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Asexual Reproduction
1. Mitosis is the kind of cell division in which the daughter cells are genetically identical
to the parent cell (they have the same number of chromosomes with the same genes
as the parent cell). It is used during growth, repair and asexual reproduction (that’s
why asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring).
8.3 Mitosis makes new cells with the same genes as the old one.
1. In the nucleus of a cell there are long threads of DNA called chromosomes.
2. Different animals have different number of chromosomes, e.g. : humans have 46.
3. The DNA is coded instructions for making proteins.
4. A group of DNA is called a gene. Each gene is responsible for the production one
kind of protein.
1. A group of identical organisms are called clones. Therefore the daughter cells are the
clones of the parent (mother cell).
1. Bacteria are tiny organisms made of single cells and contain no nucleus. However
they have a circular DNA. Therefore they cannot divide by mitosis.
2. When the bacterium is about to divide a copy of the circular DNA is made. The cell
then divides into 2, with 1 DNA in each.
3. Two new cells have therefore been made, each genetically identical to each other.
4. If the conditions are right, right temp, with plenty of nutrients, a bacteria can divide in
20 minutes.
8.6 Fungi produce spores asexually
1. Fungi are living things that are neither plant nor animal.
2. Like plants they have cell walls of chitin. Like animals they feed on organic food
(they cannot make their own food)
3. Mucor grows on damp bread (moisture is needed to stop it from drying out).
4. The main body looks like a furry growth on the bread is called mycelium and has
many stands called hyphae – one cell thick.
5. Some hyphae grow into the bread and excrete enzymes which digest the starch,
glucose, protein and fat. The digested food diffuses into the hyphae.
6. Other hyphae grow upwards to form aerial hyphae. A swelling called the sporangium
forms at the end of each and inside its cells reproduce asexually to form spores.
7. Each spore is surrounded by a hard resistant coat preventing it from drying out. They
are very light and can be carried away by the wind or a housefly.
8. If they land on another suitable piece of food, they germinate to form new mycelium.
1. Many plants can be propagated asexually. This is done because many exact plants can
be grown quickly and efficiently.
2. This is useful if the original plant had wanted characteristics.
Taking cuttings
Tissue Culture
12. It is also another way of producing genetically identical plants, especially one that are
difficult to grow from seeds eg.: orchids.
13. A small number of cells are taken from the plant and is put in a jelly containing
hormones and nutrients. The hormones stimulate the cells to divide and form a
shapeless lump called a callus.
14. The callus is put in another jelly containing different hormones which stimulate it to
grow roots. Then it put in another jelly containing different hormones which stimulate
it to produce shoots.
15. In this way a large number of plants may be grown from 1 plant.
Sexual Reproduction
1. The female gamete is quite large and is unable to move much. E.g., the egg.
2. The male gamete is smaller and moves actively in search of female gamete.
3. Often each individual organism can only produce one kind of gamete.
4. The type of gamete is produced determines its gender, either male or female.
5. Some organisms however can produce both gametes. E.g.: earthworm. Organisms
that do this is called hermaphrodite. Many flowering plants are also hermaphrodite.
1. The male gametes, sperm or spermatozoa are made in the two testes
2. These are outside the body in two sacs called the scrotum.
3. The sperm is carried away from each testis by a tube called the sperm duct.
4. The sperm duct join up with the urethra just bellow the bladder.
5. The urethra continues downwards and opens at the tip of the penis. The urethra can
carry both urine and sperm at different times.
6. Where the sperm duct joins the urethra, there is a gland called the prostate gland. This
makes a fluid which the sperm swim in.
7. Just behind the prostate gland is the seminal vesicle that also secretes fluid.
1. Eggs begin to develop in the girls ovaries before she is born. At birth there are already
thousands of partly developed eggs in the ovaries.
2. When she reaches puberty some of theses eggs will start to develop. Usually only one
develops at a time.
3. When it is mature an egg bursts out of the ovary and into the funnel at the end of the
oviduct. This is called ovulation.
4. Usually one egg from one ovary does this at a time
1. The sperm is still a quite a long way from the egg. It swims using its tail, up the
cervix, through the uterus and into the oviduct.
2. Sperm can only swim 4mm per minutes so it takes quite a while for it to reach the
egg.
3. In fact many don’t make it but each ejaculation leaves about a million sperm in the
vagina, so there is a good chance that some will reach the egg.
4. One sperm enters the egg, its nucleus fuses with the egg’s. This is fertilization.
5. As soon as the successful sperm enters the egg, the egg membrane becomes
impermeable so no other can get in. The unsuccessful sperms die.
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8.18 The zygote implants in the uterus wall
1. When the nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg, it form a zygote.
The zygote continues to move down the oviduct. As it does so it divides by mitosis.
2. After several hours a ball cells is formed It is called the embryo.
3. The embryo gets its food from the egg yolk.
4. It takes several hours for the embryo to reach the uterus and by this time it is a ball of
16-32 cells.
5. The uterus has a thick spongy lining and the embryo sinks into it. This is called
implantation.
1. As the embryo continues to divide in the uterus wall, a placenta also grows. It
connects it to the walls of the uterus.
2. The placenta is soft, dark red and has finger like projections called villi. The villi fit
close to the uterus wall.
3. After 11 week the embryo has grown into a fetus. It is connected to the placenta by
the umbilical cord. It contains 2 arteries and 1 vein.
4. The arteries carry blood from the fetus to the placenta and the vein returns the blood
to the fetus.
5. The placenta contains capillaries filled with the fetus’ blood. In the walls of the uterus
large spaces are filled with the mother’s blood.
6. The fetus blood does not mix with the mother’s blood because they could have
different blood groups and because the blood pressure is different. But they are
brought very close because the walls of the placenta are very thin.
7. Oxygen and soluble nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins
form the mothers blood diffuse across the placenta into the fetus’ blood. Urea and
Co2 diffuse in the opposite direction to be carried away by the mother’s blood.
8. As the fetus grows the placenta grows too, by the time the baby is born, it is 12cm in
diameter and 3cm thick.
1. No one exactly understands how the ball of cells grows into a baby.
2. The cells gradually divide and grow.
3. By eleven weeks, they become organized into all the different organs.
4. After this fetus just grows. It takes nine months before the baby is ready to be born.
5. The length of time between fertilization and birth is called the gestation period.
1. A few before birth, the fetus turns around in the uterus so it is lying downward, its
head just above the cervix.
2. Birth begins when the strong muscles of the uterus wall begin to contract. This is
called labor.
3. To begin with the contractions are quite gentle and only take place once an hour. But
gradually they become stronger and more frequent.
4. The contractions of the muscles slowly stretch the opening of the cervix.
5. After several hours the cervix is wide enough for the head of the baby to pass
through.
6. Now the muscles begin to push the baby down the cervix and vaginia. This stage of
birth is fast. The walls of the vagina can stretch allowing the baby to pushed through.
7. The baby is still attached to the uterus by the umbilical cord. Now that it is open air, it
can breath for itself, so as the placenta is no longer needed, falls away from the uterus
wall and passes out through the vagina. It is called afterbirth.
8. The umbilical cord is cut and clamped just above the point where it joins the baby. It
is completely painless as there are no nerves in the umbilical cord.
9. The stump of the cord forms the navel.
10. The contractions are painful. They feel rather like a crap. Her mother can help herself
a lot by preparing her body with exercises b4 labor and by breathing in a special way
during labor.
1. When a women is pregnant she should take care of her health for her own benefit and
her baby’s. The is called ante-natal health.
2. She should make sure her diet contains plenty of calcium to help the growing fetus’
bones.
3. She needs extra iron because her body will produce a lot of extra blood to carry
oxygen and nutrients to the placenta and for the fetus to grow blood (haemoglobin).
4. She needs an extra carbohydrate as she needs extra energy to carry her heavier body.
5. And extra protein for forming the fetus cells.
6. She should continue to exercise like walking as this allows her to take an active part
when she’s giving birth.
7. Harmful substances can also pass through the placenta. If she smokes then the baby
will grow more slowly and be smaller at birth and she not drink too much alcohol.
8. The mother also needs to be careful so that she doesn’t get viruses such as HIV or
rubella as this could have severe implications.
1. Although it has been developing for nine months, the human baby is quite helpless
when it is born. Usually both parents help to care for it.
2. During pregnancy, the glands in the mothers breasts will have become larger. Soon
after birth they begin to make milk. This is called lactation.
3. Many people think that breast milk is better feeding the baby on bottle milk.
4. Bottle milk called formula is bought as a powder, mixed with water and then
sterilized. The baby suck the milk from a bottle.
5. Although this makes it a lot easier on the mother. Brest milk has a lot of advantages.
It is cheaper.
6. If the bottle is not kept clean then bacteria will get into the milk and make the baby
ill. This problem is not there with breat feeding.
7. Also breast milk contains antibodies from the mother, which help the baby to fight of
diseases and it brings a close relationship between the 2.
1. The viruses and bacteria which cause diseases can be transferred from 1 person to
another during sexual intercourse.
2. The diseases the viruses and bacteria cause are called sexually transmitted diseases.
3. These include syphilis and AIDS.
1. Birth control can help couples to have no more children than they want.
2. It is necessary for keeping family sizes small and limiting the growth of the
population
3. Methods of Birth control:
a. Mechanical: works by putting a barrier between the egg and sperm. Condom
and cap
b. Hormonal methods: Use hormones to stop eggs being produced. These
hormones are like those made by the women’s body when she is pregnant.
E.g. progesterone.
c. Surgical methods: suitable for couples who already have all the children they
want. The sperm ducts or oviducts are cut.
d. Chemical methods: use chemical called spermicides that kill sperm. Works
best if used with another combination.
e. Natural methods: involve the women keeping records to predict her menstrual
cycle and the
1. The male gametes are inside the pollen grains which are inside the anthers.
2. Each anther has 4 spaces called pollen sacs. Cells around the sacs divide by
meiosis to make pollen grains.
3. When the flower bud opens, the anthers split open so now the pollen is on the
outside of the anther.
4. Pollen grains look like fine yellow powder. The pollen grain of different plants
have different shapes.
5. The pollen has a hard coat so that it can survive in difficult conditions if
necessary.
6. The pollen of insect pollinated flowers is sticky.
1. The female gamete is inside the ovule which is inside the ovary
2. They have been made by meiosis
3. Each ovule contains just one gamete.
1. For fertilization to take place, the male gametes must travel to the female gametes.
2. The first stage of this journey is the transfer of pollen from an anther to the stigma.
This is called pollination.
3. In many flowers, pollination is carried out by small insects which are attracted to the
plant because of the sweet sent and bright colour of the petals.
4. The bee follows the guide lines to the nectarines, brushing its way past the anthers as
it does so. Some of the pollen sticks to its body.
5. The bee is then most likely to go to another flower looking for more nectar. Some of
the pollen it picked from the first plant sticks to the stigma as it brushes past it on its
way to the nectaries.
6. The stigma is sticky and many pollen grains get stuck on to it.
1. Sometimes pollen is carried to the stigma of the same flower or a stigma on a flower
of the same plant. This is called self pollination.
2. If pollen is taken to the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same species,
then it is called cross pollination.
3. Self pollination results in less variation in the offspring than cross pollination.
1. In some plants, the pollen is carried from the anther to the stigma by wind. Such
plants are called wind pollinated plants.
2. Wind pollinated plants produce a large amount of pollen, the anthers and stigma
(which is large and feathery) are dangling outside the flower
1. After pollination, the male gamete on the stigma has still not reached the female
gamete in the ovule which is in the ovaries.
2. If it has landed on the right type of stigma then, then the pollen grain begin to grow a
tube through the style and ovary towards the ovule. It secretes an enzyme to digest a
hole through the style
3. The ovule is surrounded by a double layer of cells called the integuments. IT has a
tiny hole called the micropyle. The pollen tube grows through the micropyle, into the
ovule.
4. The male gamete travels through the pollen tube and into the ovule. The nucleus of
the male gamete fuses with nucleus of the female to form a new cell called a zygote.
Fertilization has taken place
5. One pollen grain can only fertilize one ovule. If there are several ovules, then many
pollen grains are needed to fertilize all of them.
1. Once the ovule has been fertilized many parts of the flower are no longer needed. The
sepals, the petals and the stamens wither and fall off.
2. Inside the ovary the ovules start to grow after fertilization. The zygote that is formed
divides by mitosis to form an embryo plant.
3. When the ovule contains an embryo plant it is called the seed.
4. The integuments of the ovules become hard and dry to form the testa of the seed.
Water is withdrawn from the seed so it becomes dormant.
5. The ovary is also grows. An ovary that contains seeds is called a fruit. The wall of the
fruit is called the pericarp.
8.38 Fruits help to disperse seeds.
1. The function of the fruit is to protect the seeds inside until they are ripe and to also
help disperse the seeds.
2. Dispersal of the seeds is important because if too many plants are growing close
together they compete for light, water and nutrients so none of them can grow
properly.
3. Dispersal also helps the plants to colonize new areas.
1. A seed contains an embryo plant. The embryo has 2 parts, the plumule which grows
into the shoot and the radicle which grows into the root.
2. There is also food for the embryo which is stored in the cotyledons (a French bean
has 2 cotyledons). The cotyledons contain starch protein and enzymes.
3. Surrounding the cotyledons is a tough protective covering called the testa. It stops the
embryo being damaged and bacteria and fungi from entering the seed.
4. The testa has a tiny hole called the micropyle. Near the micropyle is a scar called the
hilum where the seed was joined onto the seed.
1. A seed contains no water. When it was formed, all the water was drained out of the
seed so that it becomes dehydrated.
2. Without water no metabolic reactions can take place inside the seed. The seed is
inactive or dormant .
3. This is useful because this means a seed can survive harsh conditions that would kill a
growing plant.
4. A seed must have certain conditions before it will germinate. Heat, and water.
5. When a seed germinates, it first takes up water through the micropyle . As the water
goes into the cotyledon, they swell. Eventually they burst the testa.
1. When a seed begins to germinates, it increases in mass, because it absorbs water from
the soil.
2. As soon as the seed begins to grow, it starts to use its food stores. When there is
sufficient water in the seed the enzymes become activated. Amylase breaks down
starch into maltose and proteases break down protein into amino acids.
3. Maltose and amino acids are soluble; they dissolve in the water and diffuse into the
embryo plant which uses it for food and growth.
4. The amino acids are used to make cell membrane and cytoplasm. Some of the sugar is
made into cellulose to make cell walls for the new cells.
5. All this requires energy and it gets its energy from respiration of glucose. Quite a lot
of the glucose is used for respiration, so it looses weight.
6. After a few days, the plumule of the seed grows above the surface of the ground. The
leaves open and begin to photosynthesis. The plant can make its own food faster than
it is using it. It increases in mass
7. An annual plant is one that lives for less than 1 year.
1. When an organism grows, its cells divide by mitosis to produce new ones. These new
cells grow larger and some of them will divide again. So growth involves both cell
division and cell growth.
2. One way to measure its growth is to measure its mass. If you just find the mass of an
organism including all the water in it, this measurement is called wet mass.
3. However the amount of mass in an organism can vary a lot from day to day. So it is
often better to remove all the water before measuring its mass. This measurement is
called dry mass.
4. Growth can be defined as the increase of dry mass.
5. However, while an organism is growing it becomes more complex at the same time.
E.g. as a human embryo grows, it grows from a ball of cells into a human being with
the full set of organs. This increase in complexity is called development.
1. Asexual reproduction involves one parent and the offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent (they have the same genes and the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell). Therefore asexual reproduction does not produce
variation.
2. In sexual reproduction involves two parents and they produce of sex cells called
gametes (by meiosis). Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell. When fertilization takes place, the nucleus of the male and female fuse together
to produce a new cell called the zygote (with the full number of chromosomes). The
zygote has a different combination of genes as the parent cell. Therefore sexual
reproduction produces variation.
8.45 Sexual and asexual reproduction each have advantages