervals and placed on a grid so that sections of the “pie “ could be analyzed. For each slice,
the average permeability is calculated between every two-boundary intervals using the
following form of Darcy’s Law,

When a liquid front is moving through the plane of a material due to an applied pressure,
there is a pressure drop across the face of the material. This model, however, is a

37
simplification of the movement of the liquid because it assumes that there is no pressure drop
in the angular direction. A computer simulation of the fluid front using this model showed
that the results using this assumption and the results obtained from the actual fluid front
correlated well. Once the permeability of the slice is known, the average permeability of each
grid square can be obtained by

With this method, not only are the principal flow directions analyzed, but the local flow
directions are also analyzed. The local flow properties reflect the fabric’s local
heterogeneities, which are inherent in any nonwoven fabric. The results could be misleading
if only the maximum and minimum flow directions or the overall flow permeability were
analyzed. These results may give the impression that the shape of the liquid front is a
homogeneous ellipse, when in fact it is not. A smooth homogeneous ellipse almost never
occurs due to process and handling.
NederveenP(21)P studied the relationship between different theoretical models for liquid
flowP in a porous material with that of the actual experimental results. The models are based
on the Lucas-Washburn equation and Darcy’s permeability.
The Darcy expression for permeability is:

This equation assumes that the capillaries are straight and parallel to one another. However,
because not all of the channels are parallel to one another and their path is tortuous, the 2 in
the denominator of the above equation is replaced with the Kozeny constant, k . This
constant takes into consideration both of these effects within a porous medium. For porosities
less than 0.6, the Kozeny constant was found to be between 4 and 6. If the porosities are
greater than 0.7, the Davies expression, discussed below, can be used to determine the
Kozeny constant and the expression for this constant is as follows,

38
If an ideal structure, defined as a material with constant fiber radius where all fibers are
parallel to the direction of flow, is considered, the Darcy permeability combined with the
Davies expression, could be re-written as,

Iberall proposed a model based on the forces applied to the structure during steady flow. If
the velocity is very small, the equation is written as,

For liquid rise in a capillary tube, the Lucas-Washburn equation is frequently used to
describe the flow. For this purpose this equation has the form,

The models tested by Nederveen for liquid rise in a porous medium are referred to as model
one and model two. Model one assumes that the number of capillaries within the medium is
twice that of the number fibers. The equation for this model is once again the general
solution found for the Lucas-Washburn equation except that there is a change in T and H

39
Model two does not assume a particular amount of capillaries. Instead, it is based on the
circumference of the fibers. The same ideal structure assumed for Iberall’s equation is
assumed for model two. The upward tension for this model is written as,

Therefore, the value for T is the same as for model one, but the value for H changes to,

To test the validity of these models two separate tests were conducted testing the
permeability in one and the liquid rise in the other. Both tests used fibrous mats made from a
polyester fiber treated with a hydrophilic finish. These fibers did not swell. The material for
the permeability test was clamped between two horizontal plates one end of the material was
exposed to a liquid reservoir while at the other end there was a balance.

The liquid moved through the structure and was collected on the balance at the other end.
The readings were taken every minute for an hour. The material for the liquid rise was also
clamped between two plates, but the material was positioned vertically. The plates were
tightened more on one side so that the material’s density varies over the width of the
material. This enabled the measurement of different densities during one trial. The bottom of
the material was placed in the liquid and the level of the liquid was marked on the plate at
specific times. The results from the permeability tests compared the results from the
experiment to the permeabilities of the Iberall equation and the Davies equation. Neither of
the equations predicted the experimental values closely although the Davies equation was
closer match. The maximum height for the vertical rise experiments were recorded and
compared to the two models. Model one predicted values much higher than the maximum
and model two seemed to be very close to the actual value. Thus, it was concluded that using
model two as a modification of the Lucas-Washburn equation results in an accurate
prediction of the vertical rise of liquid through a porous medium with negligible swelling.
Tests were also performed on cotton and on viscose fibers. These fibers tend to swell when

40
exposed to liquid. The results from these tests did not correlate well with the theoretical
values.

3.11. Test methods for liquid wicking

Various methods are available to test the wicking of Textile material in the form of fibre,
Yarn, and fabric etc. The prominently used methods for testing nonwovens are discussed
below,
Different types of wicking tests

Wicking From a Limited (Finite) ReservoirP(22)P

1. Standard Spot tests
2. Radial wicking or ring test
Wicking From an Infinite Reservoir

1. Immersion

2. Longitudinal Wicking

3. Transplanar or Transverse or Demand Wicking

3.12. Limitation of existing method of wicking testing

1. Problems with both the vertical and downward wicking test are edge effects. The edge
effect is due to the equilibrium that occurs when the liquid reaches the edge of the
material.The liquid front ceases at these edges and therefore, can cause a change in rate of the
overall velocity within the material. Therefore, the actual velocity in each direction may not
be known. Also a problem is the inability to accurately compare the wicking rate of one
direction to that of another. Because equilibrium occurs at the edges the differences in the
rates per angular direction may potentially be affected and therefore the true difference in
rates for each direction may not be known.The vertical wicking test is shown in Fig 3.10.

41
 Fig 9. Vertical wicking test

2. Limitation with the basket or sink test, first, the rolled up material forms extra Capillaries
between its layers. These capillaries have the potential of holding liquid thus the
reading for the weight may be a greater than the actual amount of liquid that the
material could absorb for a given period of time. Second, the absorption rate cannot
be modeled by using this test procedure.

3. Limitations of the GATS (gravimetric absorbency test system).A schematic diagram of

GATS is shown in Fig 3.11. First, an extra capillary may form between the plate and
the material, especially when using the point test plate. This may result in faster
absorption times than would normally be associated with the intrinsic wicking ability
of the material.

42
 Fig 10. Gravimetric Absorbency Test System

Second, the platform is at a constant height. Therefore, as liquid is absorbed into the material
the pressure head changes due to the liquid in the reservoir receding. This causes errors in the
data. Third, there are some problems with the machine itself. The user has to place the
sample on the platform at the same time that the test is begun. Of course, this results in errors
due to human involvement. Finally, the directionality of the wicking cannot be isolated. This
means that although the total absorption of the material can be measured, the rate of wicking
in a given direction is not known.

4.Limitations of NCRC developed utilizes the GATS equipment, but uses a plate that is
rectangular in shape and measures the liquid spread of a strip of material cut in a
given direction (such as the cross or machine direction).

One of the problems that arise with this test is overflow of the liquid into the trough of the
plate. This in turn, results in inconclusive results because the data that is being
recorded is not only a function of the liquid being absorbed by the material, but also a
function of the liquid that is filling the trough. Also, like the vertical wicking test
there are edge effects.

3.13. Application of Wicking and Wetting

The behavior of a given textile during its contact with water (or with the liquid generally) is
one of the important properties of textiles. This work focuses on spontaneous liquid wicking,
which especially influences the consumer properties of textiles. If the liquid rises (by
absorption) in fabric, it can be used as a liquid perspiration outlet from the skin, for the
production of hand towels and dishcloths, textiles for cleaning works, and many other such
applications. Wicking makes it possible to use textiles for a series of other special
applications: wicks for candles and lamps with oil, or some modern flameproof finishing’s
for housing textiles. Nonwovens are used in products such as baby diapers, feminine
products, geotextiles, Medical equipment such as gowns and sterilization covers, and may
someday be a Common method for the production of clothing. In most of these areas one of
the key Property of the material is its liquid transport ability and more specifically the in-
plane liquid distribution. In-plane liquid distribution is the movement of liquid within the

43
plane of the fabric as opposed to the movement of the liquid perpendicular to the plane of the
fabric, which is referred to as transplanar distribution, which is also important, but the in-
plane liquid distribution is used to distribute liquid over a given area so that either total
evaporation of the liquid can occur more readily, such in the case of perspiration on clothing,
or so that the product can be used to its maximum capacity, such in the case of the second
layer of a baby diaper.
The liquid spread rate and distribution are very important in products like femine diapers top
sheet layer, whose main function is to spread the liquid rapidly over the entire width of the
napkin and the spread fluid is then absorbed by the core absorbing material and retained
within the material in order to keep the skin dry and comfortable.

44
4. Methods and Materials

4.1. Selection of Material

Nonwoven samples received from different manufacturer are enlisted below,
Sample Material Method of GSM Company
Code manufacturing
PE 100 Polyester Needle punched 100 Supreme Nonwovens
VI 100 Viscose Needle Punched 100 Supreme Nonwovens
PV 120 PET/Viscose Needle Punched 120 Supreme Nonwovens
(50/50)
PP HPB40 Polypropylene Thermal Bonded 40 Supreme Nonwovens
(hydrophobic)
PP HPL40 Polypropylene Thermal Bonded 40 Supreme Nonwovens
(hydrophilic)
PP HPL 18 Polypropylene Thermal Bonded 18 Supreme Nonwovens
(hydrophilic)
PP HPL50 Polypropylene Spunbonded 50 Fibre Web India
(Hydrophilic)
PP HPL75 Spunbonded 75 Fibre Web India
PP Spunbonded 100 Fibre Web India
HPL100
PV 50 PET/Viscose Spun lace 50 Ginni Filaments
(30/70)
PE 30 PET Spunbonded 30 Komitex

4.2 Modified Inplane wicking Tester

45
To overcome the limitations of the available ‘In-Plane Wicking Test Method’, a new test rig
has been designed, fabricated and interfaced with computer to record the readings
automatically.

4.2.1. Design and Fabrication

The schematic diagram of the instrument is shown in Fig 4.1 .

Top plate
Glass tube

beaker
Sensor -2 Bottom
Electronic Balance
Sample plate

Sensor-1

Control Unit

Modifief In-Plane
Wicking Test Rig
Computer

Fig 4.1 Overall View of In-Plane Wicking Tester

4.2.2. Working Principles of the Inplane Wicking Tester

The In-Plane wicking tester is mounted with a DC motor to raise and lower the stand holding
the fabric assembly plates to initiate the experiment. When the DC motor is switched on, it
will lower the upper part of the stand with help of traversing mechanism provided in the
stand through set of reduction gears. The lowering of the upper part of stand will initiate the
flow of liquid from the beaker to the sample through the Syphon tube. The liquid before
touching the sample will initiate the sensor no.1 then the sensor no.1 will further forward the
signal to the relay no.1.

46
The relay no.1 will stop the running of the motor and at the same time initiate the camera to
acquire images of the liquid spread on the fabric and record the volume of the beaker on the
balance through the control unit. The liquid thus touching the sample will be absorbed by the
sample through wicking process and the absorbed liquid will spread over the sample.
The liquid spread distribution of the sample over time will be recorded from the digital
camera installed over the fabric assembly. As the liquid touches the edge of the top and
bottom plate it initiates the sensor no.2.The sample material acts as non-conducting material
between the two plates until liquid does not touch the two plates. The sensor no.2 excites the
relay no.2, which further stops the camera to take images and stops recording the volume of
beaker from the balance. The recording of the images from the camera and the volume of the
beaker from the balance is stored in personal computer through separate software available.
The stored images are further utilized for image processing of the liquid spread analysis
using MATLAB software. The control unit of the instrument controls the flow of the signal
from one component to another with appropriate timings. The control unit is provided with
start and reset buttons. By pressing the reset button on the control unit will position the stand
to its original starting position for next set of experiment.

Fig 4.2 Flow of signal in the in-plane wicking tester

47
4.2.3. Driscription

1. ELECTRONIC BALANCE: The balance is used to measure the weight of liquid throughout the
test as to calculate the amount of absorption, rate of absorption etc.

The accuracy of the balance required is 0.001 gm.

2. BEAKER: The beaker will be the source for the liquid to the fabric through syphon and glass
rod tube. The volume of the beaker will be decided based on the fact that as the water is
wicked into the fabric the pressure difference due to change in the distance between the
fabric mount and beaker should be constant and its should not effect the hydrostatic pressure
(the width of the beaker will be maintained large enough that a few ml of water to fabric
from beaker should not create pressure difference).

3. SYPHON TUBE: The tube will be used to carry the liquid from the beaker to the fabric mount
bottom plate. The inner orifice of the tube will be 3.0 mm which will supply liquid at a very
slow and steady rate to the sample.

4. BOTTOM PLATE OF FABRIC MOUNT: The bottom plate will be holding the fabric sample on its top
groove. The sample will be touching only at the centre (from where liquid will enter) and at
the edges of the bottom plate (as the bottom plate is hollow there is no extra capillaries due to
any surface contact with the bottom or top plates).

5. TOP PLATE OF FABRIC MOUNT: The top plate will just hold the sample in the bottom plate
groove in tact manner to avoid filling of trough and this small amount of tension will not
affect the results.

6. STAND: The fabric holder will be resting on this stand. This will be used for lowering the
fabric holder assembly during the start of the experiment to facilitate the smooth initiation of
wicking of liquid into the fabric with the help of traversing mechanism provided in the
middle of the stand with help of a set of gear wheels and D.C.motor.

48
7. DIGITAL CAMERA: The camera will acquire digital images of the spreading of the liquid at
specified interval of time for digital image processing. Owing to higher initial cost,
purchasing of the camera has been postponed.

8. PC: One personal computer will be required for the measurement of the volume of the
liquid receding in the beaker and to store the images acquired from digital camera.

System configuration: Intel Pentium-II, 40 GB, 32 Ram installed with software to record the
volume of water to an accuracy of one second.

9. CONTROL UNIT: The control unit consists of back and front panel, which controls the flow of
signal for the whole system.

The front panel consists of the following buttons like power switch, instrument status
indication lamps, emergency switch, sensor 1 with enable& disable toggle switch, sensor 2
with enable & disable toggle switch, start or stop push button, knob to control the intensity of
lighting according image acquisition level, speed control knob to increase or decrease the
speed of upper compartment, auto or manual button to initiate the process automatically,
sensor 1 sensitivity control knob.

The back panel of control unit consists of the following components.

Input power supply(220 volt) from a stabilizer, an exhaust fan to maintain the temperature of
the Integrated circuit chip at ambient working condition, interface sockets for interfacing
electronic balance and the digital camera to the computer and instrument. A 12 amps fuse for
power safety.

The instrument works automatically from the start to end. The general layout of the
instrument working in automatic mode is shown in the Fig 4.2.

The dimension and specifications of each component of the instrument along with the
electronic circuit diagram of the motor, sensors, control unit, digital camera, personal
computer, electronic balance and lighting system are separately attached to the end of the
report (Appendix-II).

49
4.2.4. Features of the Instrument
i. The total load of the upper compartment is less than 5 kgs, according to torque-
force calculation the required motor hp is .05 HP but for a safety a 0.5 HP motor
is used.
ii. To avoid the vibration during the downward or upward movement of the
compartment smooth frictionless poles are used at the four corner of the top
assembly.
iii. Highly sensitive contact sensors are used to sense the presence of liquid at the
entrance of the tube and at the edges of the plates to avoid any time delay(less
than 0.1 second) in sensing the change in resistance and to feed the signal to the
control unit.
iv. An electronic balance is interfaced with the computer system to record the volume
of water to an accuracy of 0.001 gm.
v. The maximum absorption of the samples can be evaluated by activating the
disable button of sensor no.2.
vi. The timing of the sensor no.1 is adjustable so as to stop the downward movement
of the upper compartment when the liquid just touches the bottom layer of the
sample.
vii. The fabric assembly is completely leveled in plane with the help of in-built spirit
level mounted on the instrument to avoid any disturbance during liquid spread on
the sample.
viii. The light intensity of the lighting system can be adjusted according to the required
image quality and image contrast level.
ix. The Teflon pins provided on the bottom fabric assembly unit ensures even tension
for all the mounted samples.
x. The glass tube holder which is used to hold the glass tube firmly ensures a non-
turbulent motion to the liquid flow while the upper compartment descends and to
avoid any external pressure on the liquid flow through the tube to the sample.
xi. The control unit is installed with a zener diode which ensures a stable supply of
input power to avoid any speed variation, which further ensures vibration less
movement of compartment.

50
4.3. Tensile testing using Instron Tester

In order to compare the anisotropic nature of web in describing wet ability parameters one
can correlate the anisotropic nature of samples in tensile strength. The tensile test was
carried out using INSTRON instrument based on constant rate of elongation. The sample
size of 75 × 50 mm strip was used to study the tensile strength in machine direction and cross
direction at a constant rate of elongation (130 mm/min).

4.4. Lica Microscope

Photographic analysis of nonwoven is done in Lica microscope. The picture is captured with
high resoluation camera and snaps are taken from same. This Microscope can magnify upto
100 X.

4.5. Kruss Tensiometry –Vertical Wicking Tester

An attempt was taken to study the pore volume of nonwoven. This is comprehensively
discussed below.
4.5.1 Sample Size For Machine Direction Sample preparation, we have taken 1.8 cms length
along the machine direction and 1.4 cms width along the cross direction is preferred and the
vice versa is considered for cross direction
4.5.2. Instruments parameter To test the Pore volume of the fabric, we have utilized Kruss
Vertical wicking tester which works under ‘Tensiometry’ Principle. This has got provision
to keep liquid inside the instrument for wicking, has precise and high accurate balance, also it
has various type of jaws to mount the nonwoven sample on the balance. It has glass door,
which locks when experiment is on. Software is interfaced to give reading of mass with
respect to time change.
4.5.3. Experiment Method Sample of above prescribed size is made and weighed accurately
and noted the reading. Then the sample is hanged vertically. The upper part of the jaw
holding the sample is connected to the balance through very high magnetic force. The
bottom portion of fabric is freely hanged and beaker filled with n-heptane is kept below the
sample and made to travel above in the speed of 6 mm / min. As the liquid –Solid interface
occurs, a force is experienced and further movement of the beaker is terminated. Now

51
wicking takes places against gravity in nonwoven. As n- Hexane is low surface tension
liquid, it occupies entire pore in the sample. As time proceeds, the corresponding mass of
liquid absorbed is recorded and plotted as a graph given below by the instrument. After that,
the pore volume of the nonwoven is determined from the calculation given below,
4.5.4. Calculation
Initial Dry weight of Specimen= W1 (g)
Weight of Liquid absorbed = W2 (g)
Volume of the Fibres in Fabric = W1 / Density of fibres = V1 (Cm3)
Volume of Liquid (n-Hexane) in Fabric = W2 / Density of Hexane (.661g.cm-3) = V2 (Cm3)
Total Volume V3(Cm3) = V1 + V2
Therefore Volume Fraction is determined by
1. Volume Fraction of Fibres in nonwoven (Vf) = V1 / V3
% of Volume Fraction of Fibres in Nonwoven = Vf x 100
Wherever the pores are presents, Hexane is entrapped into those portion due to less surface
tension( 18.4 mN/ cm)) when compared to Water(72.8 mN/cm). Therefore we can conclude
that volume of Hexane calculated should equal to volume of pore in the fabric.
2. Volume Fraction of Pores in nonwoven (Vp) = V2 / V3
% of Volume Fraction of Fibres in Nonwoven = Vp x 100

52
5. Result and Discussion

5.1 Microscopic study of Nonwoven fabric

A. Analysis of Poly propylene Sample (75 GSM)
I. Fused Portion: This is portion where Thermal bond is made, where the fibres are fused at
this point. The collapsed portion shows the fused point. The fibres are densely arranged at
the boundary of the fused point.

Figure 5.1 and 5.2 fused portion and its Boundary area
II Open pore Structure: This portion is found when the fibres are moved away from the
fused and densely fibre arranged portion. Here the fibres are very loosely held with larger
pore size. At fused point, cluster of fibres are formed and away from it open pores are found
as shown in figure 5.4.

Figure 5.3 and 5.4 from fused portion to open pore

III. Parallel fibres along machine direction: At the place in between Four bonded
portions, it is found in many places that there is an alignment of parallel fibres along the
machine direction, which forms straight capillary along machine direction and cause slightly
higher volume of liquid absorbed than cross direction of same fabric which is discussed in
Pore volume determination.

53
 Figure 5.5 Parallel pores
IV. Big pores: The big pore size is formed at random places as shown in the figure 5.6
which forms a closed pore and accumulate the water content inside the pore

Figure 5.6 Big pores

V. Cross arrangements of fibres: In between the two hole portion along machine direction,
there are many crisscross of fibres are found. This is as shown in figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7. Portion in between two fused point (along machine direction)
B. 40 GSM PP Hydrophobic
I. With available fabrics, any thing above 20 gsm, the fibres are arranged in different layer,
the following fig 5.8 and 5.9 are taken from same place by focusing first and second layers of

54
fabric respectively. Further we can focus for next layer, but the picture is not clear through
microscope. SEM may be the best way to identify these analyses.

Fig 5.8. First layer of fibres in nonwoven Fig. 5.9 Second layer of fibres present in Nonwoven
C. Spun lace Structure
In spun lace, it is observed that the bunch of fibres are forming cluster along machine
direction at an equal interval in the fabric. From this we can conclude that the gap between
the cluster of fibres are the arrangement of water jet nozzle for hydro entangling during the
manufacturing process. Figure 5.11 shows the most of the fibres are arranged more parallel to
each other along the machine direction.

Fig. 5.10 Witnessing the Water jet punched portion Fig.11. Machine direction alignment of fibres

55
 D .PP Hydrophilic 18 GSM:
Fused and its adjacent portions are shown for finer gsm available with us in below picture

Fig. 5.11 Fused portion Fig 5.12. Portion between four pores of PP HPL 18

5.2 Determination of pore volume of Nonwoven – PP HPL 100.

Inorder find the pore volume of 100 GSM spun bonded poly propylene, a 30 samples are
prepared out of which 15 are made as a machine direction sample and rest are the
representative for cross direction. They are made in the dimension 1.4 cms(width) X 1.8
cms (length). For machine direction sample higher dimension is along the machine direction
(length) and for cross direction, the higher dimension of the sample is along the cross
direction. After cutting sharp and accurate, they are precisely weighed in a balance to noted
dry weight and above procedure is to maintain for further experiment to carried off. Their
results are flourished below,

56
I. Machine direction
Mass of n-
Hexane Total Specific ML Sp. MT
Test Mass of absorbed Mass(g) (g) = (g) =
No. Fabric(g)- MF (g)- ML MT (MF / ML) (Sp. ML +1)
M1 0.0257 0.05837 0.08407 2.2712 3.2712
M2 0.0256 0.05014 0.07574 1.9586 2.9586
M3 0.0258 0.05664 0.08244 2.1953 3.1953
M4 0.0221 0.04644 0.06854 2.1014 3.1014
M5 0.0249 0.04804 0.07294 1.9293 2.9293
M6 0.0243 0.04814 0.07244 1.9811 2.9811
M7 0.0255 0.04665 0.07215 1.8294 2.8294
M8 0.0229 0.04538 0.06828 1.9817 2.9817
M9 0.023 0.0423 0.0653 1.8391 2.8391
M10 0.0248 0.04806 0.07286 1.9379 2.9379
M11 0.0243 0.04865 0.07295 2.0021 3.0021
M12 0.024 0.05292 0.07692 2.2050 3.2050
M13 0.0238 0.0432 0.07 1.9412 2.9412
M14 0.0249 0.04492 0.06982 1.8040 2.8040
M15 0.0236 0.05069 0.07429 2.1479 3.1479
Mean 0.0243 0.04891 0.073249 2.0083 3.0083
Table 1. Indication of Fabric mass, mass of n Hexane absorbed by PP HPL 100 fabric along
Machine direction and Table 2 below, corresponding Volume Fraction of pore and fibres.
Fibres in n-Hexane Total
Nonwoven
Volum 1.0989 3.0383 4.1373
e (cm3)
Volume fraction of fibre Volume fraction of pore
0.2656 0.7344

Mass vs Time
0.06

0.04
Mass [g]

0.02

0.00
57
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]
Graph 1 indicates Mass Vs Time for PP HPL 100 in Machine direction for 15 Tests.
Mass² vs Time
0.0030

0.0020
Mass² [g²]

0.0010

0.0000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

Graph 2 Indicates Mass2 Vs Time for PP HPL 100 along Machine direction for 15 Tests

II. Cross Direction:

Mass of n-Hexane Total Specific ML Sp. MT
Test Mass of absorbed Mass(g) (g) = (g) =
No. Fabric(g)- MF (g)- ML MT (MF / ML) (Sp. ML +1)
C1 0.0226 0.04111 0.06371 1.819 2.8191
C2 0.0207 0.0426 0.0633 2.058 3.058
C3 0.0222 0.04156 0.06376 1.8721 2.8721
C4 0.0235 0.0423 0.0658 1.8 2.8

58
 C5 0.0233 0.04247 0.06577 1.8228 2.8228
C6 0.021 0.04536 0.06636 2.16 3.16
C7 0.0236 0.05177 0.07537 2.1937 3.1936
C8 0.022 0.04256 0.06456 1.936 2.9346
C9 0.023 0.0497 0.0727 2.1609 3.1609
C10 0.0226 0.0405 0.0631 1.7924 2.7920
C11 0.0229 0.04195 0.06485 1.8319 2.8319
C12 0.0234 0.03855 0.06295 1.6902 2.6902
C13 0.0231 0.03904 0.06214 1.690 2.6901
C14 0.0234 0.0465 0.0699 1.9872 2.9872
C15 0.0234 0.0498 0.0732 2.1282 3.1282
Mean 0.0227 0.0438 0.0665 1.9294 2.9296

Table 3.above, shows the fabric mass, mass of n Hexane absorbed by PP HPL 100 fabric
along Cross direction and Table 4 below, shows the corresponding Volume Fraction of fibre
and pore.
Fibres n Hexane Total
Volume in
Nonwoven (Cm3) 1.0989 2.9189 4.0178

Volume fraction of fibre Volume fraction of pore

0.2735 0.7265

Cross Direction:
Mass vs Time
0.06

C1
C2
0.04 C3
Mass [g]

C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
0.02 C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
0.00

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

59
Graph 3 indicates Mass Vs Time for PP HPL 100 fabric in Cross direction for 15 Tests.

Mass² vs Time
0.0030

C1
C2
0.0020
Mass² [g²]

C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
0.0010 C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
0.0000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

Graph 4 Indicates Mass2 Vs Time for PP HPL 100 along Cross direction for 15 Tests

5.3. Determination of pore volume of Nonwoven – PP HPL 75

I. Machine Direction:

Mass of n-
Hexane Total Specific ML Sp. MT
Test Mass of absorbed Mass(g) (g) = (g) =
No. Fabric(g)- MF (g)- ML MT (MF / ML) (Sp. ML +1)
M1 0.016 0.03455 0.04755 1.972 2.972
M2 0.0156 0.03465 0.04725 2.029 3.029

60
 M3 0.0164 0.03041 0.04681 1.854 2.854
M4 0.0158 0.0301 0.0459 1.905 2.905
M5 0.0159 0.02869 0.04459 1.804 2.804
M6 0.016 0.03177 0.04777 1.986 2.986
M7 0.0158 0.02806 0.04386 1.776 2.776
M8 0.016 0.03243 0.04843 2.027 3.027
M9 0.0159 0.02888 0.04478 1.816 2.816
M10 0.0158 0.02856 0.04436 1.808 2.808
Mean 0.01592 0.03021 0.04613 1.898 2.898

Table 5. Shows the initial fabric mass, mass of n Hexane absorbed by PP HPL 75along
Machine direction and Table 6, below shows the corresponding pore and fibre volume
fraction
Fibres n- Hexan Total
Volume in 2.871
Nonwoven (Cm3) 1.099 3.970

Volume fraction of fibre Volume fraction of pore

0.2768 0.7232

Mass² vs Time
0.0015

0.0010
Mass² [g²]

M1
M3
M4
0.0005 M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M 1
0.0000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

Graph 5 Indicates Mass Vs Time for Mass2

vs along
PP HPL 100 TimeMachine direction for 15 Tests
0.04

0.03
Mass [g]

0.02 M1
M3
M4
M5
M6
0.01 M7
M8
M9
M10
M 1
0.00
61
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]
Graph 6 indicates the Mass Vs Time for PP HPL 75 in Machine direction for 10 Tests.

II. Cross Direction:

Mass of n-
Hexane Total Specific ML Sp. MT
Test Mass of absorbed Mass(g) (g) = (g) =
No. Fabric(g)- MF (g)- ML MT (MF / ML) (Sp. ML +1)
C1 0.0165 0.03856 0.04806 1.913 2.913
C2 0.0163 0.03046 0.04676 1.869 2.869
C3 0.0159 0.0312 0.0471 1.962 2.962
C4 0.0162 0.03869 0.04789 1.956 2.956
C5 0.0157 0.03112 0.04682 1.982 2.982
C6 0.0163 0.02888 0.04518 1.772 2.772
C7 0.01658 0.03154 0.04812 1.902 2.902
C8 0.01628 0.0271 0.04338 1.665 2.665
C9 0.01689 0.03256 0.04945 1.928 2.928
C10 0.016 0.02756 0.04356 1.723 2.723
Mean 0.016265 0.038367 0.046632 1.867 2.867

62
Table 7. shows the initial fabric mass, mass of n Hexane absorbed by PP HPL 75 along
Cross direction and the table 8, below shows corresponding pore and fibre volume fraction.
Fibres Liquid Total
Volume in
Nonwoven 1.099 1.867 2.867
(Cm3)
Volume fraction of fibre Volume fraction of pore
0.280 0.720

Mass vs Time
0.04

0.03
Mass [g]

0.02
C1
C2
C3
C4
0.01 C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
0.00

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

Graph 7 Indicates the Mass Vs Time for PP HPL 75 in Cross direction for 10 Tests.

Mass² vs Time
0.0020

0.0015
Mass² [g²]

0.0010
C1
C2
C3
C4
0.0005 C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
0.0000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Time [s]

63
Graph 8 Indicates Mass2 Vs Time for PP HPL 75 along Cross direction for 10 Tests

Discussion
Of course theoretically both cross direction and machine direction should give same readings
but here cross direction shows slightly low pore fraction than the Machine direction. This
correlates us that fibres arrangement in between the four fused point are almost parallel
which slightly hinders the movement of liquid flow through capillary in cross direction, due
to which this differences are performed.

When comparing 75 and 100 gsm fabric, The Z directional pore arrangement should be
higher in 100 gsm because increase in the thickness of the fabric. Due to the distribution of
more pore, the volume of n- Hexane absorbed also becomes as higher when compared with
75 GSM. This has been proven from this test result.
5.4 Tensile Test
A rectangular strip of 75 mm X 50 mm was used on the Instron instrument at 130 mm / min
rate of traverse. The sample was tested in both machine and cross direction. the test results
are based on 20 samples in each direction. the average tensile strength results are shown in
the Table below

Sample Code Tensile Strength (kgf) Tensile Strength (kgf)

Machine Direction (FM) Cross Direction(FC)
PP HPL100 13.636 7.8228
PP HPL 75 8.8299 5.5915
PP HPL 50 8.6293 4.6891
Table 9. Indicates the Values of Tensile strength in cross and machine direction for PP
samples

From the above data, it is very well under stood that fibres are oriented along the machine
direction, since the tensile test result shows maximum strength occurs in machine direction
for the polypropylene. Now we can consider the microscopic structure to co-relate that the
fibres between the fused points are oriented parallel which cause increase in the tensile
property over machine direction for all the three fabrics mentioned in the above table.

64
5.5. Testing the Wettability characteristics of Polyester, Viscose and PV blend Needle
punched fabric in vertical wicking
It is proposed to study the Wetting behavior of PET, Viscose and PET /Viscose (50%/50%)
blended fabrics of sample size as 4 cms in length and the contact width with liquid is in
different dimension, say as 2, 2.5, 3. and 3.5 cms. Here water is used as a medium for
wicking. The following are the some of the observation obtained from the test.
5.5.1. Behavior of Polyester / Viscose Fibres

0.6000 Mass2 vs Time

Mass² [g²]

0.4000

0.2000 2.5 cms

3 cms
3.5 cms
0.0000
0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Time [s]

Graph 9 Indicates Mass2 Vs Time for PP HPL 100 along Machine direction of 3 different
contact area

65
 0.8 Mass vs Time 3.5 cms

3 cms
Mass [g]
0.6

2.5
0.4 cms

0.2

0.0
0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Time [s]

Graph 10 indicates Mass Vs Time for P/V 120 fabric in Machine direction for 3 different
area of contact Test.
5.5.2. Behaviour of PET

Mass² vs Time
0.2500
Mass² [g²]

0.2000

0.1500

0.1000
2 cms
0.0500 3 cms
3.5 cms
0.0000
0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Time [s]

Graph 11 indicates Mass² Vs Time for PE 100 fabric in Machine direction for 3 different
area of contact Test.

5.5.3. Behaviour of Viscose

66
 Mass² vs Time
0.6000
Mass² [g²]

0.4000

0.2000 2.5 cms

3 cms
3.5 cms
0.0000
0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Time [s]

Graph 12 indicates Mass² Vs Time for VI 100 fabric in Machine direction for 3 different
area of contact Test.

Mass vs Time 3.5

0.8
cms
3 cms
Mass [g]

0.6
2.5
cms
0.4

0.2

0.0
0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Time [s]

Graph 13 indicates Mass Vs Time for VI 100 fabric in Machine direction for 3 different
area of contact Test.

Discussion
First it is decide to test wetting / wicking behavior of Polyester viscose 120 GSM of needle
punched fabric with varying contact length as prescribed above, obviously increase in contact
area will have more pore and wicking is higher and higher proportionately. In order to cross

67
check which component is responsible for these wicking / wetting, 100% PET and Viscose
from same method of manufacturing is taken and analyzed the wicking properties.

Polyester shows the initial poor wetting behavior because of its hydrophobic in nature. So
100 % PET shows very low water absorbing capacity when compared to blended Polyester
viscose fabric. Whereas, viscose as its initial wetting behavior is very good, it has absorbed
water highest among PET and P/V blends between initial first 20 to 25 seconds of
experiment.

5.6. Modelling of wicking in Nonwoven fabrics

5.6.1. Theory of Lucas washburn equation

Plenty of research available to determining the Surface science, Interfacial tension, and
surface tension of the liquid. Lucas washburn equation is one among and give
comprehensive information on the rate of fluid flow through a porous capillary tubes.
According to the Lucas – wash-burn equation, in vertical wicking neglecting gravitational
forces the wicking length, h is directly proportional to the square root of time, t
L = k t 1/2 1
Considering the fibres in textile assemblies form capillaries of effective radius ref then the
water transport rate is given by the formula,
2
L2 = (γlv cos θ ref t /2 η)
L2= ks t
L = length of liquid raise
γlv = surface tension between liquid and vapor
t = time required to raise liquid from bottom to the length L
θ = contact angle

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ref = effective capillary radius
η = viscosity of the liquid
5.6.2. Features of Nonwoven
According to EDANA definition, Nonwoven are a manufactured sheet, web or bat of
directionally or randomly oriented fibers, bonded by friction, and/or cohesion and/or
adhesion, excluding paper or products which are woven, knitted, tufted stitch bonded
incorporating binding yarns or filaments, or felted by wet milling, whether or not additionally
needled. The fibers may be of natural or man-made origin. They may be staple or continuous
or be formed in situ.

As it is very well known that the fibres distribution is not uniform in nonwoven fabrics.
However in spun bonded and melt blown, we can some how reduce the degree of anisotropy
of nonwoven.
Wicking of the liquid into the nonwoven is totally depends on the capillary size, and the
orientation of the capillaries in the nonwoven. Capillaries are formed by the fashion of
arrangement of the fibres in nonwoven. .
5.6.3. Limitation of Wash-burn Equation
1. Wash burn equation deals with the pores lies in straight path in an solid. Whereas in
Nonwovens the pores are distributed randomly across and along the fabric.
2. Wash burn equation is subjected for a single capillary system, where as the fibrous and
porous material like nonwoven has got many no. of capillary in its structure.
Capillary constant:
We have considered the above statement and worked for ‘n’ no. of capillaries in a nonwoven.
Many researches are carried out to formulate the capillary constant. However, here the
capillary constant defined as the product of mean capillary radius and the average capillary
orientation of nonwoven sample.

Capillary constant = Mean capillary radius x Capillary orientation 3

5.6.4. Model to determine,
a. Mass of liquid transport through Nonwoven
b. Mean radius of capillary

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Consider figure 5.1, assuming that the fibre 1 and 2 are arranged in an angle α along machine
direction. The capillary radius formed by the gap between the two fibres. If all fibres are
arranged to the Machine direction (MD), the length of liquid raise is considered higher than it
is arranged in a certain degree as shown in diagram 1 of same mass of water absorbed. When
fibres arranged in Cross direction (CD), the length of liquid raise (L) will be very less
compared to any other angle of arrangement from cross to machine direction.

M.D

CD Fibre 1

Fibre 2
L!

L
α
Capillary radius
90 - α

Figure 5.1
Schematic representation of alignment of fibres and pore in nonwoven

Assuming that there are ‘n’ number of fibers in an nonwoven material oriented in different
angles,

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Let us consider that P1, P2, P3 … are the proportionate of fibres arranged in angle α1, α 2, α
3……so that mean orientation of fibre P is given by,
2 2 2 1/2 2
P = Σ [(P1Cos α 1) + (P2 Cos α 2 ) + (P3 Cos α 3) +…………..] + Σ [(P1Sin α 1) + (P2 Sin
α 2 )2 + (P3 Sin α 3)2 +…………..]1/2

4
P = Σ[(PiCos αi)2 + (Pi sin αi)2]1/2

The mean orientation angle of above stated proportion of fibres is given by,
α = Σ [(P1Sin α 1) + (P2 Sin α 2 ) + (P3 Sin α 3) +…………..] / Σ [(P1Cos α 1) + (P2 Cos α 2 )
+ (P3 Cos α 3) +…………..]

α = Σ [Pi sin αi] / Σ [Pi cos αi] 5

As per Lucas wash burn equation, we assumed the height of capillary raise ‘h’ and the
formula for the flow of liquid through the capillary is given as follow,
h2/ t = (γlv cos θ ref /2 η)
Where as the effective capillary radius is given as,
6
ref = C F
F = mean capillary radius, C = mean angle of orientation
So wash burn equation is rewritten as,
h2/ t = (γlv cos θ C.F /2 η) 7
t = (h2 2 η / γlv cos θ C.F)
For vertical wicking h = L(length of liquid raise)
t = (L2 2 η / γlv cos θ C.F) 8

To determine mass of liquid absorbed:

Let us say that mass of liquid absorbed by the material (M) is equal to,
M (gms)= Volume of the pore X Density of the liquid
Assuming the volume of pore is cylindrical

9
M = ╥ r2. L . ρ

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Where,
r = radius of capillary
L = length of capillary
ρL= density of liquid
Therefore, the mass of liquid absorbed is proportional to r, l, ρL

Since the length of the capillary in nonwovens are not lying exactly Fibres
straight, and all fibres are
not oriented in machine or cross direction perfectly. However, the fibres arranged in certain
degree, so as capillaries also arranged according to their appropriate angle.

Fig
r

L’
L
α

90- α

ure 5.2 represents the alignment of the pore at α degree

Sin 90- α = L / L’
Therefore L’ = L / Cos α

M = ╥ r2. (L / Cos α). ρ 10

L = M Cos α / (╥ r2. ρ) 11

12

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L2 = M2 Cos2 α / (╥2 r4. ρ2)

Substituting equation12 in 8

t = (M2 Cos2 α. 2 η) / (╥2 r5 .ρ2. γlv cos θ ) 13

M2= t (╥2 r5. ρ2.γlv cos θ)/ Cos2 α. 2 η) 14

Cosidering the pore is passing through the orgin(See fig 2), and follows straight line
equation,
15
Y=kX
∴Y = M2, X=t 16
and k = (╥2 r5. ρ2. γlv cos θ) / Cos2 α. 2 η) 17

k = r5 C / Cos2 α. 18
If orientation angle of capillary is known, pore radius can determined from this equation
Where C = (╥2 ρ2. γlv cos θ ) / 2 η , so C is the known value,
(M2 / t), increases with the low viscosity liquid. E
Effect of wetting force
When nonwoven material encounters the known density and surface tension liquid, it
experiences the initial force known as Force of Wetting (Fw). Force of wetting is minimal
amount at the initial stage and this has to be subtracted from the equation 8. Wetting force is
illustrated below.

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 Nonwoven

Liquid
θ

γlv

The sensitive balance in the Kruss Tensiometry can accurately weigh this force. In addition,
it can measure by weighing the solid before and after immersion. Usually done by
suspending it from a hang down weighting device. The source of this attractive force is the
surface tension of the liquid, and wilhelmy derived the relationship as,
Fw = γlv Cos θ. P
Where Fw = measured wetting force in mN. P = perimeter of the solid in meter.

5.7. Development Status of Modified In- plane wicking tester

Modification Required Detail of Remarks
completion
1. Modifying the Sample Mounting Unit Completed
inorder to facilitate easy mounting of
sample without Wrinkles
2. Development of New type of Sample Completed
mounting Ring and its components
3. Modification of Lifting Cabinet by Completed

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 Aluminum to reduce weight
4. Water Leakage seal to be placed over Pending Will be completed
the sample mounting unit. before 10 January.
5. Provision for installing Halogen Lamp. Pending
6. Provision for Mounting Digital / video Pending Searching of the suitable
inspection Camera camera for capturing
images of 15cms
diameter fabric
7. Replacing existing lead screw by non Completed
corrosive stainless steel / fine pitch
(1mm)
8. Replacing existing supporting rod by Completed
stainless steel with proper placement in
the traversing unit.
9. Introducing Needle Bearings (4 Nos.) Completed
for corresponding supporting rod.

10. Introducing the Fine and Narrow Completed

leveling screw for sample mounting
unit.
11. Introduction of typical Suction device Pending Will be carried after the
to remove air bubbles inside the liquid mounting of Sensors in
transport tube. the appropriate position
in the sample mounting
unit.
12. Rectification / Replacement of existing Process is Will be completed
sensors, since they are not sensing going on. before 10 January
properly when exp. is conducted.
13. Working and activating the time delay Completed.
circuit, which is inoperative now.

6. Work Progress

work Remarks
Literature Survey Completed
Sample purchase Completed
Modification of the instrument(mechanical) 60 % completed
Modification of the instrument(Electronic) Pending and will completed

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 before Jan 10th January.
Experimentation on Pore volume analysis of Completed for PP and to work
Nonwoven for other sample

7. Work Schedule

 Modification Inplane wicking tester is to be completed which is in progress at present

 Pore volume analysis Study of existing Needle punched P/V, PET, and Viscose is to
be carried out and results should be compared to correlate.
 All sample available now and further receiving samples are to be studied the
wettability and wicking study like rate of absorption, maximum absorption, liquid
spread analysis, and the results are compared mutually.
 SEM Analysis of all sample available to be done in future.
 Study of selection of Camera part is to be done.
 Deriving Mathematical equation for evaluating the Orientation of the fibres and pores
and to correlate wetting parameters.

8. Reference

1. www.inda.org
2. B. S. Gupta, Study of Absorbency in Nonwovens: The Role of Structural Factors and
Fluid characteristics in International Conference on Nonwovens, NISTI, New Delhi,
India, 1992, December 5, p. 166.
3. Hearle, J.W.S and Stevenson, P.J., “Nonwoven Fabric Studies Part III: The
Anisotropy of Nonwoven Fabrics”, Textile Research Journal, 11, 877-888, 1963.

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4. Pourdeyhimi, B. and Kim, H, “Angular Nonwoven Properties”, Textile Asia, 3, 33-
36, 2000.
5. Wetting and Wicking in Fibrous Materials, Textile Progress, A.Patnaik,
R.S.Rengasamy, V.K.Kothari, A.Ghosh, 2006 Vol. 38, No1, P 1- 3
6. www.ksvinc.com
7. E. Kissa, Wetting and Wicking, Text. Res. J., 1996, 66, No. 10, 660-668.
8. Pourdeyhimi, B. and Kim, H, “Angular Nonwoven Properties”, Textile Asia, 3, 33-
36, 2000.
9. Hearle, J.W.S and Stevenson, P.J., “Nonwoven Fabric Studies Part III: The
Anisotropy of Nonwoven Fabrics”, Textile Research Journal, 11, 877-888, 1963.
10. Pourdeyhimi, B. and Kim, H, “Angular Nonwoven Properties”, Textile Asia, 3, 33-
36, 2000.
11. Rebenfeld, L. and miller, B., “Using Liquid Flow to Quantify the Pore Structure of
Fibrous Materials”, J.Text.Inst., 2, 241-251, 1995
12. Nield, D.A, Bejan, A, Convection in a Porous Media second edition, Springer-Verlag,
New York, 1-7, 1999
13. Chatterjee, P.K and Nguyen, H.V., “Mechanism of Liquid Flow and Structure
property Relationships”, Absorbency, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, 42-46,
1985
14. Ariadurai, S.A. and Potluri, P., “Modeling the In-Plane Permeability of Woven
Geotextiles”, Textile
15. Adams, K.L., Miller, B., and Rebenfeld, L., “Forced In-Plane Flow of an Epoxy
Resin in Fibrous, Networks”, Polymer Engineering and Science, 32, 1434-1441, 1986
16. Montgomery, S.M., Adams, K.L., and Rebenfeld, L., “Directional In-Plane
Permeabilities ofGeotextiles”, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 7,275-292, 1988
17. Adams, K.L, Russel, W.B., and Rebenfeld, L., “Radial Penetration of a Viscous
Liquid into a Planar Anisotropic Porous Medium” 2, 203-215, 1988.
18. Adams, K.L, and Rebenfeld, L., “In-Plane Flow of Fluids in Fabrics: Structure/Flow
Characterization”,Textile Research Journal, 11, 647-653, 1987.
19. Adams, K.L., Miller, B., and Rebenfeld, L., “Forced In-Plane Flow of an Epoxy
Resin in Fibrous Networks”, Polymer Engineering and Science, 32, 1434-1441, 1986

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20. Montgomery, S.M., Miller, B., and Rebenfeld, L., “Spatial Distributions of Local
Permeabilities in Fibrous Networks”, Textile Research Journal, 3, 151-161, 1992
21. Nederveen, C.J, “Absorption of Liquid in Highly Porous Nonwovens”, TAPPI
Journal, 12, 174-180,
22. Development of a modified Inplane wicking Tester and To study the inplane wicking
in Nonwovens, Project Report, B.Muthuram,IIT, NewDelhi, May 2006
23. Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) – Web News Report
24. Absorbency, Edited By Pronoy.K.Chatterjee New jersy, USA P-41

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