Notes Biology IGCSE by Adeel Ahmad Khokhar

ENZYMES Definition: Enzymes are the biological catalyst that can alter the rate of reaction without being chemically changed. Substances called catalysts can speed up many chemical reactions. Almost every metabolic reaction in living organism is controlled by biochemical catalysts called enzymes. ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS: Enzymes are referred to as biological catalysts as they speed up metabolic reactions taking place in living organisms. For example, starch is digested to maltose by an enzyme called amylase.
amlase y

Starch

Maltose

Protein is digested to amino acids by protease.

p tease ro

Protein

Amino Acid

Another enzyme called catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide in liver cells or potato cells.

Properties of Enzymes: 1. Enzymes change substrates to products: A chemical reaction always involves one substance changing into another. The substance that is present at the beginning of the reaction is called the substrate. The

Enzymes

Compiled by: Adeel Ahmad 2011-12

substance that is made during the reaction is the product. Many enzymes catalyse such metabolic reactions. For example, amylase (enzyme) breaks down starch (substrate) into maltose (product). 2. Enzymes have active sites: Enzymes are proteins. Their molecules have a very precise three-dimensional shape. This shape has a dent which is exactly the right size and shape for substrate to fit into. This dent is called the active site. The substrate molecules fit in the active site and are made into product molecules.

3.

Enzymes are specific: Each enzyme can only convert one kind of substrate molecule into one kind of product molecule. This is because the active site of the enzyme molecule has to be exactly the right shape to allow a substrate molecule to fit into it as shown in the above picture. Effects of Change In Temperature On Enzyme Activity: Most chemical reactions happen faster when the temperature is higher. At higher temperature molecules move around faster, which makes it
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4.

Enzymes

easier for them to react together, usually, a rise of 10C will double the rate of a chemical reaction. Optimum temperature: The temperature at which the enzyme works at their best.

Enzymes are very sensitive to high temperature. For most enzymes in mammal's body the optimum temperature is around 37C. At around 60C the enzyme is denatured (killed) or destroyed. 5. Effect of pH on Enzyme: pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is. The scale runs from 1 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is alkaline. The shape and activity of enzyme molecules is effected by pH in which their molecules are exactly the right shape to catalyse their reaction. Above or below this pH, their molecules lose their shape, so the substances cannot fit into the enzymes active site.

Enzymes

Compiled by: Adeel Ahmad 2011-12

Optimum pH: The pH at which the enzyme works best. For most enzymes in a mammal's body, the optimum pH is 7 or slightly above. However, the optimum pH for each enzyme depends on where it is found in the body. For example, the enzyme protease found in the stomach works best in acidic pH (1.5). Another enzyme amylase found in the saliva in the mouth works best in alkaline conditions pH (7.5). USES OF ENZYMES: 1. Enzymes are used in biological washing powders: Biological washing powders contain enzymes as well as detergents. The detergents help greasy dirt to mix with water, so that it can be washed away. The enzymes help to break down other kinds of substances which can stain clothes. They are especially good for removing dirt which contains coloured substances from animals or plants, like blood or egg stains. Some of the enzymes are proteases which catalyse the breakdown of protein molecules. Blood contains the red protein, haemoglobin, which gets broken down by the enzymes and is removed. Some of the enzymes are lipases which catalyse the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol. This is good for removing greasy stains. Limitations of Biological Washing Powders: . Enzymes in Biological washing powders work best at temperature 35C where they remove the stain properly. . At temperature lower than 35C, activity of the enzyme is low therefore they are unable to remove the stain properly. . At higher temperature like 65C, enzymes are denatured therefore they are unable to remove stains. 2. Enzymes are often used in food industry: i) Fruit juices are extracted using an enzyme called pectinase. Pectin is a substance which helps to stick plant cells together. A fruit such as an apple or orange contains a lot of pectin. If pectin is broken down, it can be much easier to squeeze juice from the fruit. Pectinase is widely used commercially both in the extraction of juice from fruit, and in making the juice clear rather than cloudy.
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Enzymes

ii)

iii)

iv)

Enzymes are sometimes used when making baby foods. Some high-protein foods are heated with proteases to break down the proteins to polypeptides and amino acids. This makes it easier for young babies to absorb the food. There is a great demand for sugar in the food industry. Apart from getting sugar directly from sugar cane it can be made from starch containing material like potatoes or grains. They are crushed with water, and then amylase is added. The amylase digests the starch to maltose, making a syrup. Some sugars are sweeter than others. Fructose for example is sweeter than glucose or sucrose. So people prefer fructose to glucose or sucrose. Most of the sugar we get from plants is either glucose or sucrose. An enzyme called isomerase can be used to convert glucose into fructose.

Role of Enzymes in the Germination of Seeds: Enzymes found in germinating seeds digest the food stores for the growing seedling. The water absorbed by the seed activates the enzyme amylase that breaks down the stored starch and provides the required energy for seed growth. When a seed first begins to germinate, it increases in mass. This is because it absorbs water from the soil. As soon as it begins to grow, it starts to use its food stores. Once there is sufficient water, the enzymes in the cotyledon become active. Amylase begins to break down the stored starch molecules to maltose.
amlase y

Starch

Maltose

Proteases break down the protein molecules to amino acids.

p tease ro

Protein

Amino Acid

As amino acids and maltose are soluble in water they dissolve in water and diffuses to the embryo plant, which uses this food for growth.

Enzymes

Compiled by: Adeel Ahmad 2011-12

USE OF MICRO ORGANISM AND FERMENTERS TO MANUFACTURE ENZYME USED IN BIOLOGICAL WASHING POWDERS: Natural enzymes made by microorganisms (bacteria and fungal cells) have been used to make products such as cheese, bread, wine and beer. Today enzymes are used for a wide range of industrial processes like production of biological washing powders. Step 1: Producing the enzyme: Microorganisms produce enzymes inside their cells and may also secrete enzymes for action outside the cell. Step 2: Culturing the microbes: The chosen microorganisms are usually cultured in large fermentation chambers under controlled conditions. The nutrient levels must be kept at optimum levels. As the microbial population grows the build-up of endproducts or inhibitors which impair production must be minimized, or the microorganism resistance to them maximized. Step 3: Isolating the enzymes: To obtain an enzyme made inside the cell of the microbe, cells are harvested from the culture and broken up. The resultant mixture is centrifuged to remove large cell fragments, and the enzyme is precipitated from solution by a salt or an alcohol. Many industrial processes require enzymes to work in the presence of chemicals such as organic solvents, at high temperatures, and extremes of pH, conditions which cost most enzymes to lose their shape and become inactive. The gene for such an enzyme has been isolated from thermophilic bacteria and transferred to Bacillus subtilis, a microbe that can be cultured in fermentation chambers and later the required enzyme can be isolated.

Enzymes

Compiled by: Adeel Ahmad 2011-12