Vol. 24 No.

April 1999

International Rice Research Institute IRRI home page: http://www.cgiar.org/irri Riceweb: http://www.riceweb.org Riceworld:http://www.riceworld.org

International Rice Research Notes

The International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) expedites communication among scientists concerned with the development of improved technology for rice and rice-based systems. The IRRN is a mechanism to help scientists keep each other informed of current rice research findings. The concise scientific notes are meant to encourage rice scientists to communicate with one another to obtain details on the research reported. The IRRN is published three times a year in April, August, and December by the International Rice Research Institute.
Editorial Board Michael Cohen (pest science and management), Editor-in-Chief Darshan Brar (plant breeding; molecular and cell biology) David Dawe (socioeconomics; agricultural engineering) Achim Dobermann (soil, nutrient, and water management; environment) Baorong Lu (genetic resources) Leonard Wade (crop management and physiology) Production Team Katherine Lopez, Managing Editor Editorial Bill Hardy and Tess Rola Design and layout The CPS Creative Services Team: Albert Borrero, Grant Leceta, Erlie Putungan, Juan Lazaro, Emmanuel Panisales Word processing Arleen Rivera

Contents
4 EDITORS NOTE
MINI REVIEWS

Nitrogen nutrition in hybrid rice

X. Yang, J. Zhang, W. Ni, and A. Dobermann

A new rice cultivation technology: Plastic film mulching S. Peng,

K. Shen, X. Wang, J. Liu, X. Luo, and L. Wu

About the cover A hybrid rice plot near Changsha, Hunan Province, China Cover picture: S.S. Virmani

RESEARCH NOTES
Plant breeding 11 Genetics of tolerance for iron toxicity in rice
J. Owusu Nipah, O. Safo-Kantanka, M.P. Jones, and B.N. Singh

16 Evaluation of EMC models for fitting sorption isotherms for rough rice, brown rice, and milled rice
L. Nayak and J.P. Pandey

12 Genetics of resistance to brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stl) in rice

V.K. Verma, D.J. Pophaly, R.K. Mishra, and R.K. Sahu

17 Partitioning of high-density grains and its implication in a rice selection program

R. Govindarasu, K. Manian, N. Ramamoorthi, and A. Mohamed Hanifa

13 CORH2, a new medium-duration rice hybrid

M. Rangaswamy, K. Thiyagarajan, P. Rangasamy, P. Jayamani, A.S. Ponnusamy, R. Latha, and P. Vaidyanathan

18 KDML 105, an alternative aromatic rice for the semideepwater ecosystem

N.K. Sarma, L. Salkla, P. Salkla, R. Borgohain, H.N. Gogol, and W. Palaklang

13 Evaluation of rice hybrids in different agroclimatic zones of Andhra Pradesh

R. Vijaya Kumar, P.V. Satyanarayana, M. Subba Rao, and N.S. Reddy

19 Sudhir, a progeny of FR13A

S. Mallik, B.K. Mandal, C. Kundu, S.D. Chatterjee, and S.N. Sen

15 Birsa Dhan 107, a high-yielding and early maturing variety for the upland regions of Bihar, India
M.P. Singh and D.N. Singh

21 Genetic variability in leaf area and chlorophyll content of aromatic rice

U.K. Bansal, R.G. Saini, and A. Kaur

15 Jaldi Dhan 8, an improved and potential source of wide compatibility for hybrid rice breeding
S. Kumar and S.N. Chakrabarti

April 1999

Pest science & management 22 Nematode resistance of IRRI breeding lines in Assam, India
N.K. Sarma, D. Das, S.A. Hussain, B. Barman, and D. Senadhira

26 Multilocational screening of Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima for resistance to African rice gall midge Orseolia oryzivora in West Africa
C.T. Williams, O. Okhidievbie, M.N. Ukwungwu, D. Dakouo, S. Nacro, A. Hamadoun, and S.I. Kamara

23 Identification of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae by insertion sequence-based polymerase chain reaction (IS-PCR)
T. Adhikari, C.M. Vera Cruz, T.W. Mew, and J.E. Leach

27 Resistance to rice stripe virus in differential rice line BL 1

K. Ise, K. Ishikawa, C. Li, Q. Yang, and C. Ye

25 Influence of weeds and rice cultivar on nematode population densities in lowland rice
D.L. Coyne, D.E. Johnson, M. Jones, and R.A. Plowright

28 Ischaemum rugosuma potential alternate host of rice tungro viruses in West Bengal
S.C. Mallick, A.K. Chowdhury, and D. Pal

Soil, nutrient, & water management 30 Influence of NPK levels and split N application on grain filling and yield of fine rice
M. Asif, F.M. Chaudhary, and M. Saeed

32 Response of rainfed lowland rice varieties to different N levels under two types of water management
C.R. Biswas, A.B. Mandal, and S.C. Pramanik

31 The adaptability of Azolla mexicana in the Ege region of Turkey

M.N. Gevrek

33 Influence of organic, biofertilizer, and inorganic forms of nitrogen on rice quality

M. Hemalatha, V. Thirumurugan, and R. Balasubramanian

Crop management & physiology 34 Effect of grain and forage legumes on the yield of rice- and potato-based cropping systems in Nepal
B.B. Khatri and G.J. Wells

36 Effective land preparation for wet seeding on a reclaimed saline soil in Korea
K.-S. Lee, J.-K. Nam, and H.-T. Shin

35 Performance of indica/japonica derivatives in wet and boro season in West Bengal, India
S.K. Bardhan Roy and D. Senadhira

Agricultural engineering 37 Seed drill for upland rice grown in undulating terrain
C.R. Subudhi, P.C. Pradhan, and P.C. Senapati

38 A modified area sampler for aquatic invertebrate assemblages in flooded rice

K.G. Schoenly and I. Domingo

37 Rolling marker for a rice field

T.M. Lando, B. Abidin, and A. Najamuddin

Socioeconomics 40 Medicinal weeds in rice fields of Chhattisgarh, India

P. Oudhia

41 43

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS NOTES FROM THE FIELD

45 47

NEWS INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

IRRN 3

EDITORS NOTE

It is with great pleasure that we present to our readers this first issue of the new IRRN. In this note, we would like to highlight some of the changes in the content, format, and operation of IRRN and provide the rationale for these changes. One of the most significant changes has been the formation of an editorial board composed of IRRI scientists. In the past, editors in IRRIs Communication and Publications Services (CPS) have handled the content and format of IRRN. While these editors have always produced a very useful journal of high quality, we hope that actions of a scientific editorial board will result in a more up-to-date and balanced coverage of developments in rice science, and improved quality and consistency of the IRRN manuscript review process. Equally as important as the establishment of an editorial board has been the creation of the IRRN managing editor position. Our first managing editor is Katherine Lopez, and we would like to express our gratitude to her for the excellent job that she has done. Our thanks also go to other members of CPS who have contributed to the new IRRN, including Gene Hettel, Bill Hardy, and the CPS creative services team. Credit for proposing several of the changes that have taken place in IRRN is due to the IRRI ad hoc Committee on IRRN, whose members were Serge Savary, Swapan Datta, and Carolyn Dedolph. Directions for some of the other changes in format and content are based partly on results of a readership survey that CPS and the IRRN team conducted beginning in October 1998. We would like to thank IRRN readers and others for participating in the survey and for their constructive comments and suggestions on improving the substance and look of IRRN. One of the principal purposes of IRRN is to provide an international forum for rice scientists to publish their work.
4 April 1999

The editors and reviewers of IRRN have always faced a difficult challenge in balancing the ability of scientists to publish with the standard of publishing only those papers that are of sufficient quality and interest to be of use to IRRN readers. It is the goal of the editorial board to maintain a high standard for research notes published in IRRN. We also intend to provide authors with better feedback on their manuscripts, and suggest ways in which these could be improved. Prospective authors should carefully read the revised Instructions to Contributors, which appear in every issue. Readers will note several new features in IRRN. The mini reviewsand research highlights are meant to provide readers with up-to-date information on important new scientific developments. Notes from the field is a section introduced in response to requests that IRRN provide a venue for noteworthy developments observed in rice-growing areas, such as pest outbreaks or the adoption of innovative crop management practices. We have also changed the format of the research notes, which can now include up to five references. The goal of several of these changes is to provide IRRN readers with more links to the scientific literature, which they can then consult for more detailed information. The IRRI library is a

valuable resource for rice scientists who wish to obtain copies of scientific papers, including those cited in IRRN. Please consult the announcement from the IRRI library that appears on p 14. The editorial board and CPS staff have also worked to revise and standardize distribution policies for IRRN. We wish to make IRRN available to as many rice researchers as possible, but we are constrained by our financial resources. IRRN is provided free of charge to university libraries and agricultural research institutions engaged in rice research in developing countries. Institutions and individuals from developed countries are charged for subscriptions to IRRN. An important new development in IRRN distribution is that the journal is now available on the World Wide Web. Hundreds of visits were made to the three 1998 issues of IRRN on the Web, and we hope to see the number of hits increase as more and more institutions gain access to the Internet. Finally, we wish to stress that IRRN will continue to evolve in response to the needs of its readers. We encourage you to continue to send your suggestions to the editorial board, via the managing editor. We thank our readers for their longstanding support and enthusiastic response to IRRN. We look forward to hearing from you! The IRRN editorial board

New IRRN features formation of an editorial board composed of IRRI scientists creation of a managing editor position addition of new sections: Mini reviews, Research highlights, Notes from the field improved manuscript review process addition of cited references (from 2 to 5) new categories for Research notes revised instructions to contributors modified distribution policies availability of IRRN on the World Wide Web

MINI REVIEWS

Characteristics of nitrogen nutrition in hybrid rice

X.Yang, J. Zhang,W. Ni, Plant Nutrition Institute, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Huajiachi Campus 310029, Hangzhou, China; and A. Dobermann, Soil and Water Sciences Division, IRRI

ice hybrids have a mean yield advantage of 10-15% over inbred varieties (Li 1981, Yang and Sun 1988). Growth and development processes associated with higher grain yields of rice hybrids include a more vigorous and extensive root system (Li 1981, Yang and Sun 1988), increased growth rate during vegetative growth (Yamauchi 1994), more efficient sink formation and greater sink size (Kabaki 1993), greater carbohydrate translocation from vegetative plant parts to the spikelets (Song et al 1990), and larger leaf area index (LAI) during the grain-filling period, but the physiological basis for heterosis remains unknown (Peng 1998). Specific characteristics of the uptake and physiology of N in hybrid rice appear to play a key role in this. In this paper, we reviewed the characteristics of N uptake and N use by hybrid rice, a proposed physiological basis for N efficiency, and the role of nitrate nutrition in hybrid rice. All cited papers are comparisons between hybrids and the best conventional cultivars, i.e., not comparisons between the hybrid and its parents.
IRRN 5

Nitrogen uptake and use The total N uptake by hybrid rice shoots is greater than that of conventional cultivars, especially from transplanting to tillering and from panicle emergence to grain-filling stages (Yang 1987). Hybrid rice takes up about 15-20% of the total amount of N accumulated in the plant after heading and responds well to late application of N at flowering. In the same studies, N uptake after heading of conventional varieties was only 6-7% of total N uptake (Yang 1987). In field experiments, hybrid rice had a greater N efficiency (defined as grain yield per unit N fertilizer applied) than conventional rice (Lin and Yuan 1980, Yang 1987). This increased N efficiency was not due to greater internal N use in dry matter production (defined as unit dry matter produced per unit N accumulated in the plant) (Yang 1987, Yang and Sun 1992). We propose that higher recovery efficiency of applied N (N uptake per unit N applied) because of greater root N absorption potential, greater shoot N-use capacity (N demand by the shoot, i.e., how much and how fast the shoot can use N), and greater N remobilization efficiency (N translocation to the grain, i.e., N har-

vest index) are the major factors that cause higher N efficiency in hybrid rice (Fig. 1). Physiological basis for nitrogen efficiency in hybrid rice Root growth and distribution density in soils, aerobic respiration, oxidizing power, and energy synthetic metabolism are the important traits responsible for higher N absorption potential in hybrid rice (Yang and Sun 1991c). Rice hybrids develop an extensive root system, which is essential for efficient N absorption from the soil and topdressed N fertilizer applications. Under field conditions, hybrids have greater root fresh and dry weights, root volume, and root length density than inbred varieties (Yang and Sun 1988, 1992). The activities of dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase, oxidizing power, and ATP content of hybrid roots were much greater than those of conventional cultivars at both early and late growth stages (Yang and Sun 1988). These root morphological and physiological characteristics were positively and significantly correlated with N uptake by rice shoots (Yang 1987).

N-assimilating activity Carbon-assimilating activity Energy synthetic metabolism Tillering power Leaf area

Shoot utilization capacity

N harvest index

Translocation

Root growth and distribution density Root respiration and energy metabolism Km and Vmax N assimilation in root

Root absorption potential

Fig. 1. Physiological parameters associated with N efficiency in hybrid rice. We hypothesized that the higher N efficiency in hybrid rice results from higher root absorption potential, greater shoot use capacity, and more efficient translocation of N and their positive interactions.The major related physiological traits for efficient absorption, use, and translocation of N by rice plants are listed.

April 1999

The activities of nitrate reductase (NR, a rate-regulating enzyme in converting NO3--N to NH3), glutamate synthase (FdGOGAT, a rate-regulating enzyme in processing NH 3 to glutamate), amino acid synthase (GPT and GOT), and CO2-assimilating enzymes (Rubisco, a rate-regulating enzyme in photosynthesis and a key enzyme in N metabolism) in leaves at different growth stages differed considerably between hybrid rice and conventional cultivars (Yang and Sun 1989). The activities of NR and Fd-GOGAT in hybrid leaves were 40-60% greater than in leaves of conventional rice at the heading stage (Yang and Sun 1989, Yang and Sun 1992) and close correlations were observed between leaf N concentration and activities of these enzymes (Yang 1987). Compared with conventional cultivars, the activity and protein content of Rubisco were 25-40% higher at low N levels and twofold higher at adequate N levels in hybrid rice leaves (Yang and Sun 1991b, 1992). Apparently, the stimulation of activity and level of Rubisco by N is greater in hybrid rice than in inbred cultivars. Higher activities of Rubisco and of the N synthetic metabolism in hybrid leaves result from higher protein levels of the enzymes. Thus, the enhanced N- and C-assimilating metabolism of hybrid rice, combined with its greater tillering capacity and leaf area (Yang 1987), are possibly the major physiological causes of greater N-use capacity in hybrid rice shoots. The interaction between N and C synthetic metabolism further increases shoot N-use capacity in hybrid rice and, in turn, raises root absorption potential. Hybrids tend to have a higher N harvest index than conventional cultivars. After flowering, more N is translocated into hybrid rice panicles than into those of conventional cultivars (Yang and Sun 1990). This higher N translocation efficiency could be one of the major factors responsible for increased N efficiency in hybrid rice.

Nitrate vs ammonium nutrition during reproductive growth Research conducted during the past 10 yr has provided evidence that hybrid rice roots are more efficient in absorbing NO3- than inbred varieties and that a preferential uptake of NO3- during reproductive growth may be one of the causes of the higher yields observed (Yang and Sun 1990, 1991a, 1992). Although NH4+ is the major available N form in flooded soils, nitrate exists in the oxidized surface soil layer, in the irrigation water, and, probably, in the oxidized rhizosphere surrounding rice roots. Rhizosphere oxidation and acidification in hybrid rice exceed those of conventional rice (Yang et al 1997), but there is no information available about the distribution of nitrate in the rhizosphere. A special feature of hybrid rice is the much greater development of fine, dense, superficial roots. These are mainly distributed in the oxidized surface soil layer (Yang and Sun 1988) and appear to (1) enhance surface soil and rhizosphere oxidation and (2) be capable of absorbing NO3- efficiently, particularly after panicle initiation. In nutrient solution experiments, hybrid roots had higher affinity for NO3-, especially at the reproductive growth stages, than conventional cultivars. The uptake of NO3--N by roots of hybrid rice increased linearly with increasing NH4NO3 concentrations in nutrient solution, but did not in the conventional cultivar (Luo et al 1993). At high supply levels (80-120 mg N L-1), the hybrid absorbed more NO3- than NH4+, whereas the conventional cultivar did not, implying that preference for NO3- is genetically controlled and dependent on N supply levels. Studies on NO3- uptake kinetics showed that Km values of NO3- uptake by hybrid roots were 27% lower for 22-d-old seedlings and 62% lower for 63-d-old seedlings than those by roots of conventional cultivars (Yang and Sun 1991c).

Early rice Nitrate mg kg-1 shoot DM 200 160 120 80 40 0 T1 T3 200 160 120 80 40 0

Late rice Nitrate mg kg-1 shoot DM NPK1 120 80 40 B H M Har 0 T1 T3 PI B H M Har NPK1

NPK2

120 80 40

Conventional NPK2 Hybrid

T1

T3

Har

T1

T3

PI

Har

Growth stage
T1=early tillering, T3=late tillering, B=booting, PI= panicle initiation, H=heading, M=milky stage, Har=harvest

Fig. 2. Nitrate concentrations in the shoots of conventional and hybrid cultivars at different growth stages and different NPK levels. Field measurements conducted at Jinhua, China, 1998.

IRRN

In pot experiments with topdressing of 15N-labeled NO3--N and NH4+-N fertilizers during reproductive growth, NO3--N application stimulated the growth of superficial roots and increased grain yield more significantly in hybrid rice than in conventional rice, mainly because of improved grain filling (Yang and Sun 1990). Nitrate fertilizer use efficiency by hybrid rice after anthesis was 7.8% higher than that of conventional rice. NO3--N stimulated the vigorous growth of superficial roots, increased the synthesis of cytokinins (mainly zeatin) in roots, and delayed the appearance of the abscisic acid (ABA) peak in both leaves and filling grains. High ratios of zeatin/ABA enhanced the synthesis of RNA, which resulted in protein synthesis for carbon assimilation and transportation (Yang and Sun 1991a). High nitrate reductase activities in both seedlings and functioning leaves of rice plants have been reported (Lin et al 1986, Yang and Sun 1989). Nitrate reductase activity at the seedling stage was negatively related to tolerance of a rice cultivar for high N supply, and was recommended as an indicator or parameter for screening high-N-tolerant cultivars (Lin et al 1986). Nitrate reductase activities were higher and more sensitive to N supply levels in hybrid rice leaves than in conventional rice (Yang and Sun 1989). Under field conditions, shoot NO3- concentrations of both hybrid and conventional rice varied with growth stages and NPK supply levels, but shoot NO3- concentrations in hybrid rice exceeded those of the inbred variety at most growth stages, especially with high amounts of N, P, and K applied (Fig. 2). Similarly, higher grain yields were obtained in hybrid rice than in the conventional rice cultivar, suggesting that NO3- accumulation and nutrition might be associated with high yield in rice. Research needs Our studies on the morphology and physiology of N nutrition in hybrid rice indicated that the greater N efficiency in hybrid rice mainly results from higher root absorption potential, greater shoot N-use capacity, and efficient N translocation, as well as their positive interactions (Fig. 1). More research is needed to understand (1) the influx and compartmentation of NO3- by rice roots, (2) strategies for hybrid rice to absorb more NO3- than an inbred variety, (3) the fate of NO3- from soil to leaves, and (4) the contribution of NO3- to N nutrition as well as to yield formation in rice. A quantitative linkage between form of N nutrition, cytokinin synthesis, delayed appearance of the ABA peak, and other physiological processes with grain yield remains to be established under field conditions to demonstrate the possible contribution of N nutrition to heterosis in rice. Only then will we be able to finetune water and N management practices in hybrid rice.

References
Kabaki N. 1993. Growth and yield of japonica-indica hybrid rice. Jpn. Agric. Res. Q. 27:88-94. Li ZB. 1981. Biological basis of heterosis utilization in rice plant. In: Research and practice of hybrid rice. Beijing: Agricultural Science and Technology Press. p 186-287. Lin SC, Yuan LP. 1980. Hybrid rice breeding in China. In: Innovative approaches to rice breeding. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. p 35-37. Lin ZW, Ten ZF, Tan YW. 1986. Nitrate reductase as an indicator for rice cultivars to tolerate high N levels [in Chinese]. J. Crop Sci. 12:9-14. Luo AC, Xu JM, Yang X. 1993. Effect of nitrogen (NH4NO3) supply on absorption of ammonium and nitrate by conventional and hybrid rice during reproductive growth. Plant Soil 155/156:395-398. Peng S. 1998. Physiology-based crop management for yield maximization of hybrid rice. In: Virmani SS, Siddiq EA, Muralidharan K, editors. Advances in hybrid rice technology. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Hybrid Rice, 14-16 Nov 1996, Hyderabad, India. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. p 157176. Song X, Agata W, Kawamitsu Y. 1990. Studies on dry matter and grain production of F1 hybrid rice in China. II. Characteristics of grain production. Jpn. J. Crop Sci. 59:29-33. Yamauchi M. 1994. Physiological bases of higher yield potential in F1 hybrids. In: Virmani SS, editor. Hybrid rice technology: new developments and future prospects. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. p 71-80. Yang X. 1987. Physiological mechanisms of nitrogen efficiency in hybrid rice. PhD dissertation. Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, China. Yang X, Roemheld V, Marschner H, Baligar VC, Martens DV. 1997. Shoot photosynthesis and root growth of hybrid rice and a conventional rice cultivar as affected by N and K levels in the rhizosphere. Pedosphere 7:35-42. Yang X , Sun X. 1988. Physiological characteristics of F1 hybrid rice roots. In: Hybrid rice. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. p 159-164. Yang X, Sun X. 1989. Characteristics of hybrid rice N metabolism. Acta Agric. Univ. Zhejiangensis 15(1):87-96. Yang X, Sun X. 1990. Effects of NH4+-N and NO3--N topdressing on the nutrition of hybrid and conventional rice varieties at late growth stage. Acta Agric. Nucl. Sin. 4(2):75-79. Yang X, Sun X. 1991a. The physiological effect of nitrate or ammonium topdressing on hybrid and conventional rice cultivars at the late growth stage. Acta Agron. Sin. 17(4):283-291. Yang X, Sun X. 1991b. Heteroses in photosynthesis of F1 hybrid in relation to N nutrition. Acta Agric. Univ. Zhejiangensis 17:355-359. Yang X, Sun X. 1991c. Kinetics of NH4+ and NO3- uptake by different rice cultivars. Chin. J. Soil Sci. 22(5):222-224. Yang X, Sun X. 1992. Physiological mechanism of varietal difference in rice plant response to low N level. Acta Pedol. Sin. 29:73-79.

April 1999

A new rice cultivation technology: plastic film mulching

S. Peng, IRRI; K. Shen, X.Wang, J. Liu, Agricultural Bureau of Shiyan, Hubei; X. Luo, Agricultural Bureau of Zhushan County, Hubei; and L. Wu, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Rice growing under plastic film mulching cultivation in Zhejiang, China, 1998

rowing lowland rice using plastic film mulch under nonflooded conditions was tested extensively in 1993 by the Agricultural Bureau of Shiyan, Hubei Province, China (Shen et al 1997b). This cultivation system has also been evaluated in Liaoning, Anhui, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu provinces. In the mountainous areas of Shiyan, rice yield is greatly limited by low temperature. Film mulching cultivation is one crop management option that effectively alleviates low-temperature stress on rice growth and consequently increases rice production. In some rice-growing areas of Anhui Province, water scarcity is the major constraint to rice production. Film mulching cultivation reduces irrigation water consumption and therefore increases rice production by extending rice-planting areas. In this mini review, we compared the major characteristics of film mulching cultivation with the continuously flooded rice system.

Plastic film mulching cultivation In the plastic film mulching cultivation test in Shiyan, Hubei, China (Shen et al 1997a), land was first flooded and then plowed and puddled. During land preparation, N, P, and K fertilizers and farmyard manure were applied and incorporated in the soil. The field was drained and 1.6-m-wide beds were prepared before plastic film was installed. Plastic film, 0.005-mm-thick and 1.7-m-wide, was used to cover the beds. Rice seedlings were transplanted in seven rows in each bed at a spacing of 0.13 0.25 m with two seedlings per hill. During the growing season, foliar N was applied only when rice plants showed N deficiency. Furrow irrigation was done when the field was dry. In control plots without plastic film, the field was continuously flooded. Other crop management practices used were the same for both plastic film mulch and control plots. Increasing soil temperature The plastic film mulch preserves heat and increases soil temperature. Shen et al (1997b) reported that mulching increased the daily mean temperature of the soil surface by 3-6 C and seasonal accumulative heat units by
IRRN 9

430-450 C. Nagata et al (1997) found that the temperature of the film surface in the mulched plot was 10.3 C greater than that of the water surface in the control plot. In a pot study, Nagata et al (1994) observed that 0.02-mm-thick plastic film mulch increased soil temperature at a 3-cm depth by up to 5 C during the day and by 1.5 C at night.

whether plastic film mulching can increase grain yield under favorable rice-growing conditions.

Water conservation Plastic film mulching cultivation saves water by reducing water consumption during land preparation and evaporation during the growing season. Shen et al (1997a) reported that water saved by mulching cultivation was 640 m3 ha-1 before crop establishment and 450600 m3 ha-1 from reduced evaporation during the growing season. Compared with the continuously flooded system, plastic film mulch reduced water consumption by almost 50%. In plastic film mulching cultivation, water is often supplied by furrow irrigation. In some ricegrowing areas of China, rainfall provides enough water for rice growth in the plastic film mulch system. Improving fertilizer use efficiency In the continuously flooded rice system, fertilizer N-use efficiency is low due to rapid losses of applied N through volatilization, percolation, runoff, and seepage. N losses through percolation and seepage are greatly reduced in plastic film mulching cultivation due to furrow irrigation. Increased soil temperature in plastic film mulching cultivation also contributes to greater nutrient uptake in low-temperature areas. Experiments conducted in Zhejiang Province indicated that plastic film mulching reduced fertilizer N input by 30-50% (Wu 1997, personal communication). It is unknown whether film mulching reduces N loss through volatilization to a greater extent than the continuously flooded system. Weed control Plastic film mulching probably controls weeds by reducing O2 concentration in the layer between the soil and the film. Shen et al (1997a) reported 28 weed plants m-2 with film mulching and 326 m-2 in the control. Plastic film mulching reduces weeds by 90%; thus, there is no need to apply herbicides in this cultivation system. Increasing rice yield In rice-growing areas where air temperature is low, plastic film mulching cultivation increases rice grain yield. A maximum yield of 10.8 t ha-1 under plastic film mulching cultivation or a 42% increase over the control was reported by Shen et al (1997a). In 1996, plastic film mulching cultivation was demonstrated in many farmers fields in Shiyan (Shen et al 1997a). The average yield from 1,156 ha was 7.3 t ha-1, a 19% increase over the control. Total growth duration was reduced by 5 d. The yield improvement was mainly due to increased panicle number per square meter because high temperature accelerated early tillering. Plastic film mulching cultivation produced larger and more vigorous root systems than those under the continuously flooded system (Shen et al 1997a). It is necessary to determine
10 April 1999

Economic analysis Plastic film mulching cultivation is economically acceptable to Chinese farmers because of the low costs of plastic film and labor. About 53 kg of plastic film was needed per hectare, which costs about US$90. Plastic film mulching saved US$25 ha-1 from fertilizer N, US$18 from herbicides, and US$37 from manual weeding in Shiyan (Shen et al 1997b). The savings from irrigation water was not estimated because water was free in Shiyan. The cost for transplanting and film installation was estimated at US$55 ha-1. The increase in grain yield was 1.4 t ha-1 averaged across 1,156 ha, which was equivalent to US$268 ha-1. Farmers net income increased by US$203 ha-1. Future outlook Plastic film mulching cultivation is a promising technology for ricegrowing areas where low temperature and water shortage limit rice production. It is also suitable for hybrid rice production because lowdensity planting and a single seedling per hill have been practiced in growing hybrid rice. The adoption of this technology largely depends on the cost of plastic film and labor costs for film installation and transplanting. Direct dibble seeding coupled with plastic film mulching has been tested in Zhejiang Province. A medium-size machine that can both lay the plastic film and direct seed would promote the extension of this technology. Reduced fertilizer N losses and reduced herbicide application in plastic film mulching cultivation will minimize environmental pollution. Methane emission may also be reduced because of the aerobic condition and film covering. The used plastic film, however, is a potential threat to the environment if it is not removed from the field and if recycling is not properly practiced. Biodegradable plastic film will solve this problem if its price is affordable. Future studies should focus on developing new varieties and a fertilizer management strategy suitable for this cultivation system. Short- and long-term changes in soil quality (soil chemistry and physics) due to plastic film mulching cultivation should be monitored and studied in the context of sustainability. References
Nagata M, Hiyoshi K, Okada Y, Umezaki T. 1994. Mulching cultivation system using polyethylene film for early-season culture rice: measurement of paddy soil temperature in pot experiment. Bull. Fac. Agric. Miyazaki Univ. 41:57-64. Nagata M, Hiyoshi K, Okada Y, Umezaki T, Tadeo BD, Shimoda T. 1997. Mulching cultivation system using polyethylene film for early-season culture rice. II. Thermal image analysis of paddy field by thermographic system. Bull. Fac. Agric. Miyazaki Univ. 43:129-136. Shen K, Wang X, Liu J, Luo X. 1997a. Test and demonstration on wetcultivation with film mulching of rice. Hubei Agric. Sci. 5:18-22. Shen K, Wang X, Luo X. 1997b. Preliminary report on wet-cultivation with film mulching of rice. Hubei Agric. Sci. 1:6-8.

Plant breeding

Genetics of tolerance for iron toxicity in rice

J. Owusu Nipah, Coconut Project (OPRI-CSIR) c/o M.O.F.A., P.O. Box 245, Sekondi; O. Safo-Kantanka, University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Crop Science Department, Kumasi, Ghana; M.P. Jones, and B.N. Singh, WARDA/ADRAO 01 BP 2551, Bouak, Cte dIvoire

Frequency (no. of hills) 50 40 30 20 10 0 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Iron toxicity score 7 8 9

P 1 P 2 F1 F1

Cross I: CK4/ITA330 at 75 DAT

P1 P2

Cross II: CK73/Bouake 189 at 75 DAT

Distribution and mean of parents, F1 and F2 plants.The solid lines represent the range of the generations about their means (points).

Table 1. Generations of crosses used in the experiment. Total number Basic generations CK4/ITA 330 (I) 48 48 24 120 24 24 CK73/ Bouak 189 (II) 48 48 24 144 24 24

Table 2. Estimation of additive, dominance, and interaction parameters with a sixparameter model of Hayman. Parametera m [d] [h] [i] [j] [l]
a

Cross I: CK4/ITA330 Estimate 4.6667 -1.7083 -5.5521 -3.2500 -0.4479 0.6875

Cross II: CK73/Bouak 189 Std. error Probability

Std. error Probability Estimate 0.1180 0.2444 0.6916 0.6793 0.2614 1.1161 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 ns ns 5.6181 -0.7500 -3.8160 -3.3056 0.1146 3.8264

Tolerant parent (P1) Susceptible parent (P2) F1 (P1 P2) F2 (selfing of F1) B1 (F1 P1) B2 (F1 P2)

0.0903 <0.001 0.2796 <0.001 0.7133 <0.001 0.66658 <0.001 0.3069 ns 1.2821 0.01-0.001

m = midparent value, [d] = balance of additive gene effects, [h] = balance of dominance gene effects, [i] = additive-additive gene interactions, [j] = additive-dominance gene interactions, [l] = dominance-dominance gene interactions. ns = not significant.

IRRN

11

The lack of understanding about the genetics of tolerance for iron toxicity in rice has slowed the progress of breeding for tolerance for the disorder. We studied genetic effects through generation mean analysis and estimated heterosis and narrow-sense heritability using four rice varieties. CK4 and CK73 were tolerant of iron toxicity, ITA 330 and Bouake 189 were sus ceptible. Two sets of populations were generated from crosses between tolerant and susceptible types. Cross I was between CK4 and ITA 330; CK73/Bouake 189 con stituted cross II. For each cross, six generations (Table 1) were transplanted and tested separately in 5.5 2.5-m iron-toxic blocks specially prepared to ensure uniformity. The experiment took place in Korhogo (922N, 531W) in northern Cote dIvoire during the wet season (May-August 1996), using a randomized complete block design with three replications on an irrigated Ultisol lowland that contained 379 ppm Fe in soil solution at the beginning of the season. Individual hills were scored for leaf symptom based on tolerance for iron toxicity at 75 d after transplanting. An earlier study had indicated that period to be the most appropriate in assessing Oryza sativa varieties for their reaction to iron toxicity.

In cross I, the F1 hybrid had a mean score of 2.063, showing more tolerance than the tolerant parent (CK4), which scored 3.104 (1 = no symptoms; 9 = dead plants). Heterosis was estimated to be1.042. In cross II, however, heterosis was absent. F2 individuals showed a continuous distribution in both crosses (see figure). In both crosses, the simple additive dominance model failed to fit the data. This suggested that the observed variation could be attributed to nonallelic interacting genes or epistatic genes, but not to additive and dominance genes alone. Estimations of these genetic effects based on Haymans method are presented in Table 2. In both crosses, [d] and [h] were highly significant and negative. This implies that although nonallelic genes were present, most of the genes responsible for tolerance for iron toxicity were dominant. The presence of epistatic genes may have led to the appearance of unexpected types in the progeny, which may represent real advances over their parents. In fact, transgressive segregation was observed in the F2 of cross I, with some individuals falling outside the range of parents in both directions. This was probably due to effects of epistatic genes. In breeding for tolerance, breeders should therefore look for

the possibility of transgressive types occurring. Narrow-sense heritabilities (hn) were estimated to be 73.6% in cross I and 25.0% in cross II, indicating that the character can be inherited. The high hn in cross I suggested that heritable genetic variability is possible even in early generation selection.

Genetics of resistance to brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stl) in rice

V.K.Verma, D.J. Pophaly, R.K. Mishra, and R.K. Sahu, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU), Raipur, Madhya Pradesh, India

The brown planthopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens is a serious pest of rice in several Asian countries. The IGAU in Raipur, India, possesses a unique rice germplasm collection, but it has not yet been used extensively for genetic studies. Thirteen rice accessions found to be resistant to BPH under glasshouse conditions at Raipur were subjected to genetic analysis during 1996-97. To study the inheritance of genes for BPH resistance, these BPH-resistant cultivars were crossed with TN1 (a susceptible cultivar). Crosses were made among resistant cultivars to determine the allelic relationships of the genes. Seven of 13 rice cultivars had a dominant gene for resistance to BPH, with the F2 plant population segregating into a ratio of 3:1. Six cultivars exhibited recessive genes for resistance with a segregation ratio of 1:3 (Table 1). In studies of allelic relationships, five cross combinations segregated in a 7:9 ratio and one in a 15:1 ratio for BPH resistance (Table 2). These results indicated that the resistance to BPH in cultivars in each of these crosses is governed by two independent recessive genes and two independent dominant genes. No segregation was observed in the four crosses, indicating that the genes for resistance to BPH are allelic to each other (Table 2). It is not known whether the BPH resistance genes of resistant cultivars used are the same as the 10 BPH genes already identified in rice cultivars. These BPH donors can be used in rice improvement.

Table 1. Reaction to BPH of F1 and F2 plant populations derived from crosses between BPH-resistant cultivars and -susceptible cultivar TN1. Cross F1 reactiona Seedlings (no.) TN1/OR1334-8 TN1/CRK-7-2-8 TN1/TTB148-174-32-1 TN1/RP1579-1662-72-52 TN1/RP1976-18-6-4-2 TN1/RP1579-1627-32-220 TN1/B6932-MR 25-1 TN1/Basangi (B:2682) TN1/Bakada (B:2699-I) TN1/Barhi (B:1253-I) TN1/Barhi (B:1253-II) TN1/Lal Basant (L:289-I) TN1/Budhiya Banko (B:57-II) R(1) R(0) R(1) R(1) R(0) R(1) R(0) S(7) S(9) S(7) S(9) S(9) S(9) 456 495 487 536 426 458 473 504 541 499 488 501 531 R 340 374 360 400 319 345 355 124 138 132 125 120 141 F2 population S 116 121 127 136 107 113 118 380 403 367 363 381 390 Ratio 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 1:3 1:3 1:3 1:3 1:3 1:3 2 value 0.046 0.081 0.240 0.038 0.003 0.072 0.001 0.041 0.074 0.561 0.097 0.114 0.682

a Numbers in parentheses are the average plant damage scores based on 10-15 F1 plants, using the 0-9 scoring system (0 = resistant, 9 = susceptible). R = resistant, S = susceptible.

Table 2. Reaction to BPH of F1 and F2 plants obtained from resistant and resistant crosses. Cross F1 reactiona Seedlings (no.) Lal Basant/Budhiya Banko (L:289-I) (B:57-II) Lal Basant/Basangi (L:289-I) (B:2682) Barhi (B:1253-II)/ Budhiya Banko (B:57-II) Barhi (B:1253-I)/ Lal Basant (L:289-I) Barhi (B:1253-II)/ Basangi (B:2682) OR1334-8/TTB148-774-32-1 RP1579-1662-72-52/ RP1976-18-6-4-2 B6932-MR 25-1/CRK 7-2-8 RP1579-1627-32-220/ RP1976-18-6-4-2 Bakada (B:2699-I)/ Barhi (B:1253-I)
a

F2 population R S Ratio 2 value

S(7) S(9) S(9) S(9) S(7) R(1) R(1) R(1) R(0) R(0)

513 461 542 533 540 489 478 545 461 448

235 212 222 245 250 448 478 545 461 448

278 249 320 288 290 41 0 0 0 0

7:9 7:9 7:9 7:9 7:9 15:1 1:0 1:0 1:0 1:0

0.880 1.200 1.710 1.064 1.422 3.790 -

The brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) is a serious pest of rice in several Asian countries.
12 April 1999

Numbers in parentheses are the average plant damage scores based on 10-15 F1 plants using the 0-9 scoring system (0 = resistant, 9 = susceptible). R = resistant, S = susceptible.

CORH2, a new medium-duration rice hybrid

M. Rangaswamy, K. Thiyagarajan, P. Rangasamy, P. Jayamani, A.S. Ponnusamy, R. Latha, and P. Vaidyanathan, Center for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore 641003, Tamil Nadu, India

Table 1. Overall performance of CORH2 compared with ADT39. Trial

Trials no.

Station trials Multilocation trial, 1995 Multilocation trial, 1996 Large-scale demonstration, 1996 Adaptive research trial, 1996 National hybrid rice trial, 1996 Mean

6 6 6 19 47 9 93

Evaluation of rice hybrids in different agroclimatic zones of Andhra Pradesh

R.Vijaya Kumar, P.V. Satyanarayana, M. Subba Rao, and N.S. Reddy, Agricultural Research Station, Maruteru 534122, Andhra Pradesh, India

We evaluated nine experimental rice hybrids of different maturity durations for yield under diverse agroclimatic zones of Andhra Pradesh during the 1993 wet season. Test locations included Palem (southern Telangana zone), Warangal (north Telangana zone), Nandyal (scarce rainfall zone), Ragolu (north coastal zone), Maruteru, and Bapatla (Krishna-Godavari zone).

Rice hybrids were compared with one common check (IR64) and two local checks in a randomized block design with three replications. A 20 10-cm spacing with a plot size of 10 m2 was adopted. Transplanting was done with one to two seedlings hill-1. Data were analyzed and are shown in the table. At Palem, seven hybrids recorded significantly higher grain yield over the

Increasing the yield potential of rice is one of the frontier projects in rice breeding. The development and use of hybrid rice is one approach by which rice productivity can be increased. The Paddy Breeding Station in TNAU, Coimbatore, started research on hybrid rice in 1979 and released the first hybrid, CORH1, in 1994. Another hybrid, CORH2, a medium-duration rice, was released in January 1998 for commercial cultivation. CORH2 was developed by the threeline system using a cytoplasmic genic male sterile (CMS) line, maintainer line, and restorer line (A/B/R). The parents of this hybrid are IR58025A and C20R. CORH2 has a duration of 125 d, grows up to 95 cm, and has high tillering ability (15 productive tillers hill-1). Average grain number is 230 panicle-1 and 1000-grain weight is 24 g. CORH2 has medium grains and white rice kernels. It is suitable for July-October sowing in Tamil Nadu. Its average grain yield is 5.1 t ha-1 in salt-affected soils, which is 23% higher than that of saline-tolerant CO 43 (4.2 t ha-1) and 28% more than TRY1

(4.0 t ha-1). On average, it yields 6.1 t ha-1, which is 20% higher than ADT39 (5.0 t ha-1). Table 1 presents the overall performance of CORH2 under different trials. Its biological yield was 3.8 t ha-1 (6.0 t grains and 7.8 t straw). It had a 20% higher grain yield over ADT39. This hybrid had the highest yield (11.7 t ha-1) in one adaptive research trial in farmers fields. Table 2 shows its quality characteristics. It is moderately susceptible to tungro virus, blast, and whitebacked planthopper under field and controlled conditions.

Table 2. Quality characteristics of hybrid CORH2. Physical characteristics Milling - Endosperm (%) Husk (%) Polishing -White rice (%) Cooking characteristics Cooking time (min) Volume expansion ratio Water absorption ratio Length elongation ratio Breadth elongation ratio Chemical characteristics Moisture (%) Starch (%) Protein (%) 79.9 20.1 71.2 13.14 4.8 3.3 1.9 1.7 12.8 61.2 8.2

Grain yield (t ha-1) CORH2 6.7 5.2 5.0 6.2 7.1 6.2 6.1 ADT39 5.6 4.2 4.2 5.2 6.0 6.1 (Jaya) 5.0

best check IR64 (6.2 t ha-1). The yield advantage of different hybrids ranged from 1.7 to 3.2 t ha-1. At Warangal, hybrids MTU HR 2020 and MTU HR 2002 outyielded the best check (Kavya) by 0.9 and 0.7 t ha-1, respectively. Five hybrids significantly outyielded the best check, BPT 3291, at Nandyal. Four of nine hybrids yielded more than 9 t ha-1 with 1.7 (MTU HR 2015) to 2.5 (MTU HR 2020) t ha-1 higher yields
IRRN 13

Yield performance (t ha-1) of rice hybrids in various agroclimatic zones, 1993 wet season. Southern Telangana (Palem) 7.5 8.2 8.0 6.5 9.4 8.8 8.0 9.1 7.8 6.2 (21)a (33) (30) (6) (52) (42) (30) (48) (27) Northern Telangana (Warangal) 5.3 (-9) 6.6 (12) 5.3 (-10) 4.0 (-31) 6.4 (9) 5.6 (-6) 5.6 (-6) 6.8 (16) 4.3 (-26) 4.8 5.9 5.7 Kavya Divya 1403 15 Scarce rainfall zone (Nandyal) 7.0 8.0 9.7 6.0 9.3 9.3 8.3 10.1 7.1 7.4 7.6 7.3 (-8) (6) (27) (-21) (20) (22) (9) (33) (-7) North coastal (Ragolu) 5.2 4.6 4.6 4.2 6.1 4.9 4.7 5.5 4.7 4.2 4.0 4.2 (26) (10) (10) (1) (46) (15) (12) (31) (11) Krishna-Godavari Mean (Maruteru) 3.4 (-3) 4.1 (14) 3.1 (-12) 3.8 (7) 3.2 (-8) 4.6 (28) 4.0 (12) 3.7 (3) 3.0 (-13) 3.6 2.8 3.5 Swarna MTU 9992 NS 20 (Bapatla) 3.3 5.1 4.4 3.3 4.0 5.6 4.6 4.6 3.5 3.8 4.5 3.9 (-27) (13) (-4) (-28) (-13) (25) (1) (2) (-23) 5.3 6.1 5.8 4.7 6.4 6.4 5.9 6.6 5.1 5.0 5.0 4.9 (6) (23) (17) (-7) (28) (29) (18) (33) (2)

Cultivar

Parentage

Flowering duration (d) 88 92 91 75 88 102 103 106 84 81 107 105

MTU HR 2001 MTU HR 2002 MTU HR 2003 MTU HR 2006 MTU HR 2008 MTU HR 2015 MTU HR 2018 MTU HR 2020 MTU HR 2021 Common check Local check 1 Local check 2

IR62829A/Vajram R IR58025A/Swarna R IR58025A/Vajram R IR62829A/WGL 3962 R IR62829A/MTU 9992 R PMS3A/Swarna R PMS10A/BPT 5204 R PMS3A/IET9762 R IR62829A/BR-4-34-13-5 IR64 Local check 1 Local check 2 LSD at 5% CV (%)

1510 12

BPT 3291 MTU 7014 846 14

RGL 2624 Vamsi 540 6

BPT 6868 Prabnhath 340 11

Numbers in parentheses indicate % increase/decrease over the best check variety.

over the best check, BPT 3291 (7.6 t ha-1). At Ragolu, four rice hybrids recorded significantly higher yield over the best check (4.2 t ha-1). At Maruteru, hybrid MTU HR 2015 outyielded the best check by 1.0 t ha-1 (27%). MTU HR 2015 and MTU HR 2002 significantly outyielded the best check (4.5 t ha-1) at Bapatla. The mean performance of rice hybrids over locations (see table and figure) showed that four hybridsMTU HR 2020, MTU HR 2015, MTU HR 2008, and MTU HR 2002yielded more than 1.0 t ha-1 over the best check (5.0 t ha-1). Heterotic rice hybrids have been identified for the southern Telangana zone (MTU HR 2001, 2002, 2003, 2008, 2015, 2018, 2020, and 2021), scarce rainfall zone (MTU HR 2003, 2008, 2015, and 2020), north coastal zone (MTU HR 2001, 2008, and 2020), and Krishna-Godavari zone (MTU HR 2015). These results indicated the possibility of increasing rice productivity through cultivation of rice hybrids in Andhra Pradesh, India.

Rice hybrids
2001 2002 2003 2006 2008 2015 2018 2020 2021 IR64 LC1 LC2

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Mean yield (t ha-1)

LC - Local check
Performance of rice hybrids in multilocation testing, 1993 wet season.

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Rice productivity can be increased through cultivation of rice hybrids.

14 April 1999

Birsa Dhan 107, a high-yielding and early maturing variety for the upland regions of Bihar, India
M.P. Singh and D.N. Singh, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi 834006, Bihar, India

Table 1. Yield performance of Birsa Dhan 107 in station trials conducted for 3 yr at Kanke Center. Yield (t ha-1) Entry Birsa Dhan 107a Birsa Dhan 101 (check) Birsa Gora 102 (local check)
a

1988-89 18.1 1.6 2.4

1989-90 4.2 3.8 2.9

1993-94 0.9 0.8 1.3

Av 2.7 2.1 2.2

IET12503.

Table 2. Performance of Birsa Dhan 107 in the All-India Coordinated Trials conducted through the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, 1990-93. Yield (t ha-1) Entry Birsa Dhan 107 Heeraa Satharia Adityaa Birsa Gora 102 (local check)
a

1990-91 3.8 3.0 3.3

1991-92 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.8

1992-93 1.8 1.5 1.9 2.0

Av 2.4 1.5 2.2 1.9 2.4

National check.

Jaldi Dhan 8, an improved and potential source of wide compatibility for hybrid rice breeding
S. Kumar and S.N. Chakrabarti, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi 110012, India

Exploitation of wide compatibility (WC) gene(s) is an effective approach to overcome sterility barriers among indica/ japonica crosses. The materials studied included four early improved japonica and seven indica lines including two WC varietiesDular and Nagina 22 (N22), accessions collected from the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack, India. Two improved lines, Jaldi Dhan 6 (JD6) and JD8,

were derived from a cross between the induced mutant of Dular and N22. The crossing program between indica and japonica lines was undertaken in the 1995 dry season at CRRI, Cuttack. Four F1s, developed with JD8 as common parents, were also studied in the 1996 wet season. Mean and range values for spikelet fertility of 26 cross combinations showed

a high degree of spikelet fertility in F1 with N22, Dular, and JD8 when it is used as a parent. All parental lines except Heera had more than 80% spikelet fertility (see table). Cross combinations with fertility below 75% were considered partially sterile. Confirmatory tests in the 1996 wet season at IARI showed an average spikelet fertility ranging from 78% to 83% in F1s involving crosses of JD8 with two japonica lines,
IRRN 15

Birsa Dhan 107 (IET12503), a pedigree selection from mutant Gora (G) IAC25 from the Rice Research Scheme of BAU, was released by the Bihar State Variety Release Committee in 1995 and by the Central Variety Release Committee in 1996 for general cultivation in the uplands of Chotanagpur and the Santhal Parganas region of Bihar. It is a semidwarf variety with compact and long panicles but short bold grains with white kernel. It matures in 9095 d. The variety is resistant to blast and bacterial blight but is moderately resistant to Helminthosporium under field conditions. It also tolerates drought under field conditions. As a direct-seeded kharif crop, Birsa Dhan 107 continuously outyielded Birsa Dhan 101 (check) and Birsa Gora 102 (local check) in station trials for 3 yr (Table 1). Birsa Dhan 107 was also tested in the All-India Coordinated Trial and found superior in yield compared with national checks Heera, Sathari, and Aditya (Table 2).

Birsa Dhan 107 does not lodge or shatter and is highly responsive to fertilizers. It is suitable for direct seeding and is the most promising elite variety for culti-

vation in the upland plateau region of Bihar. It is also suitable for transplanted conditions in medium-elevation lands.

Range and mean values of spikelet fertility in parents and F1s (indica/ japonica), 1995 wet season. Fertility (%)
Parent/F1

Range 73.1 - 89.7 83.7 - 95.2 91.3 - 98.1 77.7 - 98.0 95.3 - 97.8 81.1 - 93.3 77.8 - 95.4 56.4 - 86.6 87.5 - 96.0 91.1 - 97.0 89.2-100.0 63.0 - 71.5 55.0 - 69.8 73.1 - 81.9 61.1 - 70.1 47.6 - 65.7 81.9 - 90.5 80.6 - 90.1 40.4 - 70.4 22.2 - 57.3 74.1 - 81.3 48.0 - 55.0 37.4 - 66.3 83.2 - 93.1 64.2 - 89.7 52.5 - 67.6 69.9 - 78.3 47.1 - 62.0 80.4 - 96.9 78.6 - 90.8 48.7 - 65.2 38.8 - 48.2 74.0 - 82.0 45.3 - 51.4 35.2 - 49.5 83.5 - 94.6 80.0 - 90.5

Mean + SE 85.7 + 2.9 88.3 + 1.8 95.7 + 1.2 92.1 + 3.7 86.7 + 0.4 87.2 + 2.1 88.8 + 3.0 73.8 + 5.1 92.8 + 1.4 95.0 + 1.0 93.5 + 2.0 68.6 + 1.8 61.3 + 2.6 78.2 + 3.5 66.1 + 1.8 52.8 + 3.5 83.6 + 2.4 86.0 + 1.7 57.2 + 5.4 43.1 + 6.7 77.7 + 1.3 56.0 + 3.9 47.2 + 5.4 87.8 + 1.9 74.0 + 4.9 59.4 + 2.9 74.1 + 1.7 54.6 + 2.6 90.0 + 2.9 83.4 + 2.4 56.0 + 2.8 42.3 + 1.8 78.3 + 1.6 47.7 + 1.2 41.7 + 2.4 90.7 + 1.9 83.8 + 2.0

Evaluation of EMC models for fitting sorption isotherms for rough rice, brown rice, and milled rice
L. Nayak and J.P. Pandey, Department of Process and Food Engineering, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263145, India

Parents Kagalikai Fukumishi Siam 2 Toride JD5 JD6 JD8 Heera PNR 381 Dular N22 F1s Kagalikai/JD5 Kagalikai/JD6 Kagalikai/JD8 Kagalikai/Heera Kagalikai/PNR381 Kagalikai/Dular Kagalikai/N22 Fukumishi/JD5 Fukumishi/JD6 Fukumishi/JD8a Fukumishi/Heera Fukumishi/PNR381 Fukumishi/Dular Fukumishi/N22 Siam 2/JD5 Siam 2/JD6 Siam 2/JD8 Siam 2/Heera Siam 2/PNR381 Siam 2/Dular Siam 2/N22 Toride/JD5 Toride/JD6 Toride/JD8a Toride/Heera Toride/PNR381 Toride/Dular Toride/N22
a

Observations from 1996 wet season.

Studies were conducted to apply equilibrium moisture content (EMC) models to sorption data of rough rice, brown rice, and milled rice (3.8%, 6.6%, and 10.3% degree of polish) of hybrid variety Pant Sankar Dhan 1. Experiments were planned using three temperature levels (20, 30, and 40 C) and seven water activity levels ranging from 0.112 to 0.962. The static desiccator method was used to obtain sorption data. Values obtained were plotted against respective relative humidities to get sorption isotherms. One 3-parameter and five 2-parameter EMC models were tested for their sustainability in predicting EMC. The actual and linearized models are shown below. Statistical parameters such as coefficient of determination (Re), standard error (SE2), root mean square deviation (s), and mean relative percentage deviation (p) were computed to compare the ability of selected models to fit experimental sorption data. Bradleys equation fitted the data of all samples in the water activity range of 0.30-0.80, both in adsorption and desorption processes for all selected temperature ranges.

EMC model Bradley Oswin Smith Halsey Henderson GAB

Actual form 1n (1/aw) = A x BMe Me = A x (aw/1-aw)B Me = A - B x 1n(1- aw) Me = -(A/T x 1n(aw))1/B Me = (-1/A x T x 1n(1- aw))1/B m/mo = (C1Kaw)/(1-Kaw)(1- K aw + Cl K aw)

Linear form 1n (1n(1/aw)) = 1n(A) + Me x 1n(B) 1n (Me) = 1n(A) + Bln (aw/1 - aw) Me = A - B1n (1- aw) 1n(-1n(aw)) = 1n(A/T) - B x 1n(Me) 1n(-1n(1-aw)) = 1n(A x T) + B1n(Me) (aw/1-aw) x 1/Me = 1 + A aw + B(aw)2

Me = equilibrium moisture content, % (d.b.), mo = monolayer moisture content, aw = water activity, T = temperature; A, B, C, and K are constants.

16 April 1999

Toride and Siam 2. The spikelet fertility range indicated the presence of WC gene(s) in JD8. The performance of JD8 was comparable with that of the two WC varieties, Dular and N22. JD8 has an advantage over traditional N22 or Dular because of its earliness and improved plant type. Studies at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, indicated that JD8 is a probable maintainer of cytoplasmic male sterile lines with wide abortiveness and has potential use in hybrid rice breeding involving tropical japonica restorers.

For rough rice, Oswins equation failed to explain the sorption data below the water activity level of 0.30 and above 0.75 at all temperature ranges. The model also failed to fit the data of brown rice and milled rice at high temperatures. Like Bradleys equation, Smiths equation failed to explain sorption data of samples in lower and higher water activity levels. For both rough rice and brown rice, the residual value of EMC was maximum at water activity levels of 0.112 and above 0.633, respectively. Hence, for rough rice and brown rice, the best zone in which Smiths equation fits is the 0.33-0.633 level. For milled rice with 3.8%, 6.6%, and 10.3% degree of polish, Smiths equation showed a poor fit. Of the five 2-parameter models applied to the experimental data, Hendersons model gave the best fit to the experimental dataits p, s, and SE2 values were comparatively smaller than the others, and R2 was the highest (Table 1). Among the one 3-parameter and five 2-parameter models tested, the p value calculated for GABs equation was the lowest (below 5) and the R2 value was greater than 99% (Table 2). On the basis of lowest p and highest R2, this equation best fitted all samples in the experiment.

Table 1. Statistical parameters computed for Hendersons equation.a Temperature (oC) Rough rice 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) Brown rice 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 3.8% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 6.6% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 10.3% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption)
a e

Table 2. Statistical parameters computed for GABs equation.a Temperature (oC) Rough rice 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) Brown rice 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 3.8% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 6.6% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) 10.3% milled 20 (adsorption) 20 (desorption) 30 (adsorption) 30 (desorption) 40 (adsorption) 40 (desorption) Re SE2 p s

Re

SE2

0.9979 0.9948 0.9977 0.9977 0.9899 0.9953 0.9994 0.9960 0.9859 0.9776 0.9900 0.9902 0.9972 0.9998 0.9968 0.9970 0.9991 0.9979 0.9996 0.9923 0.9877 0.9835 0.9958 0.9952 0.9892 0.9817 0.9819 0.9752 0.9851 0.9973

0.0237 0.0331 0.0250 0.0251 0.0558 0.0352 0.0093 0.0251 0.0508 0.0598 0.0454 0.0427 0.0235 0.0050 0.0255 0.0228 0.0131 0.0198 0.0081 0.0338 0.0549 0.0552 0.0320 0.0294 0.0429 0.0497 0.0645 0.0637 0.0622 0.0221

4.9641 5.7493 5.2291 5.2715 7.6946 5.9828 3.1245 5.2788 7.8132 8.5309 6.8859 6.6738 5.0352 2.4068 5.5695 5.4673 3.8546 4.7039 3.0446 5.7109 7.4310 7.6346 5.8086 5.5697 6.9858 7.5638 9.1193 8.6034 7.6785 5.7347

0.4095 0.4783 0.3010 0.2357 0.8303 0.5682 0.1305 0.3315 0.5572 0.7026 0.7269 0.6718 0.3737 0.0850 0.3177 0.3104 0.2079 0.3077 0.1335 0.4279 0.9935 0.9665 0.4939 0.4641 0.4655 0.6273 0.7998 0.8722 0.6956 1.0400

0.9936 0.9990 0.9936 0.9984 0.9885 0.9917 0.9980 0.9978 0.9972 0.9952 0.9971 0.9988 0.9986 0.9989 0.9953 0.9963 0.9995 0.9977 0.9975 0.9963 0.9938 0.9998 0.9997 0.9977 0.9961 0.9976 0.9940 0.9934 0.9889 0.9977

0.0006 0.0003 0.0008 0.0003 0.0009 0.0008 0.0004 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0005 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0007 0.0006 0.0002 0.0004 0.0004 0.0006 0.0007 0.0003 0.0004 0.0004 0.0007 0.0005 0.0008 0.0008 0.0009 0.0004

3.9883 2.9043 4.7826 3.5050 4.3692 4.7374 3.6122 3.9362 4.5757 5.4132 3.9738 3.4296 3.2353 3.3169 4.6853 4.6299 2.3235 3.1643 3.8472 4.9695 4.3361 2.9866 3.4870 2.5486 5.1185 4.8273 4.8769 5.6662 5.4052 8.1920

0.2612 0.1165 0.2228 0.1175 0.3356 0.3099 0.1939 0.2375 0.2252 0.3315 0.2139 0.1473 0.1382 0.1758 0.2709 0.2771 0.0840 0.2108 0.2250 0.3102 0.2854 0.1748 0.1818 0.0908 0.2481 0.2713 0.2995 0.4186 0.3466 0.9818

R = coefficient of determination, SE2 = standard error, p = mean relative percentage deviation, and s = root mean square deviation.

Partitioning of high-density grains and its implication in a rice selection program

R. Govindarasu, K. Manian, N. Ramamoorthi, and A. Mohamed Hanifa, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal 609603, India

One approach to break the yield barrier in irrigated rice yields is to increase the number of high-density (HD) grains panicle-1. Previous work reveals that yield potential can be raised by 30% with more HD grains panicle-1. HD grains are fully filled grains with a specific gravity of 1.20 and above. Grain filling is generally superior in primary branches compared with secondary branches in the panicle. Therefore, HD

grains panicle -1(HDGP) must be partitioned into its components: number of primary branches (PB) panicle-1, number of secondary branches (SB) panicle-1, number of HD grains on primary branches (HDGPB), number of HD grains on secondary branches (HDGSB), HD grain index on primary branches (HDIPB), HD grain index on secondary branches (HDISB), and HD grain index panicle-1

(HDIP). These traits should be related to the end product, grain yield panicle-1 (GYP). We studied the components of HD grains in five short-duration rice varieties in an experiment conducted during 1997 kharif in a randomized block design with five replications. Twenty-five-day-old seedlings of each variety were planted in a 5 4-m2 plot and at a spacing of 15 10 cm.
IRRN 17

At maturity, 25 random panicles of the main tillers in each variety in each replication were selected for HD grains and their component characters. HD grains were separated by soaking the grains in salt solution with a specific gravity of 1.20. The HD grain index was calculated as a ratio of the number of HD grains to the number of spikelets and expressed in %. The highest values for GYP, HDGP, and HDIP were noted in KAU-MO-1-80 (see table). TKM 9, which had relatively higher

HDGP and HDIP, had lower GYP because of lesser grain weight. MO 7 and MO 8, which had lesser HDIP, had higher GYP because of more HDGP. In general, HDISB was lower than HDIPB; this was more pronounced in varieties MO 7, MO 8, and MO 9, which had lower HDIP. These results revealed that HDIP, which was mostly decided by HDISB and HDGPB, could be increased by higher HDGSB. Thus, the possibility of enhancing yield potential exists in MO 7, MO 8, and MO 9.

A wider variation was noted for secondary branches as well as HDGSB than for primary branches and HDGPB. GYP was strongly and positively correlated with HDGP, secondary branches, and HDGSB. In turn, HDGP had a strong positive correlation with HDGSB and secondary branches. The study suggests that to increase the number of HD grains panicle-1 (and thereby yield level), plants with more secondary branches panicle-1 and more HD grains on these branches should be selected.

High-density (HD) grain and its component characters in five rice varieties, 1997 kharif, Karaikal, India. Charactera MO 7 MO 8 MO 9 KAUMO-1-80 11.80 33.40 66.65 81.65 92.53 81.05 88.83 148.30 3.86 TKM 9 Mean CD (5%) rb with HDGP 0.28 0.77** 0.64** 0.98** 0.58** 0.64** 0.62** -0.87** -r with GYP 0.62** 0.87** 0.77** 0.84** 0.32** 0.32 0.28

PB SB HDGPB HDGSB HDIPB HDISB HDIP HDGP GYP

a

11.90 23.75 53.38 48.15 80.35 65.45 72.20 101.53 3.34

12.05 31.90 51.80 64.85 74.23 54.25 62.05 116.65 3.53

10.70 19.15 47.85 27.55 73.40 46.05 60.05 75.40 2.24

8.45 22.80 50.40 61.15 88.90 86.17 86.20 111.55 2.71

10.98 26.20 54.02 56.67 81.88 66.60 73.86 110.68 3.13

0.89 5.63 7.08 10.22 8.48 10.35 10.32 14.35 0.22

PB = number of primary branches panicle-1, SB = number of secondary branches panicle-1, HDGPB = number of HD grains on PB, HDGSB = number of HD grains on SB, HDIPB = HD grain index on PB, HDISB = HD grain index on SB, HDIP = HD grain index panicle-1, HDGP = HD grains panicle-1, and GYP = grain yield panicle-1. b r = simple correlation coefficient. **Significant at P = 0.01.

KDML 105, an alternative aromatic rice for the semideepwater ecosystem

N.K. Sarma, L. Salkla, P. Salkla, R. Borgohain, Regional Agricultural Research Station, North Lakhimpur; H.N. Gogol, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat; and W. Palaklang, IRRI-Thailand

About 77% of ricelands in Assam are annually submerged for 2-10 d or more due to rain and flood in the wet season. The predominant winter rice (Sali) is often inundated from 50 to 200 cm, resulting in extensive damage to the crop. The semideepwater rice grown in the lower regions can tolerate submergence, but the yield and cooking qualities of the kernels are lower than those of Mahsuri. Mahsuri is a popular winter rice. Joha, a group of wet-season rice varieties grown on upland

to medium land, which cannot withstand submergence, is well-known for its strong aroma, superfine grain, and excellent cooking quality. But Johas productivity is only 2-3 t ha-1. We introduced KDML 105, a native, aromatic semideepwater rice of Thailand, in Assam during 1995 from an international germplasm exchange program of IRRI. KDML stands for Khao Dawk Mali in Thai, meaning Jasmine white kernel. KDML 105 can withstand 50-80 cm submergence,

stands erect until maturity, flowers by the end of October, and can be grown as direct-seeded semideepwater rice or as wetseason winter rice in Assam. Table 1 shows the yields of KDML 105 from 1995 to 1997 over 14 locations in five districts of Assam. KDML 105 had a pooled average mean yield of 4.2 t ha-1 over years and locations, with 33% more yield than local semideepwater variety Panikekoa, and 51% more than the best Joha varietyKolajoha.

18 April 1999

In 1993, KDML 105 was tested under the 16th International Rainfed Lowland Rice Observational Nursery of INGER as accession no. ET23263 (IRRI, Philippines). KDML 105 is photoperiod-sensitive and may be harvested with other winter rice varieties. It has been recommended for cultivation in semideepwater ecosystems in the North Bank Plain Zone of Assam in 1998. KDML 105 exhibited moderate tolerance for major rice diseases. The incidence of rice stem borers and rice hispa in KDML 105 was more than that in Kolajoha and Panikekoa (14.4% stem and 4.6% leaf damage by stem borers and hispa, respectively). Under 8 mo of storage, KDML 105 exhibited 11% damage in grains due to rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae. Kernel softness and aroma may have attracted the insects in storage. KDML 105 has slender grains of 9.8 2.8-mm dimensions and a 1000-grain weight of 25.3 g (Table 2). The kernels are soft and off-white and have a strong aroma. In an organoleptic test, 80% of a panel thought that KDML 105 was equivalent to the best Joha variety of Assam, 30% thought it was superior to Joha, and 35% said it was equivalent to Mahsuri. Cooked KDML 105 is sticky and 75% thought that the variety is unique and excellent for rice dishes such as polao, kheer, and frumenty. KDML 105 is fast expanding in the semideepwater ecosystem as scented winter rice in Assam.

Table 1. Yield of KDML 105, Kolajoha, and Panikekoa in Assam, India, 1995-97. Year Location District KDML 105 1995 Garumuria Gharmora 1996 Garumuria 1 Garumuria 2 Garumuria 3 Gharmora Kuwari-Pukhuri Borigaon 1997 Dhemaji Dhakuakhana Garumuria Gohpur Mangaldol Gharmora Pooled av Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Jorhat Jorhat Dhemaji Lakhimpur Lakhimpur Sonitpur Darrang Lakhimpur 3.4 6.0 3.0 4.4 1.9 3.5 5.4 5.8 4.4 4.8 2.8 5.4 2.0 5.2 4.2 Yield (t ha-1) Kolajoha 2.4 3.0 2.2 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.8 Panikekoa 1.8 2.8 2.5 0.9 4.3 4.0 2.4 6.0 3.2 3.1

Table 2. Characteristics of KDML 105, Assam, 1997. Characteristic Plant Type Height (cm) Photosensitivity Flowering time Duration Direct-sown Transplanted Panicle Type Length (cm) Grains panicle-1 (no.) Sterility (%) Grains Length (mm) Breadth (mm) L/B Test weight (g, 1000 seeds-1) Yield (t ha-1) Direct-seeded Transplanted Remarks Tall, nonlodging, semideepwater 147.0 Photoperiod-sensitive Late October March-December June-December Compact 24.7 180.6 17.2 9.8 2.8 3.6 25.3 1.9-3.5 3.0-6.0

Sudhir, a progeny of FR13A

S. Mallik, B.K. Mandal, C. Kundu, S.D. Chatterjee, and S.N. Sen, Rice Research Station (RRS), Chinsurah 712102, West Bengal, India

FR13A was identified as an excellent source of submergence tolerance (HilleRisLambers et al 1986). It has been used by many breeders for transferring

submergence tolerance gene(s) into modern varieties. Sudhir is perhaps the first variety that used FR13A as a parent; it was developed from the cross FR13A/Biraj at

the RRS in 1981. The male parent, Biraj, an X-ray mutant of OC 1393 released in 1982, has very good regeneration capacity, good grain quality, tolerance for
IRRN 19

drought at the reproductive stage, and soft straw, which is preferred for cattle feed. The All-India Rice Workshop in 1994 recommended Sudhir for the semideep water (40-70 cm) areas of West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh based on its performance in national trials (Table 1). Accordingly, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) approved and recommended the variety for release in 1996. Sudhir (CN718-8-21-10) was first nominated to the national trial in 1989 as IET10543. In 1990, it ranked first at Pusa, second at Ghagraghat, and third in overall mean (2.6 t ha-1) in seven locations. The following year, the variety ranked third at Ghagraghat and fifth in overall mean (2.3 t ha-1) over 11 locations. In 1992, it ranked second both at Faizabad and in overall mean over 11 locations with 3.6 t ha-1 yield. Sudhir ranked first at Ghagraghat during 1993. The variety had 21%, 25%, 29%, and 40% higher yield than Rajashree, Sabita, Tilakkachari, and Utkal Prabha when tested over 8, 22, 7, and 17 locations, respectively (Table 1). Sudhir has higher head rice recovery and better tolerance for diseases and pests than national check Sabita (Table 2). Some 6.5 quintals (650 kg) of seeds have already been distributed to 130 farmers through the Central Sector Minikit (5-kg kit) program of ICAR during 1996-98 to determine farmers reactions. Most farmers have accepted the variety. Reference
HilleRisLambers D, Gomosta AR, Kupkanchanakul T. 1986. Screening for submergence tolerance. In: Progress in rainfed lowland rice. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. p 177-190.

Table 1. Performance of Sudhir (CN718-8-21-10) in different trials, 1989-96. Year Trial Site Sudhir Eastern India Rainfed Lowland shuttle breeding CRRI, Cuttack 3.7 1996 G x Ea Masodha, UP 3.5 Patna, Bihar 4.9 Titabar, Assam 3.9 1995 G x E CRRI, Cuttack 3.8 Patna, Bihar 3.3 Pusa, Bihar 3.3 Ranital, Orissa 2.5 Titabar, Assam 2.8 National Trial for Rainfed Lowland (semideepwater) Utkal Prabha 1993 AVT-SDWc Karimganj, Assam 3.7 Faizabad, UP 3.4 Patna, Bihar 3.3 Chinsurah, WB 2.6 Ghagraghat, UP 2.4 1992 AVT-SDW Karimganj, Assam 3.8 Faizabad, UP 4.1 Ghagraghat, UP 2.0 Sabour, Bihar 2.5 1991 AVT-SDW Chinsurah, WB 3.8 Canning, WB 2.6 Ghagraghat, UP 2.9 Ranital, Orissa 3.0 Tilakkachari 2.5 1990 IVT-SDWd Pusa, Bihar Sabour, Bihar 3.7 Ghagraghat, UP 2.4 Chinsurah, WB 2.3 Sabour, Bihar 4.1 1989 PVT-5e Chinsurah, WB 2.4 Ghagraghat, UP 2.5 Yield (t ha-1) Rajashree 3.1 2.8 4.6 1.9 2.5 2.6 3.5 NAb 2.5 3.7 2.3 2.3 1.6 1.2 3.5 2.0 1.2 2.3 2.3 2.1 1.3 1.8 2.2 3.2 1.2 1.8 NA NA NA Sabita 2.8 2.8 4.6 2.4 3.8 2.5 1.4 2.2 2.6 3.4 1.9 2.7 1.8 2.0 3.5 2.4 1.5 2.5 3.3 2.2 2.1 2.4 1.4 3.7 0.4 0.8 3.8 3.0 1.5 CD (0.05) 0.8 0.4 1.4 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.7 NA 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.7 0.4 1.2 1.1 1.2 Maximum water depth (cm) Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 Below 50 NA NA NA 75 55 NA NA NA NA 65 NA NA NA 50 NA NA 50 60 50 60

a Genotype x environment interaction. bNot available. cAVT-SDW = advanced variety trial-semideepwater. dIVT-SDW = initial variety trial-semideep water. ePVT = preliminary variety trial-5; UP = Uttar Pradesh, WB = West Bengal.

Table 2. Characteristics of Sudhir and check Sabita. Character Plant height (cm) Duration to 50% flowering (d) Tillers m-2 (no.) Panicle length (cm) Weight (g) Grain length (mm) Grain width (mm) Grain L/W Kernel length (mm) Kernel breadth (mm) Kernel L/B Kernel shape Hulling (%) Milling (%) Head rice (%) Alkali value Amylose content (%) Tolerance Moderate tolerance Av yield (t ha-1) Potential yield (t ha-1) Harvest index
a b

Sudhir 150 120 170 30 27.8 10.1 2.7 3.7 6.8 2.1 3.2 Long slender 77.6 69.5 65.6 6.7 27.4 RTD,Bl,ShR,GLH,LF,GBa BB,SBb 3.1 (29)c 5.2 0.4

Sabita 160 120, Photoperiod-sensitive 175 26 31.9 10.9 2.9 3.7 7.3 2.2 3.3 Long slender 77.5 66.4 39.4 6.0 30.6 Bl ShB, SB 2.5 (250)c 6.2 0.4

Sudhir, a progeny of FR13A, has higher head rice recovery and better tolerance for diseases and pests than the national check.

RTD = rice tungro disease, Bl = blast, ShR = sheath rot, GLH = green leafhopper, LF = leaffolder, and GB = gandhi bug. BB = bacterial blight, SB = stem borer, and ShB = sheath blight. cNumbers in parentheses indicate number of locations tested.

20 April 1999

Genetic variability in leaf area and chlorophyll content of aromatic rice

U.K. Bansal, R.G. Saini, and A. Kaur, Department of Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana 141004, India

Leaf area, chlorophyll content, and aroma of different rice varieties compared with the nonaromatic check. Leaf area plant-1 (cm2) 1627.2 1666.0 1275.5 966.6 2109.8 1969.5 976.8 1614.5 2317.8 2236.3 1454.8 2822.6 1431.9 2631.3 1874.2 1384.3 1944.4 3281.8 2176.0 2525.3 1486.5 1795.6 2159.5 2718.2 722.4 2752.9 1651.9 1273.2 242.7 Total chlorophyll (mg g-1) 1.44 1.44 1.73 2.11 2.12 2.27 2.42 2.43 2.46 2.52 2.54 2.54 2.56 2.60 2.63 2.77 2.81 2.85 2.86 2.92 2.93 2.95 3.14 3.18 3.26 3.28 3.37 2.05 0.39 Chlorophyll a (mg g-1)a 1.01 0.99 1.16 1.46 1.46 1.47 1.77 1.67 1.70 1.82 1.74 1.74 1.71 1.62 1.81 1.89 1.78 1.95 1.96 2.07 2.06 2.08 2.14 2.15 2.09 2.26 2.26 1.41 0.13 Chloro- Aromab phyll b (mg g-1)a 0.41 0.44 0.56 0.63 0.65 0.78 0.66 0.74 0.74 0.67 0.77 0.77 0.88 0.99 0.80 0.88 1.00 0.87 0.87 0.82 0.84 0.84 0.97 1.00 1.14 0.98 1.07 0.62 0.07 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 0

Stock

Basmati 372B NIRRI 750 Dwarf Basmati Begami Basmati 1 Ghanal HKR 239 C1 Basmati S4 IET2686 Basmati 370 Major Djambon Xiang geng deo Pak Basmati Basmati 1A Azucena SC747 Bindli semidwarf mutant C463 Du thom thai bin hai phong Dehradun Basmati Basmati 372A T3 Dawag Guinata Basmati 405 Domsiah IET8585 (nonaromatic check) LSD
a

mg g-1 = mg of chlorophyll content g-1 of leaf sample. bRated using a scale of 0-2, where 0 = no aroma, 1 = mild aroma, and 3 = strong aroma.

IRRN

21

Commonly grown varieties of aromatic rice are poor yielders compared with nonaromatic dwarf varieties. To improve their yields, the incorporation of superior and physiologically efficient rice genotypes with stable high-quality grain production under local environments is necessary. Differences in canopy color and appearance of aromatic rice are conspicuous and reflect variation in chlorophyll content and leaf area, two important traits that might affect sink development in crop plants. This study reports on variation in leaf area and chlorophyll content of some aromatic landraces. We grew 26 aromatic rice varieties and a nonaromatic high-yielding cultivar, IET8585, in a randomized block design with three replications in 2-m-long paired rows in PAU fields in 1996 kharif. A rowto-row distance of 30 cm and plant-to-plant distance of 10 cm were maintained. Standard agronomic practices were followed. Leaf area (cm2) and chlorophyll content were recorded for each entry at mid-anthesis stage. Actual leaf area was recorded using a portable leaf area meter (LI-COR, Model LI-3000A). Chlorophyll content was estimated following the method of Anderson and Boardman (1964): 100 mg of fresh leaf sample was crushed in 5 mL of 80% acetone and the extract was centrifuged for 10 min at 1000 rpm. Absorbency of supernatant was recorded at 645 and 663 nm in a CL-24 spectrophotometer. Chlorophyll content (expressed as mg g-1 of a sample) was estimated as follows: Chlorophyll a: [12.7 (A663) - 2.69 (A645)] V/1000 W Chlorophyll b: [22.9 (A645) - 4.86 (A663)] V/1000 W Total chlorophyll: [20.2 (A645) + 8.02 (A663)] V/1000 W Aroma was determined using Siddiqs method (1991). The nonaromatic stocks, stocks with mild aroma, and those

with strong aroma were given scores of 0, 1, and 2, respectively. The analysis of variance indicated that differences between stocks were significant for leaf area, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content. The table shows values for these traits along with aroma. Leaf area ranged from 722.4 cm2 in Guinata to 3281.8 cm2 in Bindli semidwarf mutant. Leaf area was greater in landraces than in cultivated varieties, indicating higher vegetative growth in

landraces. Total chlorophyll content ranged from 1.44 to 3.37 mg g-1 of fresh leaf sample. Chlorophyll a ranged from 0.99 to 2.26 mg g-1 and chlorophyll b from 0.41 to 1.14 mg g-1. Chlorophyll content was independent of aroma. Results indicated variability for all three traits that are important for the improvement of aromatic rice. High chlorophyll content associated with upright foliage and delayed senescence is a useful trait that may favor high yield.

Pest science and management

Nematode resistance of IRRI breeding lines in Assam, India

N.K. Sarma, D. Das, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS); S.A. Hussain, Haji Abdul Majid Memorial Hospital and Research Center; B. Barman, District Agricultural Office, Assam, India; and D. Senadhira*, IRRI

The deepwater rice area in eastern India is about 10% of wet-season rice. During the last 20 yr, deepwater rice farmers in the area have experienced increased incidence of ufra disease, caused by the rice stem nematode Ditylenchus angustus. The nematode perpetuates in floodwater and has spread rapidlysometimes leaving no panicle to harvest. Several phytosanitary measures such as stubble burning, deep plowing, alternate field drying, delayed sowing, crop rotation, and chemical application have been recommended. These

methods have not been fully adopted, however, because of water problems and socioeconomic reasons. Under such situations, water control and use of resistant varieties appear efficient. We evaluated 19 advanced D. angustus-resistant breeding lines of IRRIBangladesh origin for their reaction to D. angustus, plant height, and yield in North Lakhimpur during 1995-97 (Tables 1 and 2). Agronomic evaluation for plant height and grain yield per hectare was done in a D. angustus-free area in 10 2-m plots

with 25 25-cm spacing. Ufra incidence was tested in a high-disease-pressure area with additional inoculum 1 mo after transplanting. Laboratory tests were conducted to determine nematode population in the first internode of the stem as well as in the whole plant to confirm the presence of D. angustus. Ufra incidence was calculated from the ratio of number of panicles infested to total number of panicles, expressed in percentage. The percentage value was transformed to an arc sine value for statistical analysis.

Table 1. Incidence of ufra in panicles of D. angustus-resistant breeding lines, Assam, 1995-97. Panicles affected by ufraa (%) Line 1995 IR63142-J6-B-1-1 IR63142-J8-B-2-1 IR63142-J8-B-2-2 IR63153-J9-B-1-1 IR63188-J8-B-1-1 IR63188-J8-B-7-1 IR63188-J8-B-7-2 IR63225-J2-B-1-1 IR63225-J2-B-4-1 IR63225-J2-B-4-2 IR63225-J2-B-6-1 IR63225-J2-B-6-2 IR63645-J3-B-9-1 IR63174-J1-B-3-1 IR63174-J1-B-3-2 IR63174-J1-B-2-3 IR63174-J1-B-4-3 IR63174-J1-B-6-3 IR63174-J3-B-1-2 Rangabao (susceptible check) Rayada B3 (resistant check) Mean Intervarietal differences LSD( 0.05)
a

1996 6.2 4.4 6.0 5.6 7.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 4.8 5.2 9.6 6.2 4.6 9.2 8.6 10.2 6.6 8.2 7.6 81.8 15.2 (14.4) (12.1) (14.2) (13.7) (15.6) (14.4) (13.9) (13.9) (12.7) (13.2) (18.0) (14.4) (12.4) (17.7) (17.0) (18.6) (14.9) (16.6) (16.0) (64.8) (23.0) (17.7) HS (7.13) 7.5 3.6 5.7 7.3 11.2 10.1 9.6 6.7 8.3 10.5 10.1 6.6 11.3 12.1 15.4 13.2 5.4 13.2 11.5 79.7 14.5

1997 (15.9) (10.9) (13.8) (15.7) (19.6) (18.5) (18.0) (15.0) (16.7) (18.9) (18.5) (14.9) (19.6) (20.4) (23.1) (21.3) (13.4) (21.3) (19.8) (63.2) (22.4) (20.0) HS (6.69)

Av 6.3 4.2 6.5 6.4 9.2 7.9 7.3 5.9 5.7 8.4 9.9 6.7 7.1 10.9 12.1 12.5 6.5 10.5 9.2 80.6 18.7

5.3 4.6 7.7 6.3 9.2 7.4 6.6 5.2 4.1 9.5 10.1 7.2 5.5 11.5 12.3 14.2 7.5 10.2 8.5 80.3 26.3

(13.3) (12.4) (16.1) (14.5) (17.7) (15.8) (14.9) (13.2) (11.7) (18.0) (18.5) (15.6) (13.6) (19.8) (20.5) (22.1) (15.9) (18.6) (17.0) (63.6) (30.8) (19.2) HSb (7.09)

Arc sine-transformed value in parentheses. bHS = highly significant.

*Deceased

22

April 1999

Table 2. Plant height and grain yield of D. angustus-resistant breeding lines, Assam, 1995-97. Line 1995 IR63142-J6-B-1-1 IR63142-J8-B-2-1 IR63142-J8-B-2-2 IR63153-J9-B-1-1 IR63188-J8-B-1-1 IR63188-J8-B-7-1 IR63188-J8-B-7-2 IR63225-J2-B-1-1 IR63225-J2-B-4-1 IR63225-J2-B-4-2 IR63225-J2-B-6-1 IR63225-J2-B-6-2 IR63645-J3-B-9-1 IR63174-J1-B-3-1 IR63174-J1-B-3-2 IR63174-J1-B-2-3 IR63174-J1-B-4-3 IR63174-J1-B-6-3 IR63174-J3-B-1-2 Rangabao (susceptible check) Rayada B3 (resistant check) Mean Intervarietal differences LSD 0.05
a

Plant height (cm) 1996 174 185 186 194 167 149 135 154 141 160 179 176 151 103 106 112 116 112 87 155 151 147.3 HS 20.0 1997 162 169 162 182 169 162 141 146 139 152 156 174 145 103 108 107 150 114 92 182 160 146.4 HS 17.3 Av 165.3 171.0 170.3 185.0 165.7 147.0 134.7 148.7 137.7 154.7 167.0 172.3 146.3 101.0 105.0 108.0 127.7 109.0 90.0 166.0 150.3

Grain yield (t ha-1) 1995 1.1 1.3 1.6 3.3 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.6 1.3 2.4 1.0 3.1 3.3 2.8 0.7 3.1 2.4 1.8 2.2 1.71 HS 0.64 1996 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.4 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.2 1.7 4.3 4.4 4.2 1.4 3.0 3.1 1.3 3.7 2.25 HS 0.72 1997 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.1 1.0 2.0 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.2 2.0 2.4 2.2 2.8 1.52 HS 0.35 Av 1.4 1.5 1.5 2.6 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.3 0.7 0.9 1.5 2.0 1.3 3.0 3.2 3.0 1.1 2.7 2.6 1.8 2.8

HS = Highly significant.

Rayada B3, IR63153-J9-B-1-1, and IR63225-J2-B-6-2 are more suitable for the deeply flooded areas of Assam because of the lower rate of D. angustus infestation and higher productivity.

Identification of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae by insertion sequence-based polymerase chain reaction (IS-PCR)
T. Adhikari, Rice Program, Agrium Biologicals, 402-15 Innovation Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 2X8, Canada; C.M.Vera Cruz, and T.W. Mew, IRRI; and J.E. Leach, Kansas State University, USA

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods based on repetitive element sequences such as BOX, ERIC, and REP (collectively called rep-PCR) are useful in identifying many phytopathogenic bacteria. Because these sequences are common to most gram-negative bacteria, they will amplify DNA from most genera of bacteria. While these techniques are excellent for comparing bacteria at the species and genus levels, their lack of specificity limits their application in answering certain questions at the subspecies and population levels. In practical diagnosis, the ability to rapidly differentiate Xanthomonas oryzae pv.

oryzae (Xoo)the cause of bacterial blight of ricefrom other pathovars of Xanthomonas including Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola(Xocola)the bacterial leaf streak pathogen of riceis necessary, but often techniques for differentiation are not readily available. In this study, we explored the use of primers whose sequences are based on two high-copy insertion elements, IS1112 and IS1113, isolated previously from Xoo. Because the elements are in high copy and dispersed differently in the genome, we reasoned that outwardly directed primers from each (Fig. 1) would amplify intergenic

regions that would exhibit some specificity. Our objective was to develop a sensitive and rapid PCR-based assay to identify and detect Xoo in rice. Based on IS1112 and IS1113 sequences, outwardly directed oligonucleotide primers (20 bases long) were designed and synthesized. These primers included N1 (5-CATCCATCACTGGAAACCGG-3) and N2 (5-CCTGACGTCAGTTCGTCCAG-3) from IS1112 and J1 (5-CGAGTCCAGTCCAGCGGACC-3) from IS1113. DNA from Escherichia coli, Ralstonia solanacearum, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae; 45 strains representing 24 pathovars; and three species of
IRRN 23

160 159 163 179 161 130 128 146 133 152 166 167 143 97 101 105 117 101 91 161 140 138.1 HSa 17.4

Highly significant differences in ufra incidence in panicles were observed among all varieties including the checks (Table 1). Ufra-infested panicles ranged from 3.6% for IR63142-J8-B-2-1 in 1997 to 81.8% for Rangabao in 1996. Advanced lines were resistant in all 3 yr and performed better than resistant check Rayada B3. Entries IR63174-J1-B-3-2 and IR63174-J1-B-3-1 had an average yield of more than 3 t ha-1 during 1995-97 (Table 2). Considering their height, Rayada B3, IR63153-J9-B-1-1, and IR63225-J2-B-6-2 may be more suitable for deeply flooded areas of Assam because of their lower rate of D. angustus infestation and high productivity. The other lines, which are shorter (90109 cm), may be suitable for less flooded areas.

J3

N1

J2 J3 Bacterial DNA with IS elements J3 or J1

N2

J1

Between copies of the same element J1

IS1112 (J primers) IS1113 (N primers)

N2 Between copies of different elements

Fig 1. Scheme of generating DNA fingerprints using primers based on insertion sequences IS1112 (N1 and N2) and IS1113 (J1 and J3).

b 1.6 0.5 1.0 3.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1 kb ladder no DNA no primer pv. campestris pv. translucens pv. graminis pv. malvacearum pv. vasculorum pv. cerealis pv. vesicatoria pv. phaseoli pv. pruni pv. mangiferaeindicae X. fragariae pv. holcicola PX099 (Philippines) 1 kb ladder PX099 (Philippines) pv. oryzicola (BLS101) pv. oryzicola (BLS179) pv. oryzicola (BLS288) pv. oryzicola (BLS298) IXO1 (India) NXO149 (Nepal) NX42 (China) JW89011 (Korea) R7 (Thailand) Indo1h (Indonesia) MXO92 (Malaysia) AXO2028 (Australia) PXO99 (Philippines) 1 kb ladder 1 kb ladder pv. campestris pv. translucens pv. graminis pv. malvacearum pv. vasculorum pv. cerealis pv. vesicatoria pv. phaseoli pv. pruni pv. mangiferaeindicae X. fragariae pv. holcicola PX099 (Philippines) 1 kb ladder PX099 (Philippines) pv. oryzicola (BLS101) pv. oryzicola (BLS179) pv. oryzicola (BLS288) pv. oryzicola (BLS298) IXO1 (India) NXO149 (Nepal) NX42 (China) JW89011 (Korea) R7 (Thailand) Indo1h (Indonesia) MXO92 (Malaysia) AXO2028 (Australia) PXO99 (Philippines) 1 kb ladder

Fig 2. Agarose gel of products from polymerase chain reaction amplification patterns obtained by (a) N1N2 primer combination and (b) J1 primer alone with strains of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae representing different geographic origins and pathovars and species of Xanthomonas. The gel was stained with ethidium bromide.

24

April 1999

Xanthomonas (X. albilinean, X. fragariae, and X. pisi) were subjected to PCR using primers based on both IS1112 and IS1113. Amplifications were also compared with genomic DNA from 36 repre-

sentative strains of Xoo from various riceproducing countries in Asia. Extraction of genomic DNA from each strain was performed by the lysozyme-sodium dodecyl sulfate lysis

method. DNA of each strain was quantified by UV spectrophotometry at 260 nm, adjusted to 50-100 ng L-1, and stored at -20 C. Amplification with a combination of N1N2 primers generated products with DNA from strains of several pathovars, but the patterns were different from those amplified from Xoo and Xocola DNA (Fig. 2a). Although polymorphisms were observed in the patterns obtained after amplification of Xoo DNA, all patterns contained an intense band at about 220 bp. This band was also present in patterns from Xocola DNA, but it was not found in the amplification patterns from other bacteria. N1N2 amplification did not yield products with DNA from pathovars pruni (one strain), vasculorum (one strain), phaseoli (two strains), hordei (one strain), mangiferaeindicae (three strains), or begoniae (one strain), or from X. fragariae (one strain). DNA from some other strains did amplify with N1N2, but the patterns were different from those of Xoo DNA. Amplification with IS-primer J1 alone resulted in patterns that differentiated Xoo from Xocola (Fig. 2b). Although several bands were common between the two pathovars, Xoo patterns contained an intensely staining band at about 500 bp and two very weak bands at 430 bp and 344 bp. In Xocola patterns, the 500-bp fragment was faint and the 430-bp and 344-bp fragments stained intensely. These particular patterns were not observed after amplification of DNA from 45 strains that belonged to 24 pathovars and three species of Xanthomonas. The genomic DNA from three strains of pathovar mangiferaeindicae did not amplify with J1. In conclusion, our IS-PCR protocol is simple, sensitive, and rapid for detecting and identifying Xoo. The protocol amplified a unique 500-bp product from all 36 Xoo strains in a worldwide collection. We expect that this IS-PCR protocol will provide a reliable molecular tool in the diagnosis of bacterial blight in rice, thereby aiding in its control.

0.298

Influence of weeds and rice cultivar on nematode population densities in lowland rice
D.L. Coyne, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK; D.E. Johnson, M. Jones, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), 01 BP 2551, Bouak, Cte dIvoire; and R.A. Plowright, CABI Bioscience, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK

Weed competition is a major constraint to rice production in the hydromorphic/ flood-prone ecosystem because moist conditions encourage rapid weed growth and permit rapid reestablishment of disturbed weeds. Rice root nematodes Hirschmanniella spp. and Tylenchorhynchus spp. are cosmopolitan in these rice production systems and are associated with economic losses. Current recommendations for their management are limited. The African rice Oryza glaberrima provides a rich source of resistance to numerous biotic stresses and tolerance for unfavorable abiotic stresses in West Africa. Recent advances in crop improvement at WARDA have produced interspecific progeny of O. glaberrima and O. sativa, that combine the useful traits of both parents. Experiments were designed to assess the performance of a range of plant types, including O. glaberrima and O. sativa parents, and progeny, in hydromorphic/flood-prone rice. These plant types were assessed for their susceptibility to parasitic nematodes in 1996 and repeated in 1997. Rice was dry-seeded into a clean seedbed using five seeds hill-1 spaced 25 cm apart, in 4 5-m plots. A randomized block design was used with four replications. The two factors studied were cultivars (seven) (see table) and weed management at two levels: weed-free (preemergence herbicide and subsequent handweeding) and with weeds (weeds uncontrolled from 14 d after rice emergence [DAE]). Each replicate included a weedonly control plot. Fertilizer was applied as 20 kg P ha-1 at sowing and 46 kg N ha-1 in equal splits at 28 and 56 DAE. Nematode population densities were estimated at 90 DAE from 100-mL soil and 5-g root subsamples from five hills plot-1, which

were incubated for 48 h using a modified Baermann technique. At sowing, singlecore samples from each plot were bulked by replicates and the presence of nematodes established from 100-mL subsamples. Major weed species present were Fimbristylis littoralis, Cyperus difformis, C. esculentus, Sphenoclea zeylanica, Echinochloa crus-pavonis, E. colona, Spilanthes uliginosa, and Bacopa decumbens. Hirschmanniella oryzae and T. annulatus were present at sowing in all replications in each experiment. Neither cultivar nor weed management influenced T. annulatus population densities. H. oryzae population density was consistently influenced by cultivar. In both experiments, some progeny supported greater (P<0.001) population densities of H. oryzae than the parents and appeared to

be highly susceptible to the nematode. Weed management influenced population density of H. oryzae in the first but not in the second experiment. The presence of weeds in rice, and weeds alone, resulted in supressed H. oryzae populations. E. colona, Echinochloa spp., Cyperus spp. (Mohandas et al 1979, Koreyem 1993), and Fimbristylis spp. have previously been found to be good hosts of H. oryzae, and S. zeylanica (Mohandas et al 1979), a nonhost. No rice cultivar was resistant to either nematode. Two main conclusions can be drawn from this study. First, some of the new interspecific progeny appear to be highly susceptible to H. oryzae. Second, improvements in weed control may raise the pest status of H. oryzae, in hydromorphic/ flooded rice. With escalating local demand for rice, intensification of production is

Nematode population densities of Hirschmanniella oryzae and Tylenchorhynchus annulatus on Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima parents, and interspecific hybrids, under two weed management conditions in lowland rice at 90 DAS; plants spaced 25 cm apart. 1996 Varietal type H. oryzae Cultivar Bouak 189 CG14 WAB450-24-3-2P18-HB WAB450-1-BP-26-1-1 WAB450-1-BP-133-HB WAB450-1-BP-106-HB WAB450-11-1-P40-1-HB Weeds only (control) LSD (P<0.05) P Weed management Weed-free Weeds after 14 DAE P
a

1997 H. oryzae T. annulatus

T. annulatus

O. sativa O. glaberrima Progeny Progeny Progeny Progeny Progeny

609 433 407 781 956 1627 874 690 428 <0.000 987 638 0.004

240 170 167 290 236 208 263 202 nsa 247 203 ns

415 402 353 335 1441 1464 840 142 111 <0.000 757 744 ns

127 88 105 151 103 95 93 63 ns 119 98 ns

ns = not significant.

IRRN

25

Multilocational screening of Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima for resistance to African rice gall midge Orseolia oryzivora in West Africa
C.T. Williams, O. Okhidievbie, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), Bouak, Cte dIvoire; M.N. Ukwungwu, National Cereals Research Institute, Bida, Nigeria; D. Dakouo, S. Nacro, INERA Station de Farako-Ba, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso; A. Hamadoun, IER/CRRA, Sikasso, Mali; and S.I. Kamara, Rokupr Rice Research Station, Freetown, Sierra Leone

Resistance to the Asian rice gall midge Orseolia oryzae differs markedly from one location to another because of the existence of genetically distinct biotypes of the pest with differing abilities to overcome resistance genes in their host. To investigate whether the same phenomenon occurs in the African rice gall midge (AfRGM), Orseolia oryzivora, the WARDA Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Task Force undertook multilocational screening of Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima varieties during the wet season at six locations in 1996 and at four sites in 1997. Trial sites were Ogidiga and Gadza in southeast and central Nigeria, respectively; Karfigula and Banzon, both in southwest Burkina Faso; Longorola, in south Mali; and Rokupr, in west Sierra Leone. Rice seed was supplied by Dr. N.Q. Ng of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Dr. B.N. Singh of WARDA. The sativas used were a highly susceptible check (ITA306) and African and Asian varieties which, from previous screening in Nigeria, showed significantly lower infestation than ITA306, although most were at least moderately susceptible to rice gall midge. The glaberrimas used were all highly to moderately resistant in an earlier screening in Nigeria. Trials were randomized complete block designs with three blocks in which sativas and glaberrimas were randomized together.
26 April 1999

They were carried out in rainfed lowland or irrigated conditions depending on location. Each plot had two rows of 15 hills each, transplanted at 20 20 cm with two seedlings hill-1 at 21 d after sowing (DAS). Basal fertilizer application was 40 kg N, P, and K ha-1. A topdressing of 40 kg N ha-1 was applied at 20 d after transplanting

(DAT). AfRGM tiller infestation levels were calculated from gall and tiller counts on 20 hills plot-1 at 63 DAT. Results showed that AfRGM pressure was high at all locations except Longorola, Mali (Tables 1 and 2). In both years, location had a large effect on AfRGM infestation level on many test entries rela-

Table 1. Percentage of tillers with AfRGM galls at 63 DAT (mean + standard error) at six trial locations, 1996. Ogidiga, southeast Nigeria Gadza, central Nigeria Karfigula, Burkina Faso Banzon, Burkina Faso Longorola, Mali Rokupr, Sierra Leone

Entrya

sativas ITA306 (check) TOS8144 Eguazankpa ARC 6618 Nhta 8 Aganni All sativas glaberrimas TOG7684 TOG6542 TOG6631 TOG6582 TOG7442 TOG7677 TOG6589 TOG6508 TOG7198 TOG6216 All glaberrimas
a

36.7 + 5.22 26.2 + 0.93 28.7 + 1.14 20.2 + 4.32 18.9 + 4.39 22.8 + 4.77 25.6 0.3 + 0.27 1.2 + 1.01 0.0 + 0.00 0.4 + 0.21 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.3 + 0.28 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.3 + 0.30 0.3

27.5 + 3.84 9.9 + 2.56 4.7 + 1.73 8.5 + 2.49 8.9 + 3.96 5.8 + 1.40 10.9 9.1 + 1.23 3.3 + 0.98 3.7 + 0.53 2.8 + 1.04 5.3 + 3.65 3.8 + 2.08 3.1 + 0.57 2.7 + 0.89 2.3 + 0.54 3.2 + 2.00 3.9

26.9 + 3.67 17.1 + 3.04 21.0 + 2.65 14.5 + 2.12 5.3 + 1.33 4.4 + 0.52 14.9 8.8 + 0.59 9.4 + 1.15 14.0 + 2.87 8.9 + 1.33 10.7 + 1.24 14.2 + 3.05 6.7 + 1.13 8.7 + 0.48 6.3 + 1.03 5.6 + 2.67 9.3

21.8 + 3.57 20.3 + 1.76 22.2 + 1.68 16.1 + 1.38 12.5 + 1.29 13.0 + 0.51 17.7 12.1 + 1.26 13.2 + 2.60 12.4 + 1.75 14.6 + 5.69 6.9 + 1.85 7.2 + 0.72 11.3 + 1.08 11.7 + 1.29 11.1 + 1.09 4.3 + 2.75 10.5

6.2 + 0.28 28.2 + 3.05 5.3 + 1.40 11.8 + 1.32 1.5 + 0.35 3.5 + 0.92 3.2 + 0.52 4.8 + 1.27 8.2 + 2.27 2.9 + 0.84 2.4 + 1.35 2.4 + 0.66 4.5 8.9 6.7 + 2.53 9.5 + 4.53 4.3 + 1.23 7.2 + 3.09 9.6 + 4.00 4.7 + 1.26 6.5 + 2.94 3.7 + 2.43 5.7 + 2.41 6.0 + 2.50 6.4 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0

sativas and glaberrimas are listed in the order of mean infestation level across all sites.

occurring. Part of this intensification process will involve improved weed management, yet it is important that such changes do not favor the development of pest nematodes.

References
Koreyem AM. 1993. Observations on the host range and field population patterns of Hirschmanniella oryzae, at Kafr-El-Sheikh, Egypt. Afro-Asian J. Nematol. 3:50-54.

Mohandas C, Pattanaik NKC, Prasad JS. 1979. Host range of the rice root nematode Hirschmanniella oryzae. Indian J. Nematol. 9:177-178.

Table 2. Percentage of tillers with AfRGM galls at 63 DAT (mean + standard error) at four trial locations, 1997. Entrya Ogidiga, southeast Nigeria Gadza, central Nigeria Karfigula, Burkina Faso Longorola, Mali

sativas ITA306 (check) TOS9285 TOS3563 TOS11530 PTB12 Nhta 8 TOS3546 Aganni Checkhalopoiretal Veluthacheera TOS14519 All sativas glaberrimas TOG6730 TOG6539 TOG6472 TOG7206 TOG6342 TOG6489 TOG6216 TOG6346 TOG7106 All glaberrimas
a

24.2 + 1.14 11.7 + 1.32 12.9 + 3.63 12.2 + 1.21 13.0 + 3.52 16.4 + 1.99 11.7 + 1.18 10.6 + 1.70 11.5 + 5.12 5.8 + 1.53 2.2 + 0.41 12.0 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0 + 0.00 0.0

14.5 + 0.67 14.9 + 4.25 8.0 + 1.47 1.8 + 0.65 1.5 + 0.42 9.9 + 5.82 1.7 + 1.02 13.0 + 2.47 5.5 + 2.47 3.5 + 1.44 1.1 + 0.85 6.9 2.0 + 0.42 3.7 + 1.64 1.7 + 0.60 2.1 + 1.15 0.5 + 0.30 0.9 + 0.49 1.1 + 0.32 1.5 + 0.70 0.9 + 0.56 1.6

31.9 + 2.58 21.9 + 2.45 20.0 + 0.91 21.8 + 3.78 21.6 + 1.14 8.7 + 1.89 20.0 + 1.93 6.5 + 1.63 8.9 + 1.51 10.9 + 2.32 2.9 + 2.05 15.9 14.6 + 1.76 12.7 + 3.88 14.6 + 0.40 13.5 + 1.10 14.1 + 0.44 15.0 + 0.83 7.0 + 3.74 5.2 + 2.85 2.0 + 0.95 11.0

3.7 + 0.66 1.8 + 0.57 2.0 + 1.07 4.6 + 1.42 3.2 + 0.47 2.9 + 0.24 2.5 + 0.29 2.8 + 0.32 5.1 + 0.73 1.4 + 0.93 2.3 + 0.95 2.9 2.6 + 0.64 2.7 + 1.04 2.6 + 0.70 2.9 + 0.05 2.7 + 0.82 0.8 + 0.15 1.5 + 0.85 1.9 + 0.51 1.7 + 0.47 2.2

sativas and glaberrimas are listed in the order of mean infestation level across all sites.

Resistance to rice stripe virus in differential rice line BL 1

K. Ise, Biological Resources Division, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki; K. Ishikawa,Virus Control Laboratory, National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), 3-1-1 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; C. Li, Q.Yang, and C.Ye, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Science (YAAS), Longtoujie, Kunming, Yunnan, China

Rice stripe virus (RSV) is the most important viral disease of rice in temperate ricegrowing countries such as China, Japan, and Korea. Almost all lowland cultivars with RSV resistance in Japan have the Stvb-i gene, introduced from the Pakistan indica cultivar Modan. Because the appearance of new strains able to overcome this gene threatens these varieties, sources of resistance to RSV must be diversified.

BL 1 is an elite germplasm line with the blast resistance gene Pi-b and has been used as a differential line for testing the pathogenicity of blast fungus. It was bred by backcrossing the Japanese cultivar Norin 25 with the Indonesian cultivar Tjina to introduce blast resistance from indica to japonica. Tjina, BL 1, and F1 plants from a cross between Nipponbare and BL 1

showed no symptoms in a field test for RSV resistance, although the average infection percentage of susceptible cultivars Nipponbare and Norin 25 was 92.6% (Table 1). BL 1 and its donor parent for blast resistance, Tjina, were highly resistant to or symptomatically tolerant of RSV infection in the field. In a test for resistance to the RSV vector, the smaller brown planthopper (SBPH), Laodelphax striatellus, the total
IRRN 27

tive to the check and to each other. Analyses of variance on the arc sine-transformed percentages showed that the interaction between rice variety and location effects was highly significant (1996: F = 9.89, df

= 75 and 180, P<0.001; 1997: F = 7.51, df = 57 and 152, P<0.001). The most marked difference between locations was in the resistance levels shown by the glaberrimas relative to the sativas. The glaberrimas

were much more resistant than the sativas in southeast Nigeria and Sierra Leone. In central Nigeria, most glaberrimas were only moderately resistant (1-5% infestation), whereas in Burkina Faso many were susceptible (>10% infestation) although still, on average, better than the sativas. In Mali, there was even less difference between the two species. More data are needed from this location, however, because of the low AfRGM pressure in both years. Although small differences between locations may be due to environmental effects, such large and consistent variety site interactions strongly suggest that AfRGM populations at different locations have genetic differences that affect their abilities to overcome resistance. The results have important implications for future screening and breeding work on AfRGM and highlight the need to screen more glaberrimas in Burkina Faso and Mali. Some entries, in particular TOS14519 and TOG7106, appeared to have relatively stable resistance across locations, but these need to be tested further. The WARDA IPM Task Force is continuing this study to identify sources of stable resistance and investigate variation in AfRGM populations.

Table 1. Resistance to RSV in field and artificial inoculation tests. Percent infection Line/F1 Fielda Norin 25 92.4 Tjina 0.0 BL 1 0.0 Nipponbare 90.9 Nipponbare/BL 1(F1) 0.0
a

Table 2. Relationship between RSV resistance and blast resistance in F3 lines from Nipponbare and BL 1. RSV incidence Number of F3 linesa Number of F3 lines with reaction to blast isolate Ken 54-20 Resistant Segregating Susceptible 2 (1:2:1) = 1.338 Resistant Segregating Susceptible 2 (1:2:1) = 1.338 2 (1:2:1) = 1.240 31 79 38 12 27 13

Inoculationb 20.080.0b 148

+ + + +

1.5 b 90.2 + 3.9 c 0.0 a (no data) 0.0 a 41.1 + 4.2 b 2.6 b 94.9 + 4.5 c 63.6

80.1100.0 2 (3:1) = 0.107

a

52

Data are means + SEM of three replicates. Nipponbare/BL 1 (F1) and BL 1 were tested without replication. SEM = standard error of means. b Data are means + SEM of seven replicates. Nipponbare/BL 1 (F1) were tested without replication. Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P = 0.05 (k = 100) according to Waller-Duncan LSD.

No chi-square values for goodness of fit to expected ratios were significant.The uniformity test was also not significant for segregation for blast resistance between high and low RSV incidence groups (c2 = 0.104, 0.90<P<0.95,df = 2). bMaximum RSV incidence was determined from the range of the susceptible parent, Nipponbare.

Ischaemum rugosuma potential alternate host of rice tungro viruses in West Bengal
S.C. Mallick, A.K. Chowdhury, Department of Plant Pathology; and D. Pal, Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV), Mohanpur, West Bengal 741252, India

Carry-over of rice tungro disease (RTD) through seasons is one of the most important considerations in rice production, especially in India where the vector green leafhopper (GLH) (Nephotettix spp.) ap28 April 1999

pears for a limited period of the year. In West Bengal, in boro rice (summer rice), which is transplanted in February-March and harvested in April-May, RTD incidence is very limited and found only in a few

pockets with an intensive rice-rice rotation. To search for alternate RTD hosts, we collected leaf samples of some weeds from an adjacent field severely infected with RTD during the 1995-96 boro season in the

number of nymphs on Nipponbare and BL 1 was significantly higher than that on IR50 (resistant check). We concluded that BL 1 was susceptible to SBPH, although resistant to RSV, and that Nipponbare was susceptible to both (data not shown). The inheritance of RSV resistance was studied by artificial inoculation using viruliferous SBPH and by serological assay using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In the inoculation test on seedlings, the average infection percentage of RSV was 41.1 for BL 1, 94.9 for Nipponbare, and 63.6 for their F1, suggesting that BL 1 resistance was incompletely dominant. The RSV incidence distribution in F3 lines was multimodal with three peaks, indicating a single major genic segregation for resistance. To confirm this, we analyzed the

mode of inheritance biometrically. We estimated that an incompletely dominant gene controlled BL 1 resistance based on maximum likelihood ratios. These results also agreed with the chi-square goodness of fit test to a ratio of 3 (homozygous resistant and segregating):1 (homozygous susceptible) as expected by segregation of a pair of incompletely dominant genes (Table 2). The segregation of all F3 lines fitted a ratio of 1:2:1 as expected by the segregation of the Pi-b resistance gene. No relation was seen between RSV infection incidence and the blast resistance gene Pi-b segregation in F3 lines (Table 2). We concluded that the locus of RSV resistance in BL 1 was independent of the Pi-b locus, estimated to be near the terminal region of chromosome 2.

We observed many progeny susceptible or segregating for resistance to RSV in F3 lines (n = 72) between BL 1 and Musashikogane with Stvb-i. The segregation pattern of 70 (homozygous resistant and segregating):2 (homozygous susceptible) in RSV resistance fitted a 15:1 ratio as expected based on the genetic model of the two independently dominant genes. From these results, we concluded that BL 1 has a new resistance gene for RSV infection with incomplete dominance not linked to the Pi-b locus. The new resistance gene identified in BL 1 with improved plant type and blast resistance is considered useful in breeding for RSV-resistant cultivars in japonica rice.

ELISA reactions in rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) antisera and survival period of green leafhopper in some weed hosts collected from rice fields, West Bengal. Percentage of reaction Host species RTBV + RTSV Cynodon dactylon Echinochloa colonum Cyperus rotundus Ischaemum rugosum Leersia hexandra Taichung Native 1 SEM LSD at 0.05
a

Average survival (d)a N. virescens N. nigropictus 5.4 b 3.2 bc 3.0 c 4.6 bc 4.0 bc 14.0 a 0.77 2.28 10.8 a 4.2 b 4.6 b 4.0 b 11.0 a 10.2 a 0.84 2.47

RTBV 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.0

RTSV 0.0 46.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5

8.3 6.7 93.3 100.0 0.0 37.5

Av values of 4 replications. Mean values in columns followed by a common letter do not differ significantly by Duncans multiple range test (P = 0.05).

1999 IRRI calendar of training activities

2-Week Rice Production Training Course Basic Experimental Design and Data Analysis Hybrid Rice Breeding Introduction to IRRIStat Statistical Software Introduction to SAS Modern Rice Farming Course Advanced Experimental Design Instructional Video Production Introduction to New Developments in G x E Analysis and Interpretation of Results Analysis of Unbalanced Data Analysis of Categorical Data Rice Seed Health Training Adaptive Research with a Farming Systems Perspective Integrated Pest Management in Rice Soil and Water Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology Transgenic Rice: Production and Deployment with Special Reference to Sheath Blight and Rice Stem borer Resistance Rice Production Research Application of Molecular Tools to Study Rice Viruses 1829 Jan 0112 Feb 01 Mar23 Apr 01 05 Mar 2630 Apr 0328 May 31 May04 Jun 07 Jun02 Jul 0711 Jun 1418 Jun 2125 Jun 05 Jul 24 Sep 19 Jul27 Aug 02 Aug 24 Sep 23 Aug10 Sep

27 Sep17 Oct 04 Oct26 Nov 02 Nov03 Dec

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Regional Research Station at Chakdaha of BCKV. Samples were tested by enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (with assistance from IRRI) to determine the presence of two viruses associated with the disease. Leaf samples of the same weed hosts were also collected from nearby RTD-free rice fields for the control. In addition to serological testing, the survival period of GLH on weed hosts was also tested. Serological testing of weed samples showed a positive reaction between rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) antisera and crude extracts from several weeds tested, except Leersia hexandra. Among the samples, Ischaemum rugosum and Cyperus rotundus had a strong positive reaction jointly with RTBV and RTSV antisera. The other two weeds, Echinochloa colonum and Cynodon dactylon, revealed lower reaction values. I. rugosum is commonly found in bunds in rice fields mostly in the Gangetic plains of West Bengal. Plants infected with tungro viruses did not develop any disease symptoms. The crude extract from control samples did not react with any of the antisera. No report is available on tungro infection by I. rugosum, which showed a high potential to act as a reservoir of RTD. We conducted an experiment to determine GLH survival periods on these weed hosts under laboratory conditions. Samples of weed hosts were collected from rice fields and planted separately in earthen pots. Two GLH species, Nephotettix virescens (Distant) and N. nigropictus (Stl), of the same age were released on potted weed hosts in mylar cages. In general, the survival period of N. nigropictus on weed hosts was higher than that of N. virescens (see table). On L. hexandra, N. nigropictus survived up to 11 d, whereas N. virescens survived for only 4 d. Little variation in survival period of the two species of GLH was observed on I. rugosum, C. rotundus, and E.

colonum. N. virescens survived longer (14 d) on Taichung Native 1. Positive ELISA results and GLH survival experiments for selected weeds, particularly I. rugosum and C. rotundus, will

allow us to conduct transmission experiments to confirm whether these weeds act as important alternate hosts for the virus between rice seasons.

Soil, nutrient, and water management

Influence of NPK levels and split N application on grain filling and yield of fine rice
M. Asif, F.M. Chaudhary, and M. Saeed, Agronomy Department, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan

The major causes of low rice yield and poor grain filling of rice in Pakistan are the unbalanced use of NPK and higher N losses due to bulk N application at transplanting. We designed a field experiment to test the hypothesis that a balanced supply of NPK and split application of N would improve both grain filling and yield of Basmati 385. The soil in the experimental plots was a clay loam with 0.73% organic matter, 0.046% total N, 4.9 ppm P, and pH 7.7. Treatments consisted of three nutrient levels (60-0-0 [F1], 130-67-67 [F2], and 180-90-90 kg NPK ha-1 [F3]) and three N application times (all at transplanting [N1], 1/2 at transplanting + 1/2 at early tillering [N2], and 1/3 each at transplanting + early tillering + panicle initiation [N3]). The ex-

periment was laid out in a split-plot design with nutrient level as the main plot and time of N application as the subplot with four replications. NPK was supplied as urea, single superphosphate, and sulfate of potash. P and K were applied basally. Nutrient level F2 significantly reduced the occurrence of sterile spikelets, opaque spikelets, and chalky kernels (see table), while it significantly increased the proportion of normal kernels, probably because of sufficient availability of plant nutrients at the early, middle, and later stages of kernel development. Moreover, less lodging occurred in this treatment compared with higher NPK levels in the F3 treatment (data not shown). Lodging may have interrupted the continuous translo-

cation of carbohydrates to the panicle. The F2 treatment also improved grain yield and yield components such as panicles m-2 and 1000-grain weight. Three splits of N fertilizer (N3) resulted in less abortive spikelets and chalky kernels and a higher proportion of normal kernels compared with bulk application of N (N1) at transplanting. Yield and yield components such as panicles m-2, spikelets panicle-1, percentage of filled spikelets, and 1000-grain weight increased significantly in response to split N application. The three splits sustained the supply of N throughout the vegetative and reproductive development of the plant, particularly during grain filling and ripening. However, a reverse trend was observed for

Effects of different NPK levels and split application of N on grain filling, yield, and yield components of Basmati 385, 1995-96a kharif season.b Treatment Grain Panicles Spikelets Spikelets Filled Grain Sterile Abortive Opaque Chalky Normal 1000m-2 panicle-1 spikelets filling spikeletsc spikelets spikeletsd kernelse kernelsf grain yield m-2 (no.) (no. x 1000) (no.) panicle-1 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) wt(g) (t ha-1) (%)

NPK level (kg ha-1) F1 = 60-0-0 F2 = 130-67-67 F3 = 180-90-90 LSD N application technique N1 = all N at transplanting N2 = 1/2 N at transplanting + 1/2 N at early tillering N3 = 1/3 N at transplanting + 1/3 N at early tillering + 1/3 N at panicle initiation LSD C = A x B0

3.6 b 4.4 a 4.2 a 0.22

230 b 300 a 298 a 14.5

49.75 b 68.37 a 68.51 a 2.17

216 228 230 ns

170 c 185 b 121 a 11.1

78.8 81.3 78.9 ns

16.1 a 12.6 b 13.8 b 1.29

5.4 b 6.1 ab 7.7 a 1.71

9.3 a 7.8 b 9.1 a 0.87

42.7 a 69.5 b 15.4 b 27.4 c 73.5 a 15.8 a 31.7 b 69.8 b 15.6 a 2.79 2.24 0.23

3.8 b 4.1 a

268 b 273 ab

56.87 c 60.85 b

213 b 223 b

164 c 178 b

77.3 b 16.3 a 79.7 ab 126 b

6.9 a 7.3 a

8.1 b 8.5 b

35.8 a 69.2 b 15.3 b 33.2 b 71.2 ab 15.6 a

4.2 a

285 a

68.00 a

239 a

195 a

81.9 a

13.7 b

5.0 b

9.5 a

32.9 b 72.4 a

15.8 a

0.20 nsg

10.6 ns

3.01 ns

10.64 ns

9.71 ns

3.17 ns

1.53 ns

0.84 ns

0.69 ns

1.97 ns

2.06 ns

0.21 ns

a Results were averaged for 1995 and 1996. bWithin a column and treatment group, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability. cUnfertilized or unfilled empty spikelets. dSpikelets that get fertilized but do not attain full size as they stop growing during the early stage of grain filling. eKernels with the whole, one-half, or more of the surface white like the color of chalk due to abnormal accumulation of photosynthates during grain filling. fKernels that attain full size, turn translucent, and show normal starch compaction. gns = not significant.

30

April 1999

The adaptability of Azolla mexicana in the Ege region of Turkey

M.N. Gevrek, Field Crops Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, Izmir 35100, Turkey

Table 1. Average growth and nitrogen accumulation in the Azolla-inoculated field plots, Izmir, Turkey, 1995. Treatment 1 2 3 4 Av SD Inoculation date 10 Jul 24 Jul 7 Aug 21 Aug Mean temperature (C) 30.0 30.6 27.4 27.4 28.9 Amount harvested (g m-2) 1200 a 1090 bc 1060 c 1140 ab 1122 % increase in fresh weight 300 263 253 280 274 60 N increase (g m-2) 3.0 a 2.6 bc 2.5 c 2.8 ab 2.7 0.10

Table 2. Increase in total N and organic matter content of soil incubated with A. mexicana. % increase Week Control soil Fresh 1 2 3 4 5 6 100 100 100 100 100 100 127.5 b 137.5 a 133.3 a 133.3 a 126.6 b 122.2 c Total N Dried 122.9 e 135.4 c 155.5 a 144.4 b 133.3 cd 131.1 d Organic matter Fresh 114.0 c 130.5 a 128.8 a 122.1 b 114.2 c 108.6 d Dried 105.5 e 138.8 a 140.0 a 134.2 a 125.5 c 120.3 d

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The Ege region on the west coast of Turkey has a distinct climatetemperature ranges from 15 to 35 C from the beginning of April to the first week of September, rainfall averages 500-600 mm, and relative humidity is 57%. Summer is warm and dry while winter is mild and rainy. Of four different Azolla strains obtained (A. microphylla 4030, IRRI; A. microphylla 4089, China; A. filiculoides 1001; and A. mexicana 2026), A. mexicana 2026 was found adaptable to Izmir ecological conditions. In 1995, a field experiment was conducted to determine the suitable inoculation time for A. mexicana. A. mexicana was first grown at Izmir and then transferred to the rice experimental fields at Menemen (sandy loam soil, 0.9% organic matter, and pH 6.9 ). Rice variety TOAG-92 was used in the experiment. Four different inoculation times were tested one after the other on the same plots. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used in the rice fields. For each application time, 300 g of fresh Azolla was inoculated per square meter and allowed to grow for 14 d. When the surface was covered with Azolla (7-10 d after inoculation), 0.2 g P2O5 m-2 was applied. Azolla biomass was collected and fresh weight, dry weight, and total N were measured (Table 1). The first inoculation of Azolla was done when the rice plants were at the 3-leaf stage. The inoculated amount of fresh weight (300 g m-2) increased to 1122 g m-2 after 14 d (274%). Statistical analysis showed that the first inoculation dates resulted in comparatively better yield perfor-

mance than any other inoculation dates based on Duncans multiple range test. The best time for Azolla inoculation was the first week of July (1200 g m-2) (see table). However, inoculating Azolla at the end of August also gave a reasonable amount of Azolla. N was 0.33% in fresh Azolla, and mean N gain was 2.7 g m-2. The effect of A. mexicana on soil N mineralization was also investigated in 1996. Incubation studies using fresh and dried Azolla were conducted in the laboratory. Azolla was placed on top of half of a sample of air-dried sandy loam soil in a test tube (2-cm-diam); the other half of the

soil was placed on top of the Azolla in another test tube. Both were flooded to a 5cm depth with distilled water to keep the Azolla from floating. More Azolla was added to give about 5 mg N test tube-1. Tubes were then incubated in the dark at 30C. Results are shown in Table 2. N release was more rapid from dried Azolla (56%) than from fresh Azolla (38%). The Azolla totally decomposed after 2-3 wk and increased the total soil N by 38-56%, contributing to total soil organic matter. Organic matter release was more rapid from dried Azolla (40%) than from fresh Azolla (31%).

opaque spikelets. The longer panicles with more spikelets resulted in severe competition for photosynthates, which led to a higher proportion of opaque spikelets.

The application of 130-67-67 kg NPK ha-1 and N in three splits to Basmati 385 resulted in higher grain yield with a higher

percentage of grain filling and normal kernels due to a considerable reduction in sterility, abortiveness, and chalkiness.

Response of rainfed lowland rice varieties to different N levels under two types of water management
C.R. Biswas, A.B. Mandal, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Regional Research Station (RRS), Canning, South 24-Parganas, West Bengal 743329; and S.C. Pramanik, Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Table 1. Grain yield (t ha-1) of advanced-generation rice varieties under different N levels and two different water management scenarios (pooled over 3 yr). N levels (kg ha-1) Variety 0 20 40 60 80 100 Mean

Shallow submergence (15-25 cm) CST7-1 3.4 3.6 4.0 4.7 IR16294-CS-9-1 2.7 3.2 3.4 4.0 C200-BS-6-23 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.0 CSRC(S)5-2-25 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 CSRC(S)14-1-B-0 2.8 3.2 3.4 4.0 CSRC(S)11-4-4-1 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.5 Mean 2.8 3.2 3.5 4.0 LSD (P = 0.05)Variety 0.47, N 0.34,V N not significant Semideep submergence (25-50 cm) C300-BD-50-11 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.7 C99-BD-9-26 2.7 3.2 3.5 3.6 CSRC(D)4-3-0 2.7 3.1 3.7 3.9 CSRC(D)13-12-2-1 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.6 C340-22-5 2.2 2.9 3.6 3.8 C340-22-17 2.4 2.9 3.5 3.8 Mean 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.8 LSD (P = 0.05)Variety 0.35, N 0.23,V N not significant

4.7 4.2 4.1 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.3

4.5 3.8 4.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 4.1

4.2 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.6 4.0

4.0 3.8 4.0 3.7 4.0 4.1 3.9

3.5 3.7 4.0 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.8

3.4 3.4 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.4

32

April 1999

Low-yielding traditional rice varieties (1.52.5 t ha-1) are cultivated on 820,000 ha of coastal areas in India. After recurrent selection for six generations, six advancedgeneration varieties for shallow and semideep submergence water regimes were identified as promising. We evaluated the yield response of these varieties to different N levels to identify the optimum N dose under two water management conditions. The field experiment was conducted at the CSSRI RRS in a replicated (three) split-plot design from 1994-95 to 1996-97 with six varieties (Table 1), each under shallow (15-25 cm) and deep (2550 cm) submergence in the main plot and six levels of N (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 kg ha-1) in the subplot. Soil at the experimental site was clay loam with pH 6.8 and an EC of 5.53 dS m-1. The soil contained 280295 kg available N ha-1, alkaline KMnO4 extractable (high); 20 kg Olsen P ha-1, NaHCO3 extractable (medium); and 182 kg K ha-1, NH4OAc extractable (medium). CSR1 (av yield, 3.0 t ha-1) and SR26B (av yield, 2.5 t ha-1) were used as checks for screening under shallow and semideep submergence, respectively. Based on grain yield of each variety at different N levels pooled over the years, quadratic response functions were fitted and optimum N levels were determined. Under shallow submergence, CST71 yielded more than the other varieties except for CSRC(S)-11-4-4-1 (Table 1). These two varieties registered an average 37% increase in grain yield over local check CSR1. Grain yields of IR16294 CS-9-1, C200-BS-623, and CSRC(S)14-1-B-0 were significantly higher than that of the check. The maximum grain yield under semideep waterlogged conditions was observed in

CSRC(D) 4-3-0, which outyielded the check by 43%. C300-BD-50-11, C99-BD-926, C340-22-17, and C340-22-5 yielded on a par with each other. Even the lowest yield of CSRC(D)13-12-2-1 was higher by 31% than the checks yield. Although maximum grain yields were generally achieved with 80 kg N ha-1, the response to fertilizer was significant only up to 60 kg ha-1 under both water management conditions. N levels beyond 80 kg ha-1 decreased rice yield. The optimum N levels varied between 34-48 kg ha-1 under shallow submergence and 26-38 kg ha -1 under semideep submergence (Table 2). Under shallow submergence, although average yield was high for CST7-1 and CSRC(S)114-4-1, agronomic N-use efficiency was highest for IR16294-CS-9-1, followed by

CST7-1. C340-22-5 had the best agronomic N-use efficiency under semideep submerged conditions. Response to N fertilizers, yields, and agronomic N-use efficiency were higher under shallow submergence than under semideep submergence. Poor crop growth coupled with low tillering ability under waterlogged conditions may have resulted in a low response to N fertilizers. Thus, considering yield and agronomic N-use efficiency, CST7-1 and IR16294-CS-9-1 under shallow submergence and C340-22-5 and CSRC(D)-4-3-0 under semideep conditions may be recommended for cultivation in the low-lying coastal areas in India.

Table 2. N response and agronomic N-use efficiency of different rice varieties.

Variety

Response functiona

R2
0.874 0.847 0.887 0.871 0.900 0.815 0.801 0.811 0.890 0.847 0.878 0.844

Optimum N dose (kg ha-1) 48.0 44.7 38.0 34.0 36.5 41.6 25.7 34.0 37.6 36.7 26.6 28.0

Grain yield at optimum N dose (t ha-1) 4.0 3.4 3.2 2.9 3.2 3.6 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.1 2.4 2.7

Agronomic N-use efficiency (kg ha-1) 10.62 12.01 8.95 9.11 9.31 9.85 9.73 9.41 9.84 9.26 10.34

Shallow submergence (15-25 cm) CST7-1 Y = 3492 + 11.45 x -0.0165x2 IR16294-CS-9-1 Y = 2563 + 10.84 x -0.0160x 2 C200-BS-6-23 Y = 2845 + 09.57 x -0.0175x2 CSRC(S)5-2-25 Y = 2562 + 09.43 x -0.0142x 2 CSRC(S)14-1-B-0 Y = 2895 + 09.85 x -0.0147x 2 CSRC(S)11-4-4-1 Y = 3165 + 10.15 x -0.0131x 2 Semideep submergence (25-50 cm) C300-BD-50-11 Y = 2840 + 09.67 x -0.0175x2 C99-BD-9-26 Y = 2685 + 09.75 x -1.0157x 2 CSRC(D)4-3-0 Y = 2705 + 10.51 x -0.0178x2 CSRC(D)13-12-2-1 Y = 2512 + 09.14 x -0.0185x2 C340-22-5 Y = 2125 + 10.52 x -0.0114x2 C340-22-17 Y = 2401 + 09.65 x -0.0100x 2
a

9.64

Y in kg ha .

-1

Influence of organic, biofertilizer, and inorganic forms of nitrogen on rice quality

M. Hemalatha, V. Thirumurugan, and R. Balasubramanian, Agronomy Department, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai 625104, Tamil Nadu, India

Effect of N management on quality of ricea. Treatment Optimum cooking time (min) 14.6 16.2 17.2 16.7 0.3 0.7 14.4 15.1 16.0 16.9 17.2 17.5 0.32 0.65 Elongation ratio Gruel loss (%) Total amylose content (%) 25.2 26.4 28.4 27.2 0.3 0.8 24.9 25.7 26.6 28.6 27.8 27.0 0.31 0.64 Crude protein (%) 7.8 8.3 9.2 8.3 0.13 0.31 7.8 8.1 8.5 9.3 8.9 8.6 0.11 0.23

Organic fetilizers M1 = control M2 = FYM M3 = daincha M4 = sunn hemp SE LSD (P = 0.05) Inorganic and biofertilizers S1 = 50% N S2 = 75% N S3 = 100% N S4 = 50% N + Azos S5 = 75% N + Azos S6 = 100% N + Azos SE LSD (P = 0.05)
a

1.41 1.42 1.46 1.45 0.03 ns 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.46 1.46 1.44 0.04 ns

3.9 3.6 3.1 3.3 0.06 0.15 3.1 3.6 4.1 2.9 3.4 3.9 0.05 0.11

N = nitrogen, Azos = Azospirillum, FYM = farmyard manure, SE = standard error, LSD = least significant differences, ns = not significant.

IRRN

33

We studied the complementary effect of organic and inorganic N along with biological N sources (Azospirillum) on rice quality. A field experiment with dry-season (kuruvai) rice (June-September) was conducted in 1996 and 1997. Forty-five-day-old daincha (Sesbania aculeata) at 12 t ha-1 and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) at 11 t ha-1 were incorporated in situ 3 d before rice transplanting. Farmyard manure was applied at 12.5 t ha-1 at the start of first puddling. Rice was inoculated with Azospirillum through seed treatment (600 g ha-1), seedling dip (100 g ha-1), and soil application (200 g ha-1). Considering the recommended dose of inorganic fertilizer of 150-50-50 kg NPK ha-1, various proportions of mineral N (50%, 75%, and 100% of recommended N) were applied to account for the complementary effect of N from organic and biofertilizer forms. Proper N nutrition and favorable soil conditions due to organic fertilizers and biofertilizers ensured the nutrient supply to the crop and improved the quality of rice grain. Incorporation of organic fertil-

izers and inoculation of Azospirillum along with application of inorganic N significantly increased optimum cooking time, lowered gruel loss, and improved total amylose and crude protein contents (see table). Among the organic fertilizers, daincha enhanced the quality characters

of rice best. Elongation ratio, however, was not influenced by the treatments. Incorporation of daincha at 12 t ha-1 and application of 50% of recommended inorganic N plus Azospirillum inoculation improved rice quality.

Crop management and physiology

Effect of grain and forage legumes on the yield of rice- and potato-based cropping systems in Nepal
B.B. Khatri, Potato Research Programme, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal; and G.J. Wells, RMB 5361A, Horsham,Victoria 3400, Australia

A field experiment was set up at Hattiban Research Station, Khumaltar, in Kathmandu Valley in July 1994 to determine the effect of various legumes on the yield of rice-and potato-based cropping systems. Rice was grown on all plots using only half the recommended fertilizer rate (30-13.2-24.9 kg NPK ha-1) to create uniform soil fertility over the site. Immediately after the rice harvest in October, cropping patterns (see table) were established in four replications with plots measuring 3 5 m in a randomized block design. Two of the treatments simulated farmers irrigated cropping patterns: fallow-potato-rice and wheat-rice. All legumes were sown using minimum tillage between rows of rice stubble; for the fallow treatment, the field was left uncultivated. In February 1995, potato was planted following treatments 1 to 4 after incorporation of leguminous vegetative material as green manure. In May 1995, potato, wheat, and the remaining legume

crops were harvested and both yield and dry matter were determined. Grain legume crop residues and white clover pasture were then incorporated into the soil before direct-seeding rice in all treatments. The rice crop was harvested in October 1995 and the same treatments were repeated during the 1995-96 season. Crop cultivars used were rice (Khumal 4), wheat (Sonalika), potato (Kufri jyoti), pea (local), lupin (1994 Swiss-L. alba, 1995 Merrit-L. angustifolius), faba bean (local), and white clover (Huia). The experimental field was irrigated as required; three times each during the 7-mo legume period, the potato season, and the rice crop. No fertilizer or farmyard manure was used on any treatment. Before the 1995 and 1996 rice crop, composite soil samples at two depths (015 and 15-30 cm) were taken from all treatments for analysis of pH, organic matter, total N (Kjeldahl), available P (Olsen), and exchangeable K.

The most effective legume that increased rice production was white clover (see table). In both years, significant increases in rice total dry matter (TDM) occurred when compared with either of the two farmer practices (an average of 158% in 1995 and 61% in 1996). Growing of grain legumes during winter and spring also resulted in increased rice production (see table). In 1994-95, while faba bean grew normally, producing a reasonable yield and residual dry matter, lupin failed to nodulate and had poor growth. With inoculation the next year, however, lupin grew very well, producing yields similar to those of faba bean. This was reflected in the subsequent rice crop. There was a strong correlation between the increase in rice TDM (compared with the farmer practice) and the amount of legume residual dry matter (RDM) incorporated prior to planting over both years (see figure). For every 5 t RDM ha-1 incorporated, rice biomass increased by 3 t ha-1.

Grain and forage legume production (t ha-1) in rice-and potato-based cropping patterns, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Cropping pattern and time of planting Legume TDMa (Feb)b 0.2 0.4 0.3 1994-95 Crop yield (May) 9.4 11.2 10.0 12.0 3.3 0.5 1.4 13.2 (potato) d ns Legume RDMc (May) 0.9 2.1 13.1 Rice TDM (Oct) 4.9 6.0 5.8 4.7 5.3 6.0 7.3 ** 2.05 Legume TDM (Feb) 4.2 3.6 2.8 Crop yield (May) 6.8 13.2 11.7 12.1 1.4 2.8 2.5 8.9 (potato) ** 1.65 1995-96 Legume RDM (May) 6.3 4.9 6.5 Rice yield (Oct) 4.1 5.2 4.7 4.4 4.3 5.6 5.6 16.2 ** 0.82 Rice TDM (Oct) 9.6 12.0 11.1 10.0 10.4 13.4 12.8

Oct

Feb

Jun rice rice rice rice rice rice rice -

Fallowpotato(farmers practice) PeapotatoLupinpotatoFabapotatoWheat(farmers practice) LupinFabaWhite clover- rice F test LSD (0.05)
a

** 2.08

TDM = total dry matter. bTime of harvest. cRDM = residual dry matter after grain harvest. dns = not significant.

34

April 1999

Increase in rice total dry matter (t ha-1) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 y = 0.60 r2 = 0.996 1995 1996 12 14 16

The spring potato crop also responded positively to the application of green manure; on average, 17% in 1995 and 81% in 1996 (see table). Vegetative production of the pea, lupin, and faba bean crops was much greater in 1996 than in 1995, possibly because of a combination of seasonal effects and improved management during the second year (inoculation
Linear relationship between increase in rice biomass and soil-incorporated legume material from different species over a 2-yr period (199496).

of the lupin crop and more timely irrigations). Although significant responses to green manure incorporation were measured in both the rice and potato crops, analysis of soil samples taken before the rice crop was planted showed no significant change in any of the soil parameters measured.

Legume residual dry matter incorporated (t ha-1)

Performance of indica/japonica derivatives in wet and boro season in West Bengal, India
S.K. Bardhan Roy, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, India, and D. Senadhira*, IRRI

Yield and profitability of rice grown in boro season (November-May) in eastern India and Bangladesh could be increased if indica varieties with cold tolerance during the seedling and early vegetative stages are available. Furthermore, farmers prefer varieties that can be grown successfully in both the boro and wet season (June-October). IR36 is now widely used by farmers in West Bengal, India, but its performance is not satisfactory. Some hybrids have shown good performance in the boro season, but their high seed cost is a setback. Three tolerant indica-type advanced lines developed from indica/ japonica or indica/tropical japonica crosses (I/J) with putatively moderate cold tolerance at the seedling stage(1) IR57098-2B10-2 (IR31868-64-2-3-3-3/Leng Kwang), (2) IR58565-12-2-2 (Bg94/SR4095-19-2-3-5-4), and (3) IR61608-3B-20-2-2-1 (IR32429-473-2-2/Dobong byeo/Moroberakan) were tested for yield along with IR36 and hybrid CNHR3. Entries were grown in Anandapur and Midnapore, West Bengal, in the 199697 boro season and 1997 wet season to determine whether I/J derivatives were better than IR36 and CNHR3 for cultivation in both seasons. In the wet season,
*Deceased

entries were tested under both irrigated transplanted conditions and rainfed directseeded conditions with 60-13.2-24.9 kg NPK ha-1. Trials were conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The net plot size harvested for yield estimation was 10 m 2 for the seeded trial. In the boro season, fertilizer level was 100-22-41.5 kg NPK ha-1 with a harvested net plot size of 11.25 m2. The experimental design was the same as in the

wet season. All experimental fields were hand-weeded. Insecticides were not applied because there was no visible pest damage. The table summarizes data on days to flowering and yield obtained from the experiments. The direct-seeded rainfed experiment was affected by drought during the vegetative stage. As a result, flowering was delayed and yields were lowabout one-third less than those of the irrigated

Days to flowering and mean grain yield of three indica/japonica derivatives, indica hybrid CNHR3, and IR36 tested in wet and boro seasons in Anandapur, West Bengal, India. Genotype Wet season Direct-seeded and rainfed Transplanted and irrigated Yield (t ha-1) 4.0 d 5.9 a 5.2 b 4.7 c 4.0 d 4.7 7.3 Boro season Mean (t ha-1)

Transplanted Days to Yield flowering (t ha-1) 125 124 126 123 130 126 6.2 c 9.2 a 8.0 ab 9.2 a 7.0 bc 7.0 12.8

Days to Days to Yielda flowering (t ha-1) flowering IR57098-2B-10-2 IR58565-12-2-2 IR61608-3B-20-2-2-1 CNHR3 IR36 Mean CV(%)
a

80 84 82 74 77 79

3.2 b 3.8 a 3.2 b 2.6 c 2.1 d 3.0 7.7

78 77 77 78 80 78

4.5 6.3 5.5 5.5 4.4

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncans multiple range test.

IRRN

35

Effective land preparation for wet seeding on a reclaimed saline soil in Korea
K.-S. Lee, J.-K. Nam, and H.-T. Shin, National Honam Agricultural Experiment Station (NHAES), 570-080 Iksan, Korea

Treatment
Control No tillage Rototilling 3-5 cm Plow tillage + Rototilling

0 Soil depth (cm) 5 10 15 20 Percent root distribution as affected by land preparation for wet seeding on reclaimed saline soil, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97. 88% 10.5 1.5 81.5% 16.8 83.5% 14.8

1.8

1.8

Some agronomic characteristics, yield components, and yield of wet-seeded rice as affected by land preparation method on the wet surface of a reclaimed saline soila, Gyehwa, Korea, 1996-97. Treatment Heading date 11 Aug 13 Aug 13 Aug Culm length (cm) 62 66 68 Panicle length (cm) 20 20 20 Panicles m-2 (no. x 1000) 10 11 11 Lodging Spikelets (no.) 29.4 c 32.2 b 35.3 a Ripened grain (%) 86.6 b 92.3 a 92.1 a 1000grain weight (g) 23.6 a 23.4 a 23.5 a Milled rice yield (t ha-1) 5.1 c 5.2 b 5.5 a

No tillage (control) Rototilled (3-5 cm) Plow tillage + rototilling

a

5 3 0

Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncans multiple range test.

36

April 1999

We examined the appropriate land preparation method for wet seeding on the wet surface of a reclaimed saline soil in Korea. The experimental field contained 0.2-0.4% NaCl in soil solution. The experiment was conducted at the Gyehwa substation of the NHAES during 1996-97. The experiment involved three tillage treatments (no tillage, 3-5 cm rototilling, and plowing followed by rototilling) in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Heading date, culm length, panicle length, and panicle number were similar in the no-tillage and tillage treatments. In rototilled and plow + rototilled treatments, vertical and horizontal root distribution was more uniform than in no tillage (see figure). But about half of the crops in the no-tillage plot lodged at maturity, probably because of their more shallow root distribution.

Spikelet number per unit area and percentage of ripened grains increased significantly, particularly in the plowing treatment followed by rototilling. Milled rice yield increased significantly with tillage but 1000-grain weight was not affected.

Results indicated that the best land preparation for wet seeding on puddled, reclaimed saline soil was to plow in autumn and rototill in spring before seeding (see table).

transplanted experiment. The three I/J derivatives were significantly better than IR36 and the hybrid. The difference in days to flowering between the wet season and boro season was 47 on average. In the boro season, one I/J derivative (IR58565-12-2-2) and the hybrid produced comparable yields and outyielded IR36. Mean yield over three experiments was also highest in IR58565-12-2-2.

Low temperature during plant growth prolonged growth duration in the boro season. Previous observations suggested that in plants putatively tolerant of low temperature, crop duration was less extended in the boro season than in the wet season. In this study, although the I/J derivatives were believed to possess some cold tolerance, their crop duration in the boro season did not differ from cold-sen-

sitive CNHR3 and IR36. With more stable performance over seasons and planting methods and low seed cost, the I/J derivative IR58565-12-2-2 had a significant advantage. Further research is needed to establish a stronger basis for selection of cold tolerance in rice.

Agricultural engineering

Seed drill for upland rice grown in undulating terrain

C.R. Subudhi, P.C. Pradhan, and P.C. Senapati, Dryland Agriculture Research Project, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology (OUAT), Phulbani 762001, Orissa, India

We tested four seed drills and two other conventional seeding practices (see table) for upland rice during three wet seasons (1995-97) in a randomized block design with three replications. The soil was a lateritic, coarse-textured, well-drained sandy loam with pH 5.2, 0.03% total N, 20 kg available P ha-1, 220 kg available K ha-1, 13.1% field capacity, and 9.5% wilting point by weight basis. Rice variety Heera (85 d duration) was dryseeded at 75 kg seeds ha-1 with 60-30-30 kg NPK ha-1. All P and K and 25% N were applied at sowing; 50% N was topdressed 20 d after sowing (DAS), with 25% N at 40 DAS. Data on average depth of seed placement, seed population m-2, energy used for seeding, and grain yield are given in the table. The highest rice grain yield (2.5 t ha-1) was observed using T2 (Gujarat State Fertilizer Corporation seed-cum-fertilizer drill) (see figure). Broadcasting (T6) had the lowest yield (1.5 t ha-1) and the highest energy requirement (360 MJ ha-1) during seeding. The shallow seed depth resulted in poor crop stand.

Performance parameters of seed drills.

Treatment T1-Implement factory seed drill (3-row, hand-drawn ) T2-Gujarat State Fertilizer Corp. seed-cum-fertilizer drill (2-row, bullock-drawn) T3-Implement factory seed drill (1-row, bullock-drawn) T4-Annapurna seed drill (5-row, hand-drawn) T5-Sowing behind the plow T6-Broadcasting

Seed placement Seed population Av yield depth (cm) m-2 (no.) (t ha-1) 2.83 2.65 210 233 2.1 2.5

Energy use (MJ ha-1) 66.7 266.4

2.15 1.22 2.17 1.30

196 173 179 125

2.2 2.3 1.9 1.5

374.6 378.4 121.5 360.0

Note: Seed rate was 75 kg ha-1 for all treatments.

Side view
160 160

325

Elevation

150 485 25 510 765

50

230

120

2000 90

200

640

250

50

130

50

Note: All measurements are in millimeters (mm). Elevation The Gujarat State Fertilizer Corporation seed-cum-fertilizer drill.

Side view

Rolling marker for a rice field

T.M. Lando, B. Abidin, and A. Najamuddin, Research Institute for Maize and Other Cereals, P.O. Box 1173, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Ninety-five percent of rice farmers in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, transplant rice using a traditional marker called a caplak. The marker is shaped and works like a traditional harrow. When it is pulled forward, it leaves straight-line marks on the soil. The

marker should then be pulled again at right angles to mark the planting row. A new rolling marker (see figure) was designed which, in contrast to the traditional system, will indicate the points for planting when pulled only once. Straight

lines are made by the wheels and cross lines are made by the outer beams. To simplify the tool, wheel circumference was fixed at 100 cm. Each wheel was then divided by 4 or 5 to give a distance of 25 or 20 cm. The six wheels are
IRRN 37

The rolling marker.

The new rolling marker provides an easy system for marking planting distances.

connected by flat outer beams that make the straight lines at 25 or 20 cm. The use of the roller provides an easy system for marking 20 20-cm, 20 25-cm, or 25 25-cm planting distances. These different distances are achieved by changing the outer beam from four to five pieces or by shifting the movable wheels and joining the two wheels in the center together to make a distance of 25 25 cm. The marker is efficient because it makes cross lines as planting markers in only one pass. The marker is also lighter and has less soil draft than the traditional marker. The materials required to construct a rolling marker are (1) a 5-m-long wood beam (3 4 cm) for the axis and outer beam, (2) a 5-m-long wood beam (20 2 cm) for the six-piece wheels, (3) a 2-m-long L-shaped iron (0.5-inch) for the frame (wood can be used if necessary), and (4) two bearings for the wheels.

A modified area sampler for aquatic invertebrate assemblages in flooded rice

K.G. Schoenly and I. Domingo, IRRI

Takahashi et al (1982) invented a two-enclosure area sampler for sampling floodwater invertebrates in California rice fields. In this note, we report on some design modifications and performance characteristics of the area sampler (hereafter called floodwater collector) for use in tropical irrigated rice fields. Our version uses a pair of metal cylinders (instead of two square boxes used by Takahashi et al), one serving as an outer cylinder made from galvanized tin (A cylinder), and an inner cylinder (B cylinder) functioning as a plunger made from stainless steel (see figure). Cylinder A is bottomless with fifteen 3.3-cm holes drilled along its bottom edge to allow passage of aquatic invertebrates. It is fitted with a 7.5cm-wide collar that functions as a hole cover and adjustable clamp during sam38 April 1999

pling. Cylinder B has two handles and a central 5-cm hole in its bottom to accommodate a #11 rubber stopper. Multiple units of cylinder A can be made as needed to obtain the desired sample size; however, only one unit of cylinder B is required. The diameter of the collector can be adjusted to fit local planting practices. No matter what diameter is used, water volume must be recorded for each sample to obtain population density estimates. The field operation of our collector requires 2 consecutive d: the first day to sink the A cylinders in the field, and the second day to take samples. On day 1, the A cylinders are centered over single rice plants (or hills) and collars are clamped above the 15 access holes. The passage of 1 d between placement and collection allows water and organisms to reequilibrate

in the field following initial disturbance. (Takahashi et al located and gathered their samples all on the same day.) On day 2, the collars are lowered and clamped tightly around the access holes to prevent escape of invertebrates. The rice plant is removed, rinsed to remove attached invertebrates, and set aside. Next, the operator grasps the B cylinder by the handles and plunges it into the A cylinder to expel water and trapped organisms through the 5-cm hole. After expelling all the remaining water, the operator inserts the rubber stopper into the B cylinder and pulls it out while standing on the metal supports of the A cylinder. Inspecting the mud for additional invertebrates underneath the B cylinder will ensure a more representative catch. Depending on water depth and season,

Agricultural engineering
Handle

Day 1:

Cylinders placed at random locations in field

B Inner cylinder

33 cm

Collars raised and clamped in up position A cylinders left undisturbed for 1 d

#11 rubber stopper

5 cm diameter

33 cm

Day 2: Aquatic samples collected one at a time

A Outer cylinder

7.5-cm collar Adjustable screw

20.5 cm

Collar lowered and clamped in down position Rice plant removed from A B lowered into A to transfer water into B Rubber stopper inserted in hole of B B removed, contents sieved and preserved in ethanol

15 3.3-cm holes 33.3 cm

Metal supports

Two-cylinder apparatus (A and B) and 2-d sampling design for collecting invertebrate communities from the floodwater zone of the rice ecosystem.

Catches of aquatic invertebrates using the floodwater collector and three other methods at three crop stages, IRRI Farm, 1997-98. Vegetative stage Method Taxaa (no.) Floodwater collector 30 (20.6 3.7) FARMCOP 21 (20.0 1.7) Rice-vac 24 (24) Strainer-net 27 (18.1 3.8) Organisms (no.) 2,453 519 438 1,470 Taxaa (no.) 32 (24.9 3.3) 25 (23.3 2.3) 28 (24.7 2.9) 28 (28) Organisms (no.) 2,208 741 983 593 Taxaa (no.) 28 (24.3 2.7) 27 (26.4 1.4) 26 (24.7 2.0) 27 (27) Organisms (no.) 1,568 835 979 715 Reproductive stage Ripening stage

a Observed number of taxa and expected (rarefaction-adjusted) number of taxa (mean 2 standard deviations). Numbers are counts from 10 samples of 0.1 m2 each, for a total planar area of 1 m2.

which may vary between 3 and 10 cm deep in Philippine irrigated fields, the B cylinder collects 1-6 L of paddy water in a funnel. The water is then passed through an 86-mesh microscreen and transferred to vials containing 70% ethanol. A comparison of invertebrate catches of the floodwater collector, FARMCOP (Cario et al 1979), Rice-vac (Domingo and Schoenly 1998), and strainer-net methods (Schoenly et al 1998)

showed that the collector catches more organisms and more taxa than the other methods. After standardizing (rarefying) invertebrate abundances to a common size (Simberloff 1972), all methods gave statistically comparable counts of taxa during the vegetative stage. At later crop stages, the strainer-net caught (slightly) more taxa than the other methods (see table). Its higher catch is due in part to a deeper scooping motion that tended to dislodge more mud and its associated fauna.

The materials for the A and B cylinders of the floodwater collector cost approximately US$15 and $20, respectively. The addition of a vial caddy (Domingo and Schoenly 1998) to aid sampling allows two persons to comfortably operate the cylinders. The floodwater collector may undersample the benthic fauna, but it shows promise as an easy-to-use, inexpensive, and time-effective method for conducting studies on biodiversity assessment, ecological monitoring, and environmental
IRRN 39

impacts of farmer interventions on riceinvertebrate assemblages at and below the water line. References
Takahashi RM, Miura T, Wilder WH. 1982. A comparison between the area sampler and the two other sampling devices for aquatic fauna in rice fields. Mosquito News 42(2):211-216.

Cario FO, Kenmore PE, Dyck VA. 1979. The FARMCOP suction sampler for hoppers and predators in flooded rice fields. Int. Rice Res. Notes 4(1):21-22. Domingo I, Schoenly K. 1998. An improved suction apparatus for sampling invertebrate communities in flooded rice. Int. Rice Res. Notes 23(2):38-39.

Schoenly K, Justo H Jr, Barrion AT, Harris MK, Bottrell DG. 1998. Analysis of invertebrate biodiversity in a Philippine farmers irrigated rice field. Environ. Entomol. 27(5):11251136. Simberloff D. 1972. Properties of the rarefaction diversity measurement. Am. Nat. 106:414418.

Socioeconomics

Medicinal weeds in rice fields of Chhattisgarh, India

P. Oudhia, Agronomy Department, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU), Raipur 492012, India

Medicinal weeds in rice fields, Chhattisgarh, India. Weed species Cyperus scariosus Fimbristylis sp. Kyllingia monocephala Abutilon indicum Phyllanthus niruri Eclipta alba Euphorbia hirta Cynodon dactylon Echinocloa colonum Oxalis corniculata Local name Motha Chuhaka Bandarphool Raksi Bhuinawla Bhengra Duddhi Doobi Sawan Khattibuti Medicinal uses For fever For stomach disorders Anti-venom Leaves used for bleeding piles Seeds used for treating cough For jaundice For respiratory problems For respiratory problems For hysteria, epilepsy, and insanity For stomach disorders For skin eruptions

Scholarships for 2000

IRRI is pleased to announce the availability of scholarships to be awarded during 2000 to support highly qualified scientists from rice-growing developing countries interested in pursuing a graduate degree in areas related to rice science. These scholarships include those provided by IRRI (PhD scholarships only) as well as scholarship funds which IRRI administers for other agencies, primarily the Asian Development Bank (ADB)-Japan scholarship fund (MS and PhD scholarships). IRRIs overall research effort is divided into 7 programs: irrigated, rainfed, upland, flood-prone ecosystems, cross ecosystems, genetic resources, and accelerating impact of rice research. Scholarship slots are allocated to each program and scholars are selected to work in areas of critical importance to each program. Selection for all grants is highly competitive and applications must be endorsed by the applicants institution. IRRI encourages the application of women candidates, hence, equally qualified women candidates will be given preference in IRRIs nondegree and degree training programs and workshops. Scholarships may be awarded to individuals working in government organizations, universities, and nongovernment organizations. Application for on-the-job (nondegree) training should be sent at least 6 months prior to the planned time of commencement of the training/research. Submit the duly accomplished application form (for degree scholarship) together with all requirements through the IRRI liaison scientist or IRRI country representative to: The Office of the Scholars Affairs, International Rice Research Institute, MCPO Box 3127, 1271 Makati City, Philippines Tel : (63-2) 845-0563; 844-3351 to 53; Fax : (63-2) 891-1292; 845-0606 Email: Postmaster@irri.cgiar.org; URL: www.cgiar.org/irri

40

April 1999

We conducted an ethnobotanical survey in Raipur during 1995-98 to identify medicinal weeds in rice fields in Chhattisgarh and document their uses. The survey, undertaken in upland, medium-elevation, and lowland areas, covered all kinds of weeds. Weeds were collected and their habitat and medicinal properties were noted after identification. To determine the uses of medicinal weeds, more than 60 farmers were interviewed. Folk doctors, tantriks (people who practice tantra), baigas (people who cure diseases with herbal medicines, assisted by spiritual power), and Ayurvedic doctors (doctors who practice Ayurveda, one of Indias oldest systems of medicine) were consulted on the medicinal value of weeds. The survey revealed that more than 50 weed species infest the rice fields of Chhattisgarh. Of these, more than 35 spe-

cies have been reported in ancient Indian literature as medicinal plants. The survey also showed that Chhattisgarh farmers use more than 25 species of medicinal weeds to solve their health problems. The medicinal uses of some problematic weeds are shown in the table. The study suggested a

strong need to document valuable knowledge about medicinal weeds from experienced farmers. By knowing the medicinal uses of weeds and identifying a suitable market for them, farmers can earn extra income from these unwanted plants.

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

Rossi M, Goggin FL, Milligan SB, Kaloshian I, Ullman DE, Williamson VM. 1998. The nematode resistance gene Mi of tomato confers resistance against the potato aphid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:950954.

open other new opportunities for breeding for durable insect resistance.

Hilbeck A, Baumgartner P, Fried M, Bigler F. 1998. Effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis-corn-fed prey on mortality and developmental time of immature Chrysoperla Over the past 7 yr, many plant genes con- carnea (Neuroptera: ferring major resistance to viral, bacterial, Chrysopidae). Environ. Entomol. and fungal pathogens have been cloned 27:480-487.
and their DNA sequences determined. Many of the proteins coded by these genes share common structural features, including leucine-rich repeats (LRR) and nucleotide-binding sites (NBS). This suggests that many genes conferring resistance to very divergent pathogens share a common evolutionary origin. In addition, the existence of conserved sequences among the genes has enabled researchers to design polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers targeted to these sequences, and thereby isolate many new members of the LRR/NBS gene family. In 1997, the first plant gene conferring resistance to a nematode was cloned from sugar beet and, again surprisingly, this gene was also a member of the LRR/ NBS family. In a new paper, Rossi et al now show that another nematode resistance gene with the LRR and NBS features, Mi from tomato, also confers resistance to a biotype of the potato aphid. Mi has thus become the first major gene for insect resistance to be cloned. Many major genes for insect resistance are known to exist in rice, including those conferring resistance to brown planthopper, green leafhopper, and gall midge. Several groups are working toward cloning these resistance genes. The discovery of Rossi et al suggests that these cloning efforts could be accelerated, if it turns out that the LRR and NBS motifs are a feature of many insect resistance genes in plants. The cloning of insect resistance genes in rice will facilitate markerassisted selection for gene pyramiding and The microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been in widespread commercial use since the 1960s, and is well known for its safety for nontarget organisms such as humans, wildlife, and beneficial arthropods that are predators and parasites of insect pests. Since 1996, crop plants genetically engineered with toxin genes from Bt have also been commercially available to farmers in some countries. These Bt crops have many advantages as a pest management technology, including ease of use by farmers and safety for nontarget organisms. The paper by Hilbeck et al, reporting that an important predator (green lace wing) suffers increased mortality when it consumes lepidopterous larvae that have fed on Bt corn, was therefore a surprise to many. The study used two caterpillar species as prey, one species that is susceptible to the Bt toxin in the transgenic corn (Cry1Ab), and the other that is not affected by the toxin at the dose present in the corn. Green lace wing mortality was significantly higher and development was significantly slower when green lace wing was fed either of the two prey species reared on the Bt corn, compared with diets consisting of prey that were reared on non-Bt corn. Mean total immature mortality for predator larvae reared on Bt-fed prey was 62%, compared with 37% when reared on nonBt-fed prey. The results of this study do not suggest that Bt crops cause severe disruption in biological control by

Chrysoperla carnea. Instead, the results do indicate that Bt crops may have no negative effects on biological control of insect pests, and that more detailed research on this topic is clearly needed.

Penned JL, Kerri JM. 1998. Determinants of farmers indigenous soil and water conservation investments in semi-arid India. Agric. Econ. 19:113-125.
A wide variety of natural resource conservation technologies have been developed at research institutions around the world, but rarely are they adopted on a wide scale. Penned and Kerri studied the determinants of farmers indigenous soil and water conservation investments in two villages in Maharashtra State and one village in Andhra Pradesh State. The practices used by farmers in these villages are varied, and include grass strips, land leveling, stone drains, and earthen bunds. Indigenous practices (as opposed to technologies introduced via external assistance projects) were studied to eliminate the influence of special external factors that might affect adoption. The study found that there are many different determinants of farmers investment decisions, including the security of land tenure and the nature of local labor and credit markets. An interesting finding was that often the same demographic variable has different effects in different villages. For example, low-caste households invest more in some villages, but less in others. Large farmers invest more in some villages, while small farmers invest more in others. The authors offer sensible reasons unique to each village that explain the adoption patterns. The results make sense, but they are not typically generalizable to other locations without a tremendous amount of care to account for specific characteristics of individual locations. These results strongly underline the location
IRRN 41

specificity of many natural resource management investments, and argue against large programs to encourage widespread adoption of particular technologies. This poses a challenge to the research community to develop technologies that are costeffective to generate and disseminate.

Widawsky D, Rozelle S, Jin S, Huang J. 1998. Pesticide productivity, host plant resistance and productivity in China. Agric. Econ. 19:203-217.
Pesticides are widely used in rice production (especially in eastern China). Some observers have argued that the value to farmers in terms of increased yield does not compensate for the cost of pesticides. Econometric studies of this issue are hampered, however, because farmers tend to use more pesticides in the presence of pest outbreaks. Unless accounted for, this will lead to a negative bias in the estimation of pesticide productivity. This study uses a two-stage estimation technique to account for such considerations and eliminate the bias. After using this technique, the authors conclude that the benefits of pesticide use at the margin in Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces are still less than the cost of the pesticides (even without accounting for externalities such as environmental and health effects). The study also constructs measures of host plant resistance to important insect pests, and concludes that the benefits of such resistance are large, and that such resistance is an effective substitute for pesticide use. Thus, farmers would be better off by reducing pesticide use and relying more on host plant resistance to reduce yield losses. The study speculates that farmers may continue to overuse pesticides due to lack of good information about their value. Government programs to encourage reduced use of pesticides and additional support to breeding programs would be the most effective policies to counter this situation.

Ku SB, Agarie S, Nomura M, Fukayama H, Tsuchida H, Ono K, Hirose S, Toki S, Miyao M, Matsuoka M. 1999. High-level expression of maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in transgenic rice plants. Nature Biotechnol. 17:76-80.
Based on differences in the pathway of CO2 assimilation, plants can be grouped into three major photosynthetic types: C3, C4, and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants. Each photosynthetic type possesses a unique set of anatomical, physiological, and biochemical features that allows them to adapt to specific niches. Many agronomically important crop species, such as rice and wheat, assimilate carbon through the C3 pathway of photosynthesis. However, C3 plants exhibit lower photosynthetic efficiency and suffer from O2 inhibition due to the oxygenase reaction of ribulose 1,5biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and the subsequent loss of CO2 from photorespiration. Under current atmospheric conditions, O2 reduces photosynthetic efficiency by as much as 40%. C4 plants, such as maize, have evolved a mechanism to overcome O2 inhibition of photosynthesis. These plants have a selective advantage (high photosynthetic capacity and high water and nutrient use efficiency) over C3 plants, especially under low CO2 conditions in which carbon loss from O2 inhibition and photorespiration becomes maximal. Ku et al introduced into rice the maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) gene, which catalyzes the initial fixation of atmospheric CO2 in C4 plants. Most transgenic rice plants showed highlevel expression of the maize gene; PEPC activities in leaves of some transgenic plants were two- to threefold higher than those in maize, and the enzyme accounted for up to 12% of the total leaf-soluble protein. The expression level of the maize PEPC in transgenic rice plants correlated with the amount of transcript and the copy

number of the inserted maize gene. Transgenic plants exhibited reduced O2 inhibition of photosynthesis and photosynthetic rates comparable with those of untransformed plants. The findings demonstrate a successful strategy for installing the key biochemical component of the C4 pathway of photosynthesis in C3 plants. This is a step toward converting C3 plants into C4 plants.

Sinclair TR, Sheehy JS. 1999. Erect leaves and photosynthesis in rice. Science 283:14561457.
High yields necessarily involve harvests of large amounts of N and much of this N must be accumulated and stored in the leaves before grain development. For example, a yield of 10 t of rice ha-1 includes the harvest of 140 kg N ha-1 in the grain. Because about half the grains N must be translocated from leaves, and leaves can transfer about 1.0 g N m-2, a leaf area index (L, one-sided leaf area per unit of land area) of 7 is needed simply to store N before transfer to the grain. An assumed major benefit of erect leaves in light capture for photosynthesis is not supported by either experimental or theoretical evidence. Leaf senescence is induced when light reaching leaves is < 5% of incident sunlight. The authors propose, therefore, that erect leaves are required to sustain the high L needed to store N. The authors calculated that an L of 4.2 provides N to support a rice yield of about 6 t ha-1. Higher yields demand a higher L for N storage and this requires more erect leaves. In studying the changes in rice varieties with the year of release from the beginning of the 20th century in Japan, progression was noted, with higher yields associated with more erect leaves and higher L. The authors conclude that high N storage in leaves is essential for high rice yields and that erect leaves are a necessary adaptation to allow a high L for N storage.

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April 1999

NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Need to conserve wild rice species in Nepal

B.R. Lu, Genetic Resources Center (GRC), IRRI

A group of scientists from the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and IRRI collaborated in exploring and collecting wild rice species in far-western, midwestern, and western Nepal in November 1998. Seventy-three samples representing Oryza rufipogon, O. nivara, O. granulata, and weedy types were collected. O. rufipogon and O. nivara were found as small or large populations with a great morphological variation in a wide range of environments, such as lakes, swamps, ponds, along ditches and canals, and at the edge of or inside farmers rice fields. O. granulata was a rare upland wild rice in Nepal found in partially shaded habitats in mountainous forests. One O. rufipogon population was collected in Palpa at an altitude of nearly 900 m. It was the highest location recorded by the IRRI International Rice Genebank for this species collected from subcontinental countries. The species may have potential for cold tolerance. Another extensive population of O. rufipogon was observed in about 50 ha in Ajigara Lake in Kapilbastu. This lake was full of typical O. rufipogon and seemed to be a haven for wildlife, particularly birds. This area could be an ideal site for in situ conservation.

The data indicated that wild rice species were declining in number and population size because of rapid changes in rice ecosystems and more extensive farming practices. Immediate action is needed to conserve the diversity of wild rice species in Nepal.

Adverse weather severely depletes seed supply of traditional varieties

S.R. Morin, GRC, IRRI

In November 1998, a team from the IRRI Genetic Resources Center and the Philippines Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) went to Cagayan Province in northeastern Philippines to take seeds back to farmers who had participated in the project titled Safeguarding and Preservation of the Biodiversity of the Rice Genepool: Component IIOn-Farm Conservation funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. The seeds had been collected from farmers in 1996 and planted and characterized at IRRI in 1997. A total of 28 varieties, including both modern and traditional types, were distributed to farmers in 15 villages. In all, 1.5 t of seed were distributed. The timing of the trip was advantageous for Cagayano farmers because of the dire effects of El Nio in 1997 and typhoons Iliang and Loleng in 1998 on local seed stocks. Traditional varieties, such as the

popular Wagwag types, were especially hard hit by the catastrophes. Many farmers were not able to obtain Wagwag seeds in 1997 or 1998 due to poor seed storage capability, lack of a local or regional seed backup system, limited government intervention, and a general dearth of seeds available for farmer-to-farmer exchange. Although data analysis is ongoing, it is clear that a formal mechanism for storing, growing, and distributing seeds of traditional varieties should be developed. GRC staff are currently working on proposals to enhance the seed supply system. By invigorating and formalizing this system, household food and economic security may be improved and the likelihood of onfarm conservation of traditional rice varieties will increase.

Outbreak of yellow stunt syndrome on rice in Punjab, India

O. Azzam, S.W. Ahn, G. Khush, IRRI; G.L. Raina, S.S. Cheema, and G.S. Sidhu, Punjab Agricultural University, Punjab, India

Nepali farmer helping collect weedy and wild rice in his field

Yellow stunt syndrome on rice was first seen in the Tarsikka block of Amritsar District during 1996, and then in the Mehta block of Amritsar and Quadian block of Gurdaspur Districts of Punjab, India, in 1997. By 1998, the incidence, severity, and affected areas in these two districts increased considerably. Of about 490,000 ha planted to rice, nearly 40,000 ha were severely damaged (yield losses estimated to be between 30% and 100%. All recommended varieties, including Basmati types, were affected. According to local extension officers and farmers, symptoms were only visible 20-30 d after transplanting. Affected leaves were bright yellow with occasional orange leaf discoloration. Pronounced stunting of plants was common. Reduced tillering but no crinkling or streaking of leaves was observed. Roots of diseased plants showed poor growth with no galls. When incidence was high, the spread of diseased plants was uniform in the plot.
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The observed symptoms did not suggest bacterial or fungal diseases. Instead, observations suggested that biotic agents such as viruses or virus-like organisms may be involved. In September 1998, symptoms were documented from 11 fields across the outbreak region and 20 samples per field were collected for further testing using different diagnostic techniques. Results showed that only two of the 215 samples gave positive reactions with antisera of rice tungro bacilliform (RTBV) and rice tungro spherical (RTSV) viruses using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). However, when nucleic acids were extracted from 19 representative plants and amplified by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using RTSV-specific primers, PCR products were detected. These PCR products even hybridized to a virus-specific probe using a Southern hybridization technique. This confirmed that the collected samples contained nucleic acids of RTSV origin. Since RTBV was not detected by ELISA, Southern hybridization, or electron microscopy, we have no evidence that the collected samples were infected by this second virus. Our results suggest that the outbreak may be due to a virus or viruslike agent related to RTSV alone. Further experiments are needed to confirm these findings.

Vietnam stops registering insecticides for leaffolder control1

Vo Mai, N.H. Huan, Plant Protection Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; M.M. Escalada,Visayas State College of Agriculture, Leyte, Philippines; and K.L. Heong, IRRI

Ecological research has shown that because of plant compensation, the highly visible damage caused by rice leaffolders in early crop stages does not result in yield loss. Leaffolder populations are also kept

under natural biological control by a variety of predators. However, farmers in Vietnam often spray insecticides in the early season, believing that without control, leaffolder damage will lead to yield loss. A large proportion of the insecticides used are pesticides known to be highly hazardous to human health (category I under WHO classification). Research has also shown that insecticides applied in the early season tend to disrupt the rice ecosystem, making it more vulnerable to development of secondary pests such as brown planthoppers. Thus, routine sprays are not only uneconomical but also pose health and ecological risks. In 1992, participatory experiments in the Mekong Delta invited farmers to determine whether chemical control of leaffolders is needed. Hundreds of farmers discovered that yields did not decrease in unsprayed portions of their fields. They therefore changed their perceptions and stopped early-season sprays. To reach millions of farmers, a pilot project was initiated to evaluate the use of communication media to motivate them to participate in this experiment. Using a carefully designed and pretested leaflet, poster, and radio drama, the campaign stimulated a 53% decline in insecticide use, from an average of 3.4 sprays per farmer per season to 1.6. Most farmers stopped sprays in the tillering and booting stages. Other provinces in the Mekong Delta adopted the approach and, in 1997, the campaign reached 92% of the 2.5 million farmers, reducing insecticide sprays to an average of 1. These research results helped to convince the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to stop registering insecticides for leaffolder control. In a letter, the Director General of the Plant Protection Department advised pesticide companies that the Department no longer considers leaffolder control as a justification for registering insecticides. This policy is expected to contribute toward a further reduction in unnecessary insecticide use.

Short- to medium-duration rice in rotation with chickpea in Bangladesh

M.A. Mazid and I.U. Mollah, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Rajshahi; E. Haque, Directorate of Agricultural Extension, Tanore, Bangladesh; and L.J.Wade, IRRI

We experimented with growing mediumduration BRRI Dhan 32 (BR32) (125-130 d) rice followed by short-duration Barichola 2 chickpea (115-120 d) as an alternative to the traditional, long-duration, transplanted-aman rice (145-150 d) main crop in rainfed lowlands of northwest Bangladesh. The conditions were quite favorable in 1998, with BR32 yielding about 4.5 t ha-1, Swarna (a long-duration modern variety) about 5.0 t ha-1, and the traditional long-duration varieties about 3.0-3.5 t ha-1. Heavy rains of up to 140 mm just after harvest of BR32 delayed establishment of Barichola 2 chickpea in some areas, negating to some extent the advantage of an earlier BR32 harvest. Under these conditions, however, farmers who recognized the need to establish chickpea quickly should still have a satisfactory chickpea harvest. Innovative farmers, such as Mr. M.D. Alauddin of Telopara, Tanore, broadcast the chickpea into the rice stubble and then crossplowed. Despite the rough seedbed, the large-seeded chickpea established well, showing good growth and good seed set. We observed that any delay in chickpea establishment severely affected chickpea growth. Crop stand was good when land was prepared before sowing, but crop growth was less. At sites where planting was delayed (e.g., where flooding interfered with sowing), chickpea had poor crop stand and poor growth, but linseed performed better. Some farmers tried lentil, but it could not cope with no rain at all. Using a shorter duration rice variety, followed by a shorter duration chickpea variety, is one cropping practice that may prove advantageous to farmers in rainfed areas of Bangladesh.

1 Editors note: Dr. Vo Mai was awarded the Distinguished Service medal for her contributions to Vietnam agriculture, which included her role in this project, and Dr, K.L. Heong was awarded the Medal for Agricultural Development in Vietnam by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, for his contributions to the project and Vietnam agriculture.

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NEWS

IRRI elects new board members

IRRI has three new trustees for its board for 1999-2001: Hiroshi Fujimaki, Japan, for genetics and plant breeding; Calvin O. Qualset, USA, for genetics and genetic resources; and Emanuel Adilson S. Serro, Brazil, for research agronomy. Dr. Hiroshi Fujimaki has been director general of the National Agricultural Research Center (NARC/MAFF), Tsukuba Science City, since 1995, where he is responsible for the management and coordination of multidisciplinary agricultural research. He earned a BS degree in agricultural science in 1961 at the National Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology and a PhD in genetics and plant breeding in 1977 at the National University of Nagoya. Dr. Fujimaki has had a long and distinguished career in agricultural research (1961 to 1986) and research management (1986 to present). At the Department of Genetics and Physiology, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, he worked on transferring multiracial blast resistance genes from remotely related indica subspecies into japonica rice cultivars. He also worked on breeding rice cultivars adapted to the temperate regions of central Japan. As chief of the Rice Genetics and Breeding Laboratory of the Hokuriku Agricultural Experiment Station in 1980-86, he worked on recurrent selection systems in rice breeding for promoting genetic recombinations. He served as a board member of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute in 1993 and a member of IRRIs Asian Rice Biotechnology Steering Committee from 1994 to 1995. Dr. Calvin Qualset is the director of the Genetic Resources Conservation Program of the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources at the University of California (UC) and professor emeritus, UC,

Hiroshi Fujimaki

Calvin Qualset

Emanuel Adilson Serro

Davis. Before retiring as a professor in 1994, he held positions as chair of the Department of Agronomy and Range Science and associate dean for Plant Sciences and Pest Management at UC, Davis. He served as assistant professor at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, from 1964 to 1967 before moving to California in 1967. Dr. Qualset is active in developing biological conservation strategies and conducts research on plant genetic resources conservation and genetics. He serves on the board of trustees of the American Type Culture Collection as a representative of the Genetics Society of America. He coordinates the International Triticeae Mapping Initiative and is the principal investigator on McKnight Foundation and BARDfunded projects in Mexico and Israel on in situ conservation of crop plants and genetic mapping of wheat. Dr. Qualset received his BS in agriculture in 1958 at the University of Nebraska and MS in agronomy in 1960 and PhD in genetics in 1964 at UC, Davis. He held Fulbright Fellowships in Australia and Yugoslavia and served as president of the American Society of Agronomy and the Crop Science Society of America. He has received citations for work in plant breeding from the U.S. National Council of Commercial Plant Breeders and the Mexican National Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. Dr. Emanuel Adilson Serro is presently director general of the Center for Agroforestry Research of the Eastern Ama-

zon, of the Brazilian Agency for Agricultural Research (EMBRAPA). It is the largest and most important EMBRAPA center for the Brazilian tropics. He has extensive experience in agricultural research in the Brazilian Amazon, especially in pasture, animal production, agroforestry, and sustainable development issues. He earned a BA degree in agricultural science in 1965 at Faculdade de Cincias Agrrias do Par, Belm; an MS in agronomy in 1968 at the University of Wisconsin, Madison; and a PhD in agronomy in 1976 at the University of Florida, Gainesville. Dr. Serros activities throughout his career have given him considerable experience in technical, scientific, and institutional issues related to Amazonia and the humid tropics. He served as director of research of the Center for Agroforestry Research of the Eastern Amazon from 1991 to 1996. He is presently a member of the International Advisory Group of the Pilot Program for the Conservation of the Tropical Forest in Brazil, supported by the G7 countries and the European Community, and the Scientific Steering Committee of the Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment of Amazonia (LBA) Project, a joint venture of the Brazilian government, the United States (through NASA), and the European Union. Dr. Serro has served on numerous boards and advisory groups.

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William Padolina joins IRRI as external relations director

Dr. William G. Padolina is IRRIs new director for external relations. Dr. Padolina will lead several different units, all of them involved, in one way or another, with IRRIs research partners. These units are responsible for resource mobilization, relations with the host country, IRRIs research activities in other countries, as well as matters pertaining to intellectual property rights. In addition, Dr. Padolina will oversee the training of rice scientists from various countries, a large publishing program, the worlds most important rice library, and a museum devoted to rice, Riceworld. IRRI Director General Ronald P. Cantrell said, Dr. Padolinas experience as a world-class scientist, especially in biotechnology and intellectual property rights, will be important to IRRI. We are looking to him for leadership in these areas as we get ready for the next century. Dr. Padolina is a distinguished government leader, scientist, and academic. He was a former Cabinet member in the Philippine government as secretary of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) from 1995 to 1998. He also served as assistant to the president of the University of the Philippines (UP) System, vice chancellor for academic affairs at UP Los Baos (UPLB), and director of the National Institutes of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology at UPLB.

International Rice Research Conference set for 31 Mar3 Apr 2000

Rice research for food security and poverty alleviation is the theme of the International Rice Research Conference (IRRC) 2000 to be held at IRRI headquarters, 31 March3 April 2000. To assure food security and to continue the advance against poverty in rice-consuming countries of the world, farmers will have to produce 40% to 50% more rice with improved qualities to meet consumer demand in 2025. This additional rice will have to be produced on less land with less water, less labor, and fewer chemicals. To meet this challenge of increasing rice production during the first quarter of the 21st century, scientists must develop rice varieties with higher yield potential, durable resistance to diseases and insects, and tolerance for abiotic stresses. Recent breakthroughs in molecular biology have provided greater opportunities for rice scientists to develop a new generation of rice varieties. Increases in rice production can also be achieved by closing the yield gap and improving yield stability through knowledge-intensive crop and natural resource management. The 1995 IRRC focused on less-favored and fragile environmentsthe rainfed lowland, upland, and flood-prone rice ecosystems. IRRC 2000, as part of IRRIs 40th anniversary celebration, will focus on the irrigated ecosystem and provide a forum for rice scientists to present research results and exchange ideas. The topics for the seven sessions of the IRRC 2000 are: Increasing yield potential in irrigated rice: breaking the barrier, Exploitation and utilization of heterosis in rice, Breeding for abiotic stress tolerance, Durable host-plant resistance, Integrated nutrient and pest management, Water and weed management in direct-seeded rice, and Impact of technologies on food security and poverty alleviation. Selected full papers from oral presentations will be published in the Conference proceedings. Selected poster abstracts will be published in future installments of the International Rice Research Notes (IRRN). Important dates 1 Oct 1999 1 Dec 1999 1 Mar 2000 31 Mar3 Apr 2000

Deadline for submission of abstracts Mailing of invitations to selected participants and detailed instructions to authors. Submission of full papers to the organizing committee Conference at IRRI headquarters, Los Baos, Philippines

The members of the organizing committee are Darshan S. Brar, Michael B. Cohen, Eugene P. Hettel, Mahabub Hossain, Gurdev S. Khush, Hei Leung, Graciella Martinez, Shaobing Peng, and To Phuc Tuong. For more information, contact: Shaobing Peng Chair, Organizing Committee International Rice Research Conference 2000 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) P.O. Box 3127, 1271 Makati City Philippines Fax: 63-2-891-1292 E-mail: s.peng@cgiar.org

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April 1999

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS IRRN welcomes three types of submitted manuscripts: research notes, mini reviews, and notes from the field. All manuscripts must have international or pan-national relevance to rice science or production, be written in English, and be an original work of the author(s), and must not have been previously published elsewhere. Research notes Research notes submitted to IRRN should report on work conducted during the immediate past 3 yr or work in progress advance rice knowledge use appropriate research design and data collection methodology report pertinent, adequate data apply appropriate statistical analysis, and reach supportable conclusions. Routine research. Reports of screening trials of varieties, fertilizer, cropping methods, and other routine observations using standard methodologies to establish local recommendations are not ordinarily accepted. Preliminary research findings. To reach well-supported conclusions, field trials should be repeated across more than one season, in multiple seasons, or in more than one location as appropriate. Preliminary research findings from a single season or location may be accepted for publication in IRRN if the findings are of exceptional interest. Preliminary data published in IRRN may later be published as part of a more extensive study in another peer-reviewed publication, if the original IRRN article is cited. However, a note submitted to IRRN should not consist solely of data that have been extracted from a larger publication that has already been or will soon be published elsewhere. Multiple submissions. Normally, only one report for a single experiment will be accepted. Two or more items about the same work submitted at the same time will be returned for merging. Submitting at different times multiple notes from the same experiment is highly inappropriate. Detection will result in the rejection of all submissions on that research. Manuscript preparation. Arrange the note as a brief statement of research objectives, a short description of project design, and a succinct discussion of results. Relate results to the objectives. Do not include abstracts. Up to five references may be cited. Restrain acknowledgments. Limit each note to no more than two pages of double-spaced typewritten text (approximately 500 words). Each note may include up to two tables and/or figures (graphs, illustrations, or photos). Refer to all tables and figures in the text. Group tables and figures at the end of the note, each on a separate page. Tables and figures must have clear titles that adequately explain contents. Apply these rules, as appropriate, to all research notes:
Methodology

Define any nonstandard abbreviation or symbol used in tables or figures in a footnote, caption, or legend. Mini reviews Mini reviews should address topics of current interest to a broad selection of rice researchers, and highlight new developments that are shaping current work in the field. Authors should contact the appropriate editorial board member before submitting a mini review to verify that the subject is appropriate and that no similar reviews are already in preparation. (A list of the editors and their areas of responsibility appears on the inside front cover of each IRRN issue.) Because only 1-2 mini reviews can be published per issue, IRRN will require high quality standards for manuscripts accepted for publication. The reviews should be 2000-3000 words long, including references. Refer to the guidelines for research notes for other aspects of writing and content. Notes from the field Notes from the field should address important new observations or trends in rice-growing areas, such as pest outbreaks or new pest introductions, or the adoption or spread of new crop management practices. These observations, while not the result of experiments, must be carefully described and documented. Notes should be approximately 250 words in length. Refer to the guidelines for research notes for other aspects of writing and content. Review of manuscripts The IRRN managing editor will send an acknowledgment card or an email message when a note is received. An IRRI scientist, selected by the editorial board, reviews each note. Depending on the reviewers report, a note will be accepted for publication, rejected, or returned to the author(s) for revision. Submission of manuscripts Submit the original manuscript and a duplicate, each with a clear copy of all tables and figures, to IRRN. Retain a copy of the note and of all tables and figures. Send manuscripts, correspondence, and comments or suggestions about IRRN by mail or email to: The IRRN Managing Editor IRRI, MCPO Box 3127 1271 Makati City Philippines Fax: (63-2) 845-0606 Email: kslopez@cgiar.org

Include an internationally known check or control treatment in all experiments. Report grain yield at 14% moisture content. Quantify survey data, such as infection percentage, degree of severity, and sampling base. When evaluating susceptibility, resistance, and tolerance, report the actual quantification of damage due to stress, which was used to assess level or incidence. Specify the measurements used. Provide the genetic background for new varieties or breeding lines. Specify the rice production systems as irrigated, rainfed lowland, upland, and flood-prone (deepwater and tidal wetlands). Indicate the type of rice culture (transplanted, wet seeded, dry seeded).
Terminology

If local terms for seasons are used, define them by characteristic weather (dry season, wet season, monsoon) and by months. Use standard, internationally recognized terms to describe rice plant parts, growth stages, and management practices. Do not use local names. Provide scientific names for diseases, insects, weeds, and crop plants. Do not use local names alone. Do not use local monetary units. Express all economic data in terms of the US$, and include the exchange rate used. Use generic names, not trade names, for all chemicals. Use the International System of Units for all measurements. For example, express yield data in metric tons per hectare (t ha-1) for field studies. Do not use local units of measure. When using acronyms or abbreviations, write the name in full on first mention, followed by the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses. Use the abbreviation thereafter.

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