STATEMENTDB109

WastheNewTestamentInfluencedbyPaganReligions? byRonaldNash
Duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,anumberofliberalauthorsandprofessorsclaimedthattheNew TestamentteachingaboutJesusdeathandresurrection,theNewBirth,andtheChristianpracticesofbaptismand theLordsSupperwerederivedfromthepaganmysteryreligions.Ofmajorconcerninallthisisthechargethatthe NewTestamentdoctrineofsalvationparallelsthemescommonlyfoundinthemysteryreligions:asaviorgoddies violentlyforthosehewilleventuallydeliver,afterwhichthatgodisrestoredtolife. WastheNewTestamentinfluencedbythepaganreligionsofthefirstcenturyA.D.?EventhoughIsurveyedthis matterina1992book,1theissuesaresoimportantespeciallyforChristiancollegestudentswhooftendonotknow wheretolookforanswersthatthereisconsiderablemeritinaddressingthisquestioninapopular,nontechnical format. WHATWERETHEMYSTERYRELIGIONS? OtherthanJudaismandChristianity,themysteryreligionswerethemostinfluentialreligionsintheearlycenturies afterChrist.Thereasonthesecultswerecalledmysteryreligionsisthattheyinvolvedsecretceremoniesknown onlytothoseinitiatedintothecult.Themajorbenefitofthesepracticeswasthoughttobesomekindofsalvation. Themysteryreligionswerenot,ofcourse,theonlymanifestationsofthereligiousspiritintheeasternRomanEmpire. Onecouldalsofindpubliccultsnotrequiringaninitiationceremonyintosecretbeliefsandpractices.TheGreek OlympianreligionanditsRomancounterpartareexamplesofthistypeofreligion. EachMediterraneanregionproduceditsownmysteryreligion.OutofGreececamethecultsofDemeterand Dionysus,aswellastheEleusinianandOrphicmysteryreligions,whichdevelopedlater.2AsiaMinorgavebirthto thecultofCybele,theGreatMother,andherbeloved,ashepherdnamedAttis.ThecultofIsisandOsiris(later changedtoSerapis)originatedinEgypt,whileSyriaandPalestinesawtheriseofthecultofAdonis.Finally,Persia (Iran)wasaleadingearlylocaleforthecultofMithras,whichduetoitsfrequentuseoftheimageryofwarheld aspecialappealtoRomansoldiers.TheearlierGreekmysteryreligionswerestatereligionsinthesensethatthey attainedthestatusofapublicorcivilcultandservedanationalorpublicfunction.ThelaternonGreekmysteries werepersonal,private,andindividualistic. BasicTraits Onemustavoidanysuggestionthattherewasonecommonmysteryreligion.Whileatendencytowardeclecticismor synthesisdevelopedafterA.D.300,eachofthemysterycultswasaseparateanddistinctreligionduringthecentury thatsawthebirthoftheChristianchurch.Moreover,eachmysterycultassumeddifferentformsindifferentcultural CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 1

settingsandunderwentsignificantchanges,especiallyafterA.D.100.Nevertheless,themysteryreligionsexhibited fivecommontraits. (1)Centraltoeachmysterywasitsuseofanannualvegetationcycleinwhichlifeisrenewedeachspringanddies eachfall.Followersofthemysterycultsfounddeepsymbolicsignificanceinthenaturalprocessesofgrowth,death, decay,andrebirth. (2)Asnotedabove,eachcultmadeimportantuseofsecretceremoniesormysteries,ofteninconnectionwithan initiationrite.Eachmysteryreligionalsopassedonasecrettotheinitiatethatincludedinformationaboutthelife ofthecultsgodorgoddessandhowhumansmightachieveunitywiththatdeity.Thisknowledgewasalwaysa secretoresotericknowledge,unattainablebyanyoutsidethecircleofthecult. (3)Eachmysteryalsocenteredaroundamythinwhichthedeityeitherreturnedtolifeafterdeathorelsetriumphed overhisenemies.Implicitinthemythwasthethemeofredemptionfromeverythingearthlyandtemporal.Thesecret meaningofthecultanditsaccompanyingmythwasexpressedinasacramentaldramathatappealedlargelytothe feelingsandemotionsoftheinitiates.Thisreligiousecstasywassupposedtoleadthemtothinktheywere experiencingthebeginningofanewlife. (4)Themysterieshadlittleornousefordoctrineandcorrectbelief.Theywereprimarilyconcernedwiththe emotionallifeoftheirfollowers.Thecultsusedmanydifferentmeanstoaffecttheemotionsandimaginationsof initiatesandhencebringaboutunionwiththegod:processions,fasting,aplay,actsofpurification,blazinglights, andesotericliturgies.Thislackofanyemphasisoncorrectbeliefmarkedanimportantdifferencebetweenthe mysteriesandChristianity.TheChristianfaithwasexclusivisticinthesensethatitrecognizedonlyonelegitimate pathtoGodandsalvation,JesusChrist.Themysterieswereinclusivisticinthesensethatnothingpreventeda believerinonecultfromfollowingothermysteries. (5)Theimmediategoaloftheinitiateswasamysticalexperiencethatledthemtofeeltheyhadachievedunionwith theirgod.Beyondthisquestformysticalunionweretwomoreultimategoals:somekindofredemptionorsalvation, andimmortality. Evolution BeforeA.D.100,themysteryreligionswerestilllargelyconfinedtospecificlocalitiesandwerestillarelativelynovel phenomenon.AfterA.D.100,theygraduallybegantoattainawidespreadpopularinfluencethroughouttheRoman Empire.Buttheyalsounderwentsignificantchangesthatoftenresultedfromthevariouscultsabsorbingelements fromeachother.Asdevoteesofthemysteriesbecameincreasinglyeclecticintheirbeliefsandpractices,newandodd combinationsoftheoldermysteriesbegantoemerge.Andasthecultscontinuedtotonedownthemore objectionablefeaturesoftheirolderpractices,theybegantoattractgreaternumbersoffollowers. RECONSTRUCTINGTHEMYSTERIES ItisnotuntilwecometothethirdcenturyA.D.thatwefindsufficientsourcematerial(i.e.,informationaboutthe mysteryreligionsfromthewritingsofthetime)topermitarelativelycompletereconstructionoftheircontent.Far toomanywritersusethislatesourcematerial(afterA.D.200)toformreconstructionsofthethirdcenturymystery experienceandthenuncriticallyreasonbacktowhattheythinkmusthavebeentheearliernatureofthecults.This practiceisexceptionallybadscholarshipandshouldnotbeallowedtostandwithoutchallenge.Informationabouta cultthatcomesseveralhundredyearsafterthecloseoftheNewTestamentcanonmustnotbereadbackintowhatis presumedtobethestatusofthecultduringthefirstcenturyA.D.Thecrucialquestionisnotwhatpossibleinfluence themysteriesmayhavehadonsegmentsofChristendomafterA.D.400,butwhateffecttheemergingmysteriesmay havehadontheNewTestamentinthefirstcentury. CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 2

 TheCultofIsisandOsiris ThecultofIsisoriginatedinEgyptandwentthroughtwomajorstages.InitsolderEgyptianversion,whichwasnota mysteryreligion,Isiswasregardedasthegoddessofheaven,earth,thesea,andtheunseenworldbelow.Inthis earlierstage,IsishadahusbandnamedOsiris.ThecultofIsisbecameamysteryreligiononlyafterPtolemytheFirst introducedmajorchanges,sometimeafter300B.C.Inthelaterstage,anewgodnamedSerapisbecameIsissconsort. PtolemyintroducedthesechangesinordertosynthesizeEgyptianandGreekconcernsinhiskingdom,thus hasteningtheHellenizationofEgypt. FromEgypt,thecultofIsisgraduallymadeitswaytoRome.WhileRomewasatfirstrepelledbythecult,thereligion finallyenteredthecityduringthereignofCaligula(A.D.3741).Itsinfluencespreadgraduallyduringthenexttwo centuries,andinsomelocalesitbecameamajorrivalofChristianity.ThecultssuccessintheRomanEmpireseems tohaveresultedfromitsimpressiveritualandthehopeofimmortalityofferedtoitsfollowers. ThebasicmythoftheIsiscultconcernedOsiris,herhusbandduringtheearlierEgyptianandnonmysterystageofthe religion.Accordingtothemostcommonversionofthemyth,Osiriswasmurderedbyhisbrotherwhothensankthe coffincontainingOsirissbodyintotheNileriver.IsisdiscoveredthebodyandreturnedittoEgypt.Butherbrother inlawonceagaingainedaccesstothebody,thistimedismemberingitintofourteenpieceswhichhescattered widely.Followingalongsearch,Isisrecoveredeachpartofthebody.Itisatthispointthatthelanguageusedto describewhatfollowediscrucial.SometimesthosetellingthestoryaresatisfiedtosaythatOsiriscamebacktolife, eventhoughsuchlanguageclaimsfarmorethanthemythallows.Somewritersgoevenfurtherandrefertothe allegedresurrectionofOsiris.Oneliberalscholarillustrateshowbiasedsomewritersarewhentheydescribethe paganmythinChristianlanguage:ThedeadbodyofOsirisfloatedintheNileandhereturnedtolife,thisbeing accomplishedbyabaptisminthewatersoftheNile. 3 ThisbiasedandsloppyuseoflanguagesuggeststhreemisleadinganalogiesbetweenOsirisandChrist:(1)asavior goddiesand(2)thenexperiencesaresurrectionaccompaniedby(3)waterbaptism.Buttheallegedsimilarities,as wellasthelanguageusedtodescribethem,turnouttobefabricationsofthemodernscholarandarenotpartofthe originalmyth.ComparisonsbetweentheresurrectionofJesusandtheresuscitationofOsirisaregreatlyexaggerated.4 NoteveryversionofthemythhasOsirisreturningtolife;insomehesimplybecomeskingoftheunderworld. EquallyfarfetchedareattemptstofindananalogueofChristianbaptismintheOsinsmyth.5ThefateofOsiriss coffinintheNileisasrelevanttobaptismasthesinkingofAtlantis. Aspreviouslynoted,duringitslatermysterystage,themaledeityoftheIsiscultisnolongerthedyingOsirisbut Serapis.Serapisisoftenportrayedasasungod,anditisclearthathewasnotadyinggod.Obviouslythen,neither couldhebearisinggod.Thus,itisworthrememberingthatthepostPtolemaicmysteryversionoftheIsiscultthat wasincirculationfromabout300B.C.throughtheearlycenturiesoftheChristianerahadabsolutelynothingthat couldresembleadyingandrisingsaviorgod. TheCultofCybeleandAttis Cybele,alsoknownastheGreatMother,wasworshipedthroughmuchoftheHellenisticworld.Sheundoubtedly beganasagoddessofnature.Herearlyworshipincludedorgiasticceremoniesinwhichherfrenziedmale worshiperswereledtocastratethemselves,followingwhichtheybecameGallioreunuchpriestsofthegoddess. CybeleeventuallycametobeviewedastheMotherofallgodsandthemistressofalllife. MostofourinformationaboutthecultdescribesitspracticesduringitslaterRomanperiod.Butthedetailsareslim andalmostallthesourcematerialisrelativelylate,certainlydatablelongafterthecloseoftheNewTestamentcanon. CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 3

Accordingtomyth,CybelelovedashepherdnamedAttis.BecauseAttiswasunfaithful,shedrovehiminsane. Overcomebymadness,Attiscastratedhimselfanddied.ThisdroveCybeleintogreatmourning,anditintroduced deathintothenaturalworld.ButthenCybelerestoredAttistolife,aneventthatalsobroughttheworldofnature backtolife. ThepresuppositionsoftheinterpretertendtodeterminethelanguageusedtodescribewhatfollowedAttissdeath. ManywritersrefercarelesslytotheresurrectionofAttis.Butsurelythisisanexaggeration.Thereisnomentionof anythingresemblingaresurrectioninthemyth,whichsuggeststhatCybelecouldonlypreserveAttissdeadbody. Beyondthis,thereismentionofthebodyshaircontinuingtogrow,alongwithsomemovementofhislittlefinger.In someversionsofthemyth,Attissreturntolifetooktheformofhisbeingchangedintoanevergreentree.Sincethe basicideaunderlyingthemythwastheannualvegetationcycle,anyresemblancetothebodilyresurrectionofChrist isgreatlyexaggerated. EventuallyapublicrehearsaloftheAttismythbecameanannualeventinwhichworshiperssharedinAttiss immortality.EachspringthefollowersofCybelewouldmournforthedeadAttisinactsoffastingandflagellation. ItwasonlyduringthelaterRomancelebrations(afterA.D.300)ofthespringfestivalthatanythingremotely connectedwitharesurrectionappears.ThepinetreesymbolizingAttiswascutdownandthencarriedcorpselike intothesanctuary.Laterintheprolongedfestival,thetreewasburiedwhiletheinitiatesworkedthemselvesintoa frenzythatincludedgashingthemselveswithknives.Thenextnight,thegraveofthetreewasopenedandthe resurrectionofAttiswascelebrated.Butthelanguageoftheselatesourcesishighlyambiguous.Intruth,noclear cut,unambiguousreferencetothesupposedresurrectionofAttisappears,evenintheverylateliteraturefromthe fourthcenturyafterChrist. TheTaurobolium ThebestknownriteofthecultoftheGreatMotherwasthetauroboliurn.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthis ritualwasnotpartofthecultinitsearlierstages.Itenteredthereligionsometimeafterthemiddleofthesecond centuryA.D. Duringtheceremony,initiatesstoodorreclinedinapitasabullwasslaughteredonaplatformabovethem.6The initiatewouldthenbebathedinthewarmbloodofthedyinganimal.Ithasbeenallegedthatthetauroboliumwasa sourceforChristianlanguageaboutbeingwashedinthebloodofthelamb(Rev.7:14)orsprinkledwiththebloodof Jesus(1Pet.1:2).IthasalsobeencitedasthesourceforPaulsteachinginRomans6:14,whereherelatesChristian baptismtotheChristiansidentificationwithChristsdeathandresurrection. Nonotionofdeathandresurrectionwaseverpartofthetaurobolium,however.Thebestavailableevidencerequires ustodatetheritualaboutonehundredyearsafterPaulwroteRomans6:14.Notoneexistingtextsupportstheclaim thatthetauroboliummemorializedthedeathandresurrectionofAttis.Thepaganritecouldnotpossiblyhavebeen thesourceforPaulsteachinginRomans6.OnlyneartheendofthefourthcenturyA.D.didtheritualaddthenotion ofrebirth.SeveralimportantscholarsseeaChristianinfluenceatworkinthislaterdevelopment. 7Itisclear,then,that thechronologicaldevelopmentoftheritemakesitimpossibleforittohaveinfluencedfirstcenturyChristianity.The NewTestamentteachingaboutthesheddingofbloodshouldbeviewedinthecontextofitsOldTestament backgroundthePassoverandthetemplesacrifice. Mithraism AttemptstoreconstructthebeliefsandpracticesofMithraismfaceenormouschallengesbecauseofthescanty informationthathassurvivedProponentsofthecultexplainedtheworldintermsoftwoultimateandopposing principles,onegood(depictedaslight)andtheotherevil(darkness).Humanbeingsmustchoosewhichsidethey CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 4

willfightfor;theyaretrappedintheconflictbetweenlightanddarkness.Mithracametoberegardedasthemost powerfulmediatorwhocouldhelphumanswardoffattacksfromdemonicforces.8 ThemajorreasonwhynoMithraicinfluenceonfirstcenturyChristianityispossibleisthetiming:itsallwrong!The floweringofMithraismoccurredafterthecloseoftheNewTestamentcanon,muchtoolateforittohaveinfluenced anythingthatappearsintheNewTestament.9Moreover,nomonumentsforthecultcanbedatedearlierthanA.D. 90100,andeventhisdatingrequiresustomakesomeexceedinglygenerousassumptions.Chronologicaldifficulties, then,makethepossibilityofaMithraicinfluenceonearlyChristianityextremelyimprobable.Certainly,there remainsnocredibleevidenceforsuchaninfluence. STRIKINGPARALLELS? Enoughhasbeensaidthusfartopermitcommentononeofthemajorfaultsoftheabovementionedliberalscholars. Irefertothefrequencywithwhichtheirwritingsevidenceacareless,evensloppyuseoflanguage.Onefrequently encountersscholarswhofirstuseChristianterminologytodescribepaganbeliefsandpractices,andthenmarvelat thestrikingparallelstheythinktheyhavediscovered.OnecangoalongwaytowardprovingearlyChristian dependenceonthemysteriesbydescribingsomemysterybelieforpracticeinChristianterminology.J.Godwindoes thisinhisbook,MysteryReligionsintheAncientWorld,whichdescribesthecriobolium(seefootnote6)asablood baptisminwhichtheinitiateiswashedinthebloodofthelamb.10Whileuninformedreadersmightbestunnedby thisremarkablesimilaritytoChristianity(seeRev.7:14),knowledgeablereaderswillseesuchaclaimasthereflection ofastrong,negativebiasagainstChristianity. Exaggerationsandoversimplificationsaboundinthiskindofliterature.Oneencountersoverblownclaimsabout allegedlikenessesbetweenbaptismandtheLordsSupperandsimilarsacramentsincertainmysterycults. AttemptstofindanalogiesbetweentheresurrectionofChristandtheallegedresurrectionsofthemysterydeities involvemassiveamountsofoversimplificationandinattentiontodetail. PaganRitualsandtheChristianSacraments ThemerefactthatChristianityhasasacredmealandawashingofthebodyissupposedtoprovethatitborrowed theseceremoniesfromsimilarmealsandwashingsinthepagancults.Bythemselves,ofcourse,suchoutward similaritiesprovenothing.Afterall,religiousceremoniescanassumeonlyalimitednumberofforms,andtheywill naturallyrelatetoimportantorcommonaspectsofhumanlife.Themoreimportantquestionisthemeaningofthe paganpractices.CeremonialwashingsthatantedatetheNewTestamenthaveadifferentmeaningfromNew Testamentbaptism,whilepaganwashingsafterA.D.100cometoolatetoinfluencetheNewTestamentand,indeed, mightthemselveshavebeeninfluencedbyChristianity.11SacredmealsinthepreChristianGreekmysteriesfailto proveanythingsincethechronologyisallwrong.TheGreekceremoniesthataresupposedtohaveinfluencedfirst centuryChristianshadlongsincedisappearedbythetimewegettoJesusandPaul.Sacredmealsinsuchpost ChristianmysteriesasMithraismcometoolate. Unliketheinitiationritesofthemysterycults,Christianbaptismlooksbacktowhatareal,historicalpersonJesus Christdidinhistory.Advocatesofthemysterycultsbelievedtheirsacramentshadthepowertogivethe individualthebenefitsofimmortalityinamechanicalormagicalway,withouthisorherundergoinganymoralor spiritualtransformation.ThiscertainlywasnotPaulsview,eitherofsalvationoroftheoperationoftheChristian sacraments.Incontrastwithpaganinitiationceremonies,Christianbaptismisnotamechanicalormagicalceremony. ItisclearthatthesourcesofChristianbaptismarenottobefoundeitherinthetaurobolium(whichispostfirst centuryanyway)orinthewashingsofthepaganmysteries.Itssourceslieratherinthewashingsofpurification foundintheOldTestamentandintheJewishpracticeofbaptizingproselytes,thelatterbeingthemostlikelysource forthebaptisticpracticesofJohntheBaptist. CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 5

Ofallthemysterycults,onlyMithraismhadanythingthatresembledtheLordsSupper.Apieceofbreadandacup ofwaterwereplacedbeforeinitiateswhilethepriestofMithraspokesomeceremonialwords.Butthelate introductionofthisritualprecludesitshavinganyinfluenceuponfirstcenturyChristianity. ClaimsthattheLordsSupperwasderivedfrompagansacredmealsaregroundedinexaggerationsand oversimplifications.Thesupposedparallelsandanalogiesbreakdowncompletely.12Anyquestforthehistorical antecedentsoftheLordsSupperismorelikelytosucceedifitstaysclosertotheJewishfoundationsoftheChristian faiththanifitwandersoffintothepracticesofthepagancults.TheLordsSupperlookedbacktoareal,historical personandtosomethingHedidinhistory.TheoccasionforJesusintroductionoftheChristianLordsSupperwas theJewishPassoverfeast.AttemptstofindpagansourcesforbaptismandtheLordsSuppermustbejudgedtofail. TheDeathoftheMysteryGodsandtheDeathofJesus ThebestwaytoevaluatetheallegeddependenceofearlyChristianbeliefsaboutChristsdeathandresurrectionon thepaganmythsofadyingandrisingsaviorgodistoexaminecarefullythesupposedparallels.ThedeathofJesus differsfromthedeathsofthepagangodsinatleastsixways: (1)Noneofthesocalledsaviorgodsdiedforsomeoneelse.ThenotionoftheSonofGoddyinginplaceofHis creaturesisuniquetoChristianity.13 (2)OnlyJesusdiedforsin.AsGnterWagnerobserves,tononeofthepagangodshastheintentionofhelpingmen beenattributed.Thesortofdeaththattheydiedisquitedifferent(huntingaccident,selfemasculation,etc.).14 (3)Jesusdiedonceandforall(Heb.7:27;9:2528;10:1014).Incontrast,themysterygodswerevegetationdeities whoserepeateddeathsandresuscitationsdepicttheannualcycleofnature. (4)Jesusdeathwasanactualeventinhistory.Thedeathofthemysterygodappearsinamythicaldramawithno historicalties;itscontinuedrehearsalcelebratestherecurringdeathandrebirthofnature.Theincontestablefactthat theearlychurchbelievedthatitsproclamationofJesusdeathandresurrectionwasgroundedinanactualhistorical eventmakesabsurdanyattempttoderivethisbelieffromthemythical,nonhistoricalstoriesofthepagancults.15 (5)Unlikethemysterygods,Jesusdiedvoluntarily.Nothinglikethisappearsevenimplicitlyinthemysteries. (6)Andfinally,Jesusdeathwasnotadefeatbutatriumph.Christianitystandsentirelyapartfromthepagan mysteriesinthatitsreportofJesusdeathisamessageoftriumph.EvenasJesuswasexperiencingthepainand humiliationofthecross,Hewasthevictor.TheNewTestamentsmoodofexultationcontrastssharplywiththatof themysteryreligions,whosefollowersweptandmournedfortheterriblefatethatovertooktheirgods.16 TheRisenChristandtheRisingSaviorGods Whichmysterygodsactuallyexperiencedaresurrectionfromthedead?Certainlynoearlytextsrefertoany resurrectionofAttis.NoristhecaseforaresurrectionofOsirisanystronger.Onecanspeakofaresurrectioninthe storiesofOsiris,Attis,andAdonisonlyinthemostextendedofsenses.17Forexample,afterIsisgatheredtogetherthe piecesofOsirissdismemberedbody,OsirisbecameLordoftheUnderworld.Thisisapoorsubstitutefora resurrectionlikethatofJesusChrist.And,noclaimcanbemadethatMithraswasadyingandrisinggod.Thetideof scholarlyopinionhasturneddramaticallyagainstattemptstomakeearlyChristianitydependentonthesocalled dyingandrisinggodsofHellenisticpaganism.18Anyunbiasedexaminationoftheevidenceshowsthatsuchclaims mustberejected. ChristianRebirthandCulticInitiationRites CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 6

 LiberalwritingsonthesubjectarefullofsweepinggeneralizationstotheeffectthatearlyChristianityborrowedits notionofrebirthfromthepaganmysteries.19ButtheevidencemakesitclearthattherewasnopreChristiandoctrine ofrebirthfortheChristianstoborrow.Thereareactuallyveryfewreferencestothenotionofrebirthintheevidence thathassurvived,andeventheseareeitherverylateorveryambiguous.Theyprovidenohelpinsettlingthe questionofthesourceoftheNewTestamentuseoftheconcept.TheclaimthatpreChristianmysteriesregardedtheir initiationritesasakindofrebirthisunsupportedbyanyevidencecontemporarywithsuchallegedpractices.Instead, aviewfoundinmuchlatertextsisreadbackintoearlierrites,whicharetheninterpretedquitespeculativelyas dramaticportrayalsoftheinitiatesnewbirth.ThebeliefthatpreChristianmysteriesusedrebirthasatechnical termlackssupportfromevenonesingletext. Mostcontemporaryscholarsmaintainthatthemysteryuseoftheconceptofrebirth(testifiedtoonlyinevidence datedafterA.D.300)differssosignificantlyfromitsNewTestamentusagethatanypossibilityofacloselinkisruled out.ThemostthatsuchscholarsarewillingtoconcedeisthepossibilitythatsomeChristiansborrowedthemetaphor orimageryfromthecommonspeechofthetimeandrecastittofittheirdistinctivetheologicalbeliefs.Soevenifthe metaphorofrebirthwasHellenistic,itscontentwithinChristianitywasunique.20 SEVENARGUMENTSAGAINSTCHRISTIANDEPENDENCEONTHEMYSTERIES IconcludebynotingsevenpointsthatundermineliberaleffortstoshowthatfirstcenturyChristianityborrowed essentialbeliefsandpracticesfromthepaganmysteryreligions. (1)ArgumentsofferedtoproveaChristiandependenceonthemysteriesillustratethelogicalfallacyoffalsecause. Thisfallacyiscommittedwheneversomeonereasonsthatjustbecausetwothingsexistsidebyside,oneofthemmust havecausedtheother.Asweallshouldknow,merecoincidencedoesnotprovecausalconnection.Nordoes similarityprovedependence. (2)ManyallegedsimilaritiesbetweenChristianityandthemysteriesareeithergreatlyexaggeratedorfabricated. ScholarsoftendescribepaganritualsinlanguagetheyborrowfromChristianity.Thecarelessuseoflanguagecould leadonetospeakofaLastSupperinMithraismorabaptisminthecultofIsis.Itisinexcusablenonsensetotake thewordsaviorwithallofitsNewTestamentconnotationsandapplyittoOsirisorAttisasthoughtheywere saviorgodsinanysimilarsense. (3)Thechronologyisallwrong.Almostallofoursourcesofinformationaboutthepaganreligionsallegedtohave influencedearlyChristianityaredatedverylate.Wefrequentlyfindwritersquotingfromdocumentswritten300 yearslaterthanPaulineffortstoproduceideasthatallegedlyinfluencedPaul.Wemustrejecttheassumptionthat justbecauseaculthadacertainbelieforpracticeinthethirdorfourthcenturyafterChrist,itthereforehadthesame belieforpracticeinthefirstcentury. (4)Paulwouldneverhaveconsciouslyborrowedfromthepaganreligions.Allofourinformationabouthimmakesit highlyunlikelythathewasinanysenseinfluencedbypagansources.Heplacedgreatemphasisonhisearlytraining inastrictformofJudaism(Phil.3:5).HewarnedtheColossiansagainsttheverysortofinfluencethatadvocatesof Christiansyncretismhaveattributedtohim,namely,lettingtheirmindsbecapturedbyalienspeculations(Col.2:8). (5)EarlyChristianitywasanexclusivisticfaith.AsJ.Machenexplains,themysterycultswerenonexclusive.Aman couldbecomeinitiatedintothemysteriesofIsisorMithraswithoutatallgivinguphisformerbeliefs;butifhewere tobereceivedintotheChurch,accordingtothepreachingofPaul,hemustforsakeallotherSaviorsfortheLordJesus Christ....AmidtheprevailingsyncretismoftheGrecoRomanworld,thereligionofPaul,withthereligionofIsrael, standsabsolutelyalone. 2ThisChristianexclusivismshouldbeastartingpointforallreflectionaboutthepossible CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 7

relationsbetweenChristianityanditspagancompetitors.AnyhintofsyncretismintheNewTestamentwouldhave causedimmediatecontroversy. (6)Unlikethemysteries,thereligionofPaulwasgroundedoneventsthatactuallyhappenedinhistory.The mysticismofthemysterycultswasessentiallynonhistorical.Theirmythsweredramas,orpictures,ofwhatthe initiatewentthrough,notrealhistoricalevents,asPaulregardedChristsdeathandresurrectiontobe.TheChristian affirmationthatthedeathandresurrectionofChristhappenedtoahistoricalpersonataparticulartimeandplace hasabsolutelynoparallelinanypaganmysteryreligion. (7)WhatfewparallelsmaystillremainmayreflectaChristianinfluenceonthepagansystems.AsBruceMetzgerhas argued,ItmustnotbeuncriticallyassumedthattheMysteriesalwaysinfluencedChristianity,foritisnotonly possiblebutprobablethatincertaincases,theinfluencemovedintheoppositedirection. 22Itshouldnotbe surprisingthatleadersofcultsthatwerebeingsuccessfullychallengedbyChristianityshoulddosomethingto counterthechallenge.Whatbetterwaytodothisthanbyofferingapagansubstitute?Paganattemptstocounterthe growinginfluenceofChristianitybyimitatingitareclearlyapparentinmeasuresinstitutedbyJuliantheApostate, whowastheRomanemperorfromA.D.361to363. AFINALWORD LiberaleffortstounderminetheuniquenessoftheChristianrevelationviaclaimsofapaganreligiousinfluence collapsequicklyonceafullaccountoftheinformationisavailable.Itisclearthattheliberalargumentsexhibit astoundinglybadscholarship.Indeed,thisconclusionmaybetoogenerous.Accordingtoonewriter,amoreaccurate accountofthesebadargumentswoulddescribethemasprejudicedirresponsibility.23Butinordertobecome completelyinformedonthesematters,wisereaderswillworkthroughmaterialcitedinthebriefbibliography. NOTES 1SeeRonaldNash,TheGospelandtheGreeks(Richardson,TX:ProbeBooks,1992).Thebookwasoriginallypublished in1984underthetitle,ChristianityandtheHellenisticWorld. 2ImustpassovertheseGreekversionsofthemysterycults.SeeNash,13136. 3JosephKlausner,FromJesustoPaul(NewYork:Macmillan,1943),104. 4SeeEdwinYamauchi,EasterMyth,Hallucination,orHistory?ChristianityToday,29March1974,66063. 5SeeGnterWagner,PaulineBaptismandthePaganMysteries(Edinburgh:OliverandBoyd,1967),260ff. 6Whentheceremonyusedalamb,itwasthecriobolium.Sincelambscostfarlessthanbulls,thismodificationwas rathercommon. 7SeeNash,chapter9. 8Formoredetail,seeNash,14348. 9SeeFranzCumont,TheMysteriesofMithra(Chicago:OpenCourt,1903),87ff. 10JoscelynGodwin,MysteryReligionsintheAncientWorld(NewYork:HarperandRow,1981),111. 11SeeNash,chapter9. 12SeeHermanRidderbos,Paul:AnOutlineofHisTheology(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1975),24. 13SeeMartinHengel,TheSonofGod(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1976),26. 14Wagner,284. 15SeeW.K.C.Guthrie,OrtheusandGreekReligion,2ded.(London:Methuen,1952),268. 16SeeA.D.Nock,EarlyGentileChristianityandItsHellenisticBackground,inEssaysontheTrinityandthe Incarnation,ed.A.E.J.Rawlinson(London:Longmans,Green,1928),106. 17SeeJ.GreshamMachen,TheOriginofPaulsReligion(NewYork:Macmillan,1925),23435. CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 8

18SeeNash,16199. 19SeeNash,17378. 20SeeW.F.Flemington,TheNewTestamentDoctrineofBaptism(London:SPCK,1948),7681. 21Machen,9. 22BruceM.Metzger,HistoricalandLiteraryStudies:Pagan,Jewish,andChristian(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1968),11. Thepossibleparallelsinviewherewouldnaturallybedatedlate,afterA.D.200forthemostpart. 23GordonH.Clark,ThalestoDewey(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1957),195. zz

CRI, P.O. Box 8500, Charlotte, NC 28271 Phone (704) 887-8200 and Fax (704) 887-8299 9