LEADERSHIP

Definitions &Understanding Enabling a group to engage together in the process of Developing, Sharing and Moving into Vision, and then living it out. Exerting influence, motivating and inspiring, helping others realize their potential, leading by example, selflessness and making a difference. Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of other people toward group goals in a way that fully respects their freedom. Leader is someone who has followers. Leadership studies The Iowa Studies of Leadership In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin and associates at the University of Iowa conducted studies focused on the leadership style of the manager. Their studies identified two styles of management: Autocratic Leadership Style: The leader that exhibits this behavior makes the decisions, gives orders to employees, and is constantly supervising his subordinates. Democratic Leadership Style: The leader that exhibits this behavior promotes shared decisions, team work, and does not supervise his subordinates closely. The Ohio State Leadership Studies The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure," and "consideration." These characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and the Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire (SBDQ) Consideration Consideration is the extent to which a leader exhibits concern for the welfare of the members of the group. This factor is oriented towards interpersonal relationships, mutual trust and friendship. This leadership style is people-oriented. Some of the statements used to measure this factor in the LBDQ are:

 being friendly and approachable treating all group members as his/her equal looking out for the personal welfare of group members making him/herself accessible to group members Initiating structure Initiating Structure is the extent to which a leader defines leader and group member roles, initiates actions, organizes group activities and defines how tasks are to be accomplished by the group. This leadership style is task-oriented. Some of the statements used to measure this factor in the LBDQ are: letting group members know what is expected of them maintaining definite standards of performance scheduling the work to be done asking that group members follow standard rules and regulations

The Early Michigan Leadership Studies The Michigan Leadership Studies which began in the 1950s and indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee centered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior Participative leadership. Traditional theories on Leadership Trait Theory of Leadership The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both successful and unsuccessful - and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The trait theory of leadership is the view that people are born with inherited traits - and that some traits are particularly suited to leadership.

Trait theory was evolved from the Great Man Theory which believed that Leaders are born and not made. Core Traits Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative Leadership motivation: An intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open Self-confidence: Belief in ones self, ideas, and ability Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders. Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory It is naturally pleasing theory. It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory. It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed. It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process. Limitations of the Trait Theory There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a good or successful leader The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply generalities. There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum

weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a Air force leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader. The theory is very complex Group and Exchange Theories of Leadership Exchange theories propose that group members make contributions at a cost to themselves and receive benefits at a cost to the group members. Interaction continues because members find the social exchange mutually rewarding. Leadership is an exchange process between the leader and followers. Followers Impact on Leaders Research says followers affect leaders as much as the vice versa is true. Leaders tend to emphasize on Task when subordinates dont perform to the mark and conversely they focus on people when productivity is high. Group Productivity has a greater impact on the Leadership style than leadership style has on group productivity. Leader-Member Exchange Conceptualizes leadership as a process that is centered on the interactions between leaders and followers The dyadic relationship between leader and follower is the focal point of the leadership process The theory makes every subordinate (follower) feel part of the in-group, in turn avoids the inequities and negative implications of being in an out-group Leadership making promotes building partnerships and can benefit goals and process LMX- Strengths Its a descriptive theory; it suggests that it is important to recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups within a group or organization The LMX theory is unique because its the only leadership approach that makes the concept of the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process

 The LMX theory is noteworthy, because it directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership There is a large body of research that substantiates how the practice of the LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes LMX- Weakness The LMX theory runs counter to basic human values of fairness - It gives appearance and discrimination against groups that dont receive the special attention - Its very unfair The basic ideas and theory are not fully developed - Formal because a leader found certain subordinates more compatible in regard to personality, interpersonal skills, but never stated how these were important Questions regarding the measurement of leadership member exchanges in LMX theory - No empirical studies have used dyadic measures to analyze the LMX process - The measurement scales lack content validity, which means the scales may not be measuring what they were intended to measure - Questions regarding whether the standard scale used to measure exchanges is unidimensional or multidimensional

actually

Contingency Theory of leadership Fred Fiedlers Contingency Model of leadership effectiveness contains the relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. Fiedler described the situational favorableness in terms of three empirically derived dimensions: The leader-member relationship, which is the most critical variable in determining the situations favorableness. The degree of task structure, which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation. The leaders position of Power obtained through formal authority, which is the third most critical dimension of the situation.

 Fiedler research findings show that under very favorable and very unfavorable situations, the task directed leader was most effective. When the situation is moderately favorable or moderately unfavorable situation the democratic or the human relations type of leader is most effective. In a very favorable situation the group is ready to be directed, and the group expects to be told what to do. The leader who makes a wrong decision in a highly unfavorable situation is better off than the leader who does not take any type of decision. In a highly unfavorable situation, the effective leader takes charge and makes the decisions that need to be taken to accomplish the task without asking for input or trying to keep everyone happy. Fiedlers Contingency Model of leadership was the first highly visible leadership theory to present the contingency approach. It emphasized the importance of both the situation and the Leaders characteristic in determining leader effectiveness. It stimulated a great deal of research, including tests of its predictions and attempts to improve on the model, and inspired the formulation of alternative contingency theories.

FIEDLERS CONTINGENCY MODEL

OF LEADERSHIP
Task Directed

Style of Leadership

Human Relations

Very Unfavorable

Unfavorable

Favorable

Very Favorable

Path-Goal Leadership Theory Definition: Path-goal theory centers on how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals Emphasizes the relationship between the leaders style the characteristics of the subordinates the work setting Goal - To enhance employee performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivation Motivational Principles - Subordinates will be motivated if they believe: they are capable of performing their work that their efforts will result in a certain outcome that the payoffs for doing their work are worthwhile Use a Leadership Style that best meets subordinates motivational needs choose behaviors that complement or supplement what is missing in the work setting enhance goal attainment by providing information or rewards provide subordinates with the elements they need to reach their goals

Leadership generates motivation when: It increases the number and kinds of payoffs subordinates receive from their work Makes the path to the goal clear and easy to travel through with coaching and direction Removes obstacles and roadblocks to attaining the goal Makes the work itself more personally satisfying

Components of path goal theory Path Goal theory Suggests: Each type of leader behavior has a different kind of impact on subordinates motivation Whether or not a particular leader behavior is motivating is contingent on subordinate characteristics task characteristics Leadership Styles Directive Leadership Leader who gives subordinates task instruction including: What is expected of them How task is to be done Timeline for task completion

Leader sets clear standards of performance makes rules & regulations clear to subordinates Supportive Leadership

 Refers to being friendly and approachable as a leader and includes: Attending to well-being & human needs of subordinates Using supportive behavior to make work environment pleasant Treating subordinates as equals & give them respect for their status Participative Leadership Leader who invites subordinates to share in the decision-making A participative leader: Consults with subordinates Seeks their ideas & opinions Integrates their input into group/organizational decisions Achievement Oriented Leadership Leader who challenges subordinates to perform work at the highest level possible An achievement oriented leader: Establishes a high standard of excellence for subordinates Seeks continuous improvement Demonstrates a high degree of confidence in subordinates ability to establish & achieve challenging goals Subordinate Characteristics Strong need for affiliation Friendly and concerned leadership is a source of satisfaction Supportive Leadership Preference for Structure Dogmatic & authoritarian Leadership provides psychological structure, task clarity & greater sense of certainty in work setting

Directive Leadership

 Desire for Control Internal locus of control Leadership that allows subordinates to feel in charge of their work & makes them an integral part of the decision-making process

- Participative Leadership External locus of control Leadership that parallels subordinates feelings that outside forces control their circumstances

- Directive Leadership Task Situations Requiring Leader Involvement Unclear and ambiguous - Leader needs to provide structure Highly repetitive - Leader needs to provide support to maintain subordinate motivation Weak formal authority - If formal authority system is weak, the leader needs to assist subordinates by making rules and work requirements clear Non-supportive/weak group norms - Leader needs to help build cohesiveness and role responsibility Obstacles Anything in the work setting that gets in the way of subordinates They create excessive uncertainties, frustrations, or threats for subordinates Leaders responsibility is to help subordinates by Removing the obstacles Helping subordinates around them Assisting with obstacles will increase Subordinates expectations to complete the task Their sense of job satisfaction Path goal theory

 The leaders job is to help subordinates reach their goals by directing, guiding, and coaching them along the way Leaders must evaluate task and subordinate characteristics and adapt leadership style to these The theory suggests which style is most appropriate for specific characteristics Strengths Useful theoretical framework. Path-goal theory is a useful theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership behaviors affect the satisfaction of subordinates and their work performance. Integrates motivation. Path-goal theory attempts to integrate the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership. Practical model. Path-goal theory provides a practical model that underscores and highlights the important ways leaders help subordinates. Criticism Interpreting the meaning of the theory can be confusing because it is so complex and incorporates so many different aspects of leadership; consequently, it is difficult to implement. Empirical research studies have demonstrated only partial support for path-goal theory. It fails to adequately explain the relationship between leadership behavior and worker motivation. The path-goal theory approach treats leadership as a one-way event in which the leader affects the subordinate. Modern Theoretical Frameworks for leadership Charismatic Leadership Theories Transformational Leadership Theory A social Learning Approach Substitutes for Leadership Conger and Kanungos three-stage charismatic leadership model Stage 1: The leader critically evaluates the status quo

 Stage 2: The leader formulates and articulates future goals and an idealized future vision. Stage 3: The leader shows how the goals and vision can be achieved. If leaders use behaviors such as vision articulation, environmental sensitivity, and unconventional behavior, followers will attribute charismatic leadership to them Charismatic Leadership Theories The situation must be problematic for the emergence of charismatic leaders Charismatic leaders are dissatisfied with the status quo and have an idealized vision for the future. They are seen as reformers or entrepreneurs The theory predicts that Charismatic leaders will produce in followers, performance beyond expectations as well as strong commitment to the leader and his Mission. Charismatic Leaders have superior debating and persuasive skills as well as technical expertise and that they foster attitudinal, behavioral and emotional changes in their followers. Key Characteristics of Charismatic leaders Self Confidence- They have complete confidence in their judgment and ability. A vision- This is an idealized goal that proposes a future better than the status quo. The greater the disparity between idealized goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision to the leader. Ability to articulate the vision- They are able to clarify and state the vision in terms that are understandable to others. This articulation demonstrates an understanding of the followers needs and, hence acts as a motivating force. Strong convictions about vision- Charismatic leaders are perceived as being strongly committed, and willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in selfsacrifice to achieve their vision. Behavior that is out of the ordinary- Those with charisma engage in behavior that is perceived as being novel, unconventional, and counter to norms. When successful , these behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in followers. Perceived as being a change agent- Charismatic leaders are perceived as agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo.

Environmental sensitivity- These leaders are able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change. Charismatic Leadership Issues Importance of vision Must be inspirational, value-centered, realizable, and given with superior imagery and articulation Charismatic effectiveness and situation Charisma works best when: The followers task has an ideological component There is a lot of stress and uncertainty in the environment The leader is at the upper level of the organization Followers have low self-esteem and self-worth Dark Side of Charisma Ego-driven charismatics allow their self-interest and personal goals to override the organizations goals Ethical Charismatic Leader Uses Power to serve others Aligns vision with the followers needs and aspirations Considers and learns from Criticism Stimulates followers to think Independently and to question the Leaders view Open, two-way communication Coaches, Develops and Supports followers; shares recognition with others Relies on Internal Moral Standards to satisfy organizational and societal interests Unethical Charismatic Leader Uses power only for personal gain or impact Promotes own personal Vision

 Censures Critical or opposing views Demands own decisions be accepted without question One-way communication Insensitive to followers needs Relies on convenient, external moral standards to satisfy self interests Transactional Leadership Involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for achieving routine performance agreed upon between leaders and followers. Leader-follower exchanges involve the four Dimensions: Use of contingent rewards. Active management by exception. Passive management by exception. Abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions. Transactional Leadership is more of a traditional Leadership Style

Characteristics and approaches of Transactional Leaders Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognises accomplishment. Management by exception (Active): Watches and searches for Deviations from rules and Standards, takes corrective actions. Management by exception (Passive): Intervenes only when standards are not met Laissez-faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decision Transformational leadership Transformational leadership occurs when leaders: Broaden and elevate their followers interests. Generate awareness and acceptance of the groups purposes and mission. Stir their followers to look beyond their own self-interests to the good of others.

Dimensions of transformational leadership Charisma. Provides vision and a sense of mission; and instills pride, respect, and trust in followers. Inspiration. Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts; expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual stimulation. Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized consideration. Provides personal attention, treats each employee individually, and coaches and advises Transformational leadership is likely to be strongest at the top-management level. Transformational leadership is found through the organization. Transformational leadership operates in combination with transactional leadership. A social Learning Approach The social Learning Theory provide a model for continuous, reciprocal interaction between Leader (including his or her cognitions) The environment (including subordinates/followers and macro organizational variables) Leader Behaviour The social learning approach states that leaders learn to use their skills to meet the demands of the situation The Leader becomes acquainted with the Macro and Micro variables that control his own behaviour. The leader works with the subordinates to discover the personalized set of behavioral contingency that regulate the subordinates behaviour.

 The leader and the subordinate jointly attempt to discover ways in which they can manage their individual behaviour to produce more mutually reinforcing and organizationally productive outcomes. Substitutes for Leadership Kerr and Jermier proposed that there may be certain Substitutes for Leadership that make Leader behaviour unnecessary and redundant, and neutralizers that prevent the leader from behaving in a certain way or that counteract the behaviour. Instrumental leadership can most succinctly be defined as "goal oriented" leadership. It is a style of leadership based around team building specific to a goal or task. It might be called a form of management rather than of leadership, since it really only deals with overseeing the work of a team. Leadership Styles and Skills Nadler and Tushmans Charismatic Leadership Styles Envisioning Creating a Picture of the desired future state with which people can identify and which can generate excitement. Articulating a compelling vision, setting high expectations.

Energizing Directing the generation of energy, the motivation to act, among members of the organisation. Demonstrating personal excitement and confidence, seeking finding and using success.

Enabling Psychologically helping people act or perform in the face of challenging goals. Expressing personal support, Empathizing.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum model In 1973, Tannenbaum & Schmidt came up with a continuum of earlier studies with range of leadership behaviors, ranging from manager-centered (task) to subordinate-centered (relationship).

 Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum model shows the relationship between the levels of freedom that a manager chooses to give to a team, and the level of authority used by the manager.

The Managerial Grid

High

1,9 Country club management Thoughtful attention needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to A comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo

9,9 Team management Work accomplishment is from committed people, interdependence through a common stake in organization purpose leads to relationship of trust and respect

Concern for people

5 4

5,5 Organization Man Management Adequate organization performance possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of the people at a satisfactory level 1,1 Impoverished Management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership 9,1 Authority-Obedience Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimal degree 4 5 6 7 8 9

Low
1

Low

Concern for production

High

Situational leadership theory The Situational Leadership Theory, is a leadership theory developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard The situational leadership theory says that there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant and that the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the maturity of the individual or group they are attempting to lead/influence. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types: S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why, when, and where to do the task S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using twoway communication and providing the socio-emotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process. S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior. S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress. Theory identified four levels of Maturity M1 through M4: M1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task. M2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task. M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility. M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task. Four combinations of competence and commitment make to a 'development level. :

 D1 - Low competence and high commitment D2 - Low competence and low commitment D3 - High competence and low/variable commitment D4 - High competence and high commitment Likerts Management System Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades at the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management systems. The model was developed on the basis of a questionnaire administered to managers in over 200 organizations and research into the performance characteristics of different types of organizations. The four systems of management system or the four leadership styles identified by Likert are: System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the people at the upper echelons of the hierarchy. The superior has no trust and confidence in subordinates. The decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel free at all to discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and the motivation is based on threats. System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels but not at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has condescending confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant relationship). Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and motivation is based on a system of rewards. System 3 Consultative/Participative: Responsibility is spread widely through the organizational hierarchy. The superior has substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates. Some amount of discussion about job related things takes place between the superior and subordinates. There is a fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on rewards and involvement in the job. System 4 - Democratic: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is widespread throughout the organizational hierarchy. There is a high level of confidence that the superior has in his subordinates. There is a high level of teamwork, communication, and participation.

Leadership style in Perspective

In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute specific styles, but cumulatively they probably [citation needed] characterize the most effective style of today's leaders/managers. Leadership styles in Perspective Vision. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeplyheld values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right. Passion and self-sacrifice. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and mission. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order. Image-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy. Role-modeling. Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms. External representation. Outstanding leaders act as spokespersons for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external constituencies. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high performance from their followers and strong confidence in their followers ability to meet such expectations. Selective motive-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers interests, values, and beliefs, as

well as the leaders activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary. Inspirational communication. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies. Mintzberg's Set of Ten Roles The ten roles explored in this theory have extensive explanations which are briefly developed here:

Interpersonal

Figurehead: All social, inspiration, legal and ceremonial obligations. In this light, the manager is seen as a symbol of status and authority. Leader: Duties are at the heart of the manager-subordinate relationship and include structuring and motivating subordinates, overseeing their progress, promoting and encouraging their development, and balancing effectiveness. Liaison: Describes the information and communication obligations of a manager. One must network and engage in information exchange to gain access to knowledge bases.

Informational

Monitor: Duties include assessing internal operations, a department's success and the problems and opportunities which may arise. All the information gained in this capacity must be stored and maintained. Disseminator: Highlights factual or value based external views into the organisation and to subordinates. This requires both filtering and delegation skills. Spokesman: Serves in a PR capacity by informing and lobbying others to keep key stakeholders updated about the operations of the organisation.

Decisional

Entrepreneur: Roles encourage managers to create improvement projects and work to delegate, empower and supervise teams in the development process. Disturbance handler: A generalist role that takes charge when an organisation is unexpectedly upset or transformed and requires calming and support. Resource Allocator: Describes the responsibility of allocating and overseeing financial, material and personnel resources. Negotiator: Is a specific task which is integral for the spokesman, figurehead and resource allocator roles.

Managerial Activities and Behavioral Descriptors Planning/coordinating Setting Goals and Objectives Defining Tasks needed to accomplish goals Scheduling employees, Timetables Assigning Tasks and Providing routine instructions Coordinating activities of each subordinate to keep work running smoothly, organizing the work Staffing Developing job descriptions for position openings Reviewing applications Interviewing applicants Hiring Contacting applicants to inform them of being hired or not Filling in" where needed Training/developing Orienting employees, arranging for training seminars, and so on Clarifying roles, duties, job descriptions Coaching, Mentoring, walking subordinates through task Helping subordinates with Personal Development plans Processing paperwork Processing mail Reading reports, in-box Writing reports, memos, letters, and so on Routine financial reporting and Bookkeeping General Desk Work

Motivating/reinforcing Allocating Formal Organizational Rewards Asking for input, participation, conveying appreciation, compliments Giving credit where due, listening to suggestions Giving Position Performance Feedback Increasing job Challenge Delegating Responsibility and Authority Letting Subordinates determine how to do their own work Sticking up for the group to Superiors and others, Backing a subordinate Decision Making/Problem Solving Defining Problems Choosing between two or more alternatives or strategies Handling day to day operational crisis as they arise Weighing the trade offs; cost benefit analyses actually deciding what to do Developing new procedures to increase efficiency Monitoring and Control Inspecting work Walking around and checking things out, touring Monitoring Performance Data (Computer Print outs, financial reports) Preventive Maintenance Exchanging Routine Information Answering Routine Procedural Questions Receiving and Disseminating requested Information Conveying Results of Meetings

 Giving or Receiving routine information over the Phone Staff Meeting of an Informational Nature (Status Update, New Company Policies, etc) Interacting with outsiders Public Relations Customers Contacts with Suppliers, Vendors External Meetings Community-service activities Managing conflict Managing Interpersonal Conflict between subordinate or others Appealing to higher authority to resolve a dispute Appealing to third-party negotiators Trying to get cooperation or consensus between conflicting parties Attempting to resolve conflicts between subordinate and self Discipline/Punishing Enforcing Rules and Policies Nonverbal Glaring, Harassment Demotion, Firing, Layoff Any formal Organizational Reprimand or Notice Chewing out a work group member, Criticizing Giving Negative Performance Feedback Socializing/Politicking Non-work-related chit chat (e.g., family or personal matters) Informal "joking around, Discussing Rumors, hearsay, grapevine

 Complaining, Putting others down Politicking, Gamesmanship Whetten and Cameron Model of Personal Skills Developing essential skills. Each chapter of this text highlights an essential managerial skill. These chapters are then grouped into three partsPersonal Skills, Interpersonal Skills so students can see how certain abilities are related to others. 1. Personal Skills o Developing Self-Awareness o Managing Personal Stress o Solving Problems Analytically and Creatively 2. Interpersonal Skills o Building Relationships by Communicating Supportively o Gaining Power and Influence o Motivating Others o Managing Conflict