Sediment Transport - is it important in rivers?

• Natural river channels - mobile bed and banks

Erosion and Deposition

Changes in:
• river planform
• longitudinal channel profile
• channel cross-section shape

Interaction between fluid and sediment - water depth, capacity

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 Sediment Transport - why is it Important

Detrimental Effects
• local deposition - loss of channel capacity, increased flood risk
• local erosion changes in flow cross-sectional shape, damage to
structures
• transport and release of pollutants
• modification of habitat

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 Sediment Continuity - Exner Equation
qt denotes the volume sediment transport rate per unit width and λp denotes bed
porosity (fraction of bed volume that is pores rather than sediment). The mass
sediment transport rate per unit width is then ρsqt, where ρs is the material
density of sediment. Mass conservation within the control volume with a unit
width requires that:

∂/∂t (sediment mass in bed) =

mass sediment inflow rate –
mass sediment outflow rate water
qb

∂
∂t
[
[ρs (1− λp )η]∆x ⋅ 1 = ρs qt x − qt x + ∆x
]⋅ 1 qb

or
η bed sediment + pores

∂η ∂q
(1 − λ p ) =- t 1
∂t ∂x x
∆x x + ∆x

Sediment Continuity - Exner Equation

∂η ∂q
(1 − λ p ) =- t
∂t ∂x

Consequences of this equation:

rate of erosion, deposition - dependent of rate of streamwise
change in transport rate, not absolute amount of transport
• need to know transport rate at two adjacent locations
• fundamental difference between sediment transport capacity
and erosion/deposition rates

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 Characterisation of River Sediment Size Distributions

Sediment diameter is denoted as D [L].

River sediment grains are rarely spherical, the notion of “diameter” requires
explanation. For sufficiently coarse particles, the “diameter” D is often defined
to be the dimensions of the smallest square mesh opening through which the
particle will pass. For finer particles, “diameter” D often denotes the diameter of
the equivalent sphere with the same fall velocity ws [L/T] as the actual particle.

Grain size is often specified in terms of a base-2 logarithmic scale (phi scale or
psi scale). Geographers/geomorphologists like this scale.

These are defined as follows: where D is given in mm,

ln( D)
D = 2ψ = 2 − φ ψ = −φ = ln2 ( D) =
ln(2)

Characterisation of River Sediment Size Distributions

ln( D)
D = 2ψ = 2 − φ ψ = −φ = ln2 ( D) =
ln(2)

D (mm) ψ φ
4 2 -2
2 1 -1
1 0 0
0.5 -1 1
0.25 -2 2
0.125 -3 3

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 Characterisation of River Sediment Size Distributions

Type D (mm) ψ φ Notes

Clay < 0.002 < -9 >9 Usually cohesive
Silt 0.002 ~ 0.0625 -9 ~ -4 4~9 Cohesive ~ non-
cohesive
Sand 0.0625 ~ 2 -4 ~ 1 -1 ~ 4 Non-cohesive
Gravel 2 ~ 64 1~6 -6 ~ -1 “
Cobbles 64 ~ 256 6~8 -8 ~ -6 “
Boulders > 256 >8 < -8 “

Mineral clays such as are cohesive, i.e. characterized by electrochemical

forces that cause particles to stick together. Even silt-sized particles that do
not consist of mineral clay often display some cohesiveness
due to the formation of a biofilm or internal water pressures.

Characterisation of River Sediment Size Distributions

The grain size distribution is
Sample Grain Size Distribution characterized in terms of N+1
100
sizes Db,i such that ff,i
90
denotes the mass fraction in
the sample that is finer than
80
size Db,i. In the example
70
below N = 7.
Percent Finer

60

50
100 x ff,4 = 42
40 i Db,i mm ff,i
30 1 0.03125 0.020
Db,4 = 0.25 mm
20
2 0.0625 0.032
10
3 0.125 0.100
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 4 0.25 0.420
Grain Size mm
5 0.5 0.834
6 1 0.970
Note the use of a logarithmic scale for grain size.
7 2 0.990
8 4 1.000

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 Characterisation of River Sediment Size Distributions

ψ = grain size on psi scale

σ = standard deviation on psi scale
Sample Grain Size Distribution (with Extrapolation)
100

90 N
80
ψ = ∑ ψ i fi
70
i =1
Percent Finer

60
N
σ 2 = ∑ (ψ i − ψ ) fi
50 2
40
i =1
30

20 Dg = 2 ψ
10

0 σ g = 2σ
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Grain Size mm
Dg = geometric mean size
σg = geometric standard deviation ( ≥ 1)
Dg = 0.273 mm, σg = 2.17
Sediment is well sorted if σg < 1.6

Unimodal and Bimodal Grain Size Distributions

The fractions fi(ψi) represent a discretized version of the continuous function f(ψ), f
denoting the mass fraction of a sample that is finer than size ψ. The probability
density pf of size ψ is thus given as p = df/dψ.
1
0.9
The example to the left 0.8
f(ψ)
corresponds to a Gaussian 0.7
(normal) distribution with ψ = -1 0.6
(Dg = 0.5 mm) and σ = 0.8 (σg = 0.5

1.74): 0.4
0.3 p(ψ)
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ ψ − ψ ⎞2 ⎤ 0.2
p= exp⎢− ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2π σ ⎣⎢ 2 ⎝ σ ⎠ ⎦⎥
0.1
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

ψ
The grain size distribution is called D84
unimodel because the function p(ψ) has a Dg = D84D16 , σg =
D16
single mode, or peak.

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 Unimodal and Bimodal Grain Size Distributions

A sand-bed river is a river with a

characteristic size of surface
1
sediment (D50 or Dg) that is in the
sand range. 0.9

0.8 f(ψ)
A gravel-bed river has a 0.7
characteristic size that is in the range
0.6
of gravel or coarser material.
0.5
The grain size distributions of most 0.4
sand-bed streams are unimodal, and
0.3
can often be approximated with a
Gaussian function. 0.2 p(ψ)
0.1
Many gravel-bed river show bimodal 0
grain size distributions, as shown to -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
the upper right. Such streams show a ψ
sand mode and a gravel mode, often
with a lack of sediment in the grain
size (2 ~ 8 mm).

Modes of Sediment Transport

1. Bedload (10% of total load)

Grains move by rolling or sliding along the bed. Grains moving in this
mode are predominantly in contact with the bed.
2. Suspension (90% of total load)
Grains move remote from the bed surface. The forces generated by
turbulent fluctuations in the flow oppose the downward motion of the
grains.
w
6 > s > 2 Bedload
u*
ws
2 > > 0 .8 Saltation
u*
ws
0 .8 > > 0 Suspension
u*
w s = grain fall velocity
u * = shear velocity

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 Bedload Transport Rate Prediction

Specific relationship between hydraulic variables, sediment

characteristics and bedload transport rate

Two stage development:

• purely empirical relationship between flow variables and
transport rate for a specific laboratory or field data set
• theoretical relationship and then calibrated with available data

Problems?
Accuracy of available data
• Hydraulic - water depth, slope (10%)?
• Transport rate measurements

Bedload Measurement

Field and Laboratory Methods

• All have different efficiencies at different grain sizes, range of
water depths, flow rates, maximum and minimum allowable grain
sizes, mobility and sediment transport rates.
• Measurement is difficult especially in the field

Field
•Helley-Smith Bedload Sampler
•Slot-type “Birbeck” type sampler
•Vortex tube sampler

Laboratory
Slot-type with interchangeable boxes
Karolyi Sampler

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Bedload Measurement

Bedload Measurement

13
 Bedload Measurement

Vortex tube
sampler

Bedload Measurement

Vortex tube
sampler

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Bedload Measurement

Laboratory Slot Type Sampler

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Laboratory Slot Type Sampler

Laboratory Slot Type Sampler

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 Karolyi Sampler

Bedload Sampling Problems

• Bedload transport rates vary spatially

and temporally even during constant
flow conditions.

• Mean transport rate at a channel

cross-section?

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 Bedload Sampling Problems

• Long sampling durations (steady

hydraulic conditions)

• Possible migration of bedforms

• Sequential or random sampling?

• Representative mean: guidelines -
greater than 5 to at least 30 samples
required.

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Divided into five groups:
1. Excess Shear Stress Equations - e.g. Meyer-Peter Muller
2. Probabilistic Equations, e.g. Einstein
3. Stream power (Work Expended) Equations
4. Theoretical and optimised by observed data (Ackers and White)
5. Stochastic/Computational Methods (e.g. Heald et al.)

All formulae are to some extent based on experimental data (range of

applicability)

Quality of the formula is based on the reliability of the measured data, bedload
transport is very difficult to measure

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 Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Excess Shear Stress Equations

Meyer-Peter Muller (1930’s) - straight gravel bed rivers

qt = K (τ − τ c )
n

where qt = bedload transport rate,

τ = bed shear stress,
τ c = bed shear stress at threshold of motion,
K = empircal const., n = empircal const. (1.2 − 1.5)

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Threshold of Motion
Shields (1936)
u(z)
Examine balance between fluid drag
forces (FD) and grain weight (W)
FD
FD
tan φ =
W

FD = τ D 2 k1 W
where τ = bed shear stress ( N / m 2 ), D = grain diameter , k 1 = empirical const .

πD 3
W = (ρ s − ρ )g k2
6
where ρ s = density of solid , ρ = density of water , g = gravity , k 2 = empirical const .

FD τ D 2 k1
tan φ = =
W πD 3
(ρ s − ρ )g k2
6
τ π tan φ
= =θ Shields No .
( ρ s − ρ ) gD 6 k1k 2

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 Shields Curve - Threshold of Motion

Shields Curve

Motion

No Motion

Shields Curve - with

data - note scatter -
and logarithmic axis

Shields Curve - Threshold of Motion

10

suspension
1
no suspension
motion mod Brownlie
τ*

ripples
suspension

0.1
no ripples
ripples

no motion modified Brownlie

0.01
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Rep

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 Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Problems with excess shear stress relationships

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Probabilistic Equations - Concepts

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 Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Probabilistic Equations - Practicalities

• Very difficult to measure grain entrainment rates and hop lengths
• Compromise - probability of grain entrainment (p) linked to Shields
No and hop length assumed fixed.
• Non-dimensional variables and calibrate with different data sets
1
p ∝ Shields No . = = flow intensity function
Ψ

qt
= φ = bedload transport function
ws D

where ws = grain fall velocity , grain diameter

⎛1⎞
φ = f⎜ ⎟
⎝Ψ⎠

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

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 Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Streampower relationships - Bagnold, Yang

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Streampower relationships - Bagnold, Yang

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 Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Streampower relationships - from Yang (1973)

Bedload Transport Rate Equations

Semi-Theoretical and Data Optimisation - Ackers and White 1973

Concept
Coarse sediment - BEDLOAD - men flow velocity (u)
Fine sediment - SUSUSPENDED - turbulence shear velocity(u*)
Three non-dimensional groups (Dgr,Fgr, Ggr)
1− n
⎡ ⎤
u n ⎢ U ⎥
Fgr = *
⎢ ⎥
gD( s − 1) ⎢ 32 log⎛ 10d ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠ ⎥⎦

m
⎛ Fgr ⎞
Ggr = C ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ A ⎠

1
⎡ g ( s − 1) ⎤ 3
Dgr = D ⎢ ⎥
⎣ υ ⎦

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Bedload Transport Rate Equations

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Bedload Transport Rate Equations - Discrete Particle
Models
Grain motion controlled by:

a) Buoyancy
b) Fluid drag
c) Grain-grain collisions

Wrapped boundaries.
Uniform flow field.
Very simple fluid sheltering algorithm. 10,000 2mm grains

- Flow from left to right.

- Grey not exposed.
- Blue through to pink with increasing
exposure.

Transport rate
Experimental and
Modelled

Log-log gradient of 3/2

along asymptote

Data points are the results of many

experiments
(Meyer-Peter, Gilbert, Chien,
Wilson).

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 DPM transport rate

Gradient = 3.4

Asymptote
τ ~ u2

2mm grains

4mm grains

Components of bedload transport

Transport rate qs (kg/m/s) is the product of two pairs of quantities:

qs = u * Gb u = mean grain velocity (ms-1)

and Gb = mass moving in bedload (kgm-2)
qs = λ*φ λ = hop length (m)
φ = entrainment rate (kgm-2s-1)

Hop length λ is the distance from entrainment to deposition.

Grains may rebounded many times during the saltation of one hop length.

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Grain Entrainment

Vf

[
P Vg < V f =] ∫f G dV
0
Vf

dEi = f F (V f ) dV ∫f
0
G dV

+∞
E = ∫ dEi
−∞

Transport rate compared to the

products of its components

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 The Individual Components

500mm/s flow 700mm/s flow

1100mm/s flow 1500mm/s flow

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Grain Velocity Histograms

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 DPM Transport Rate Equations

1. The DPM has reproduced the shape of the classic transport rate
curve.

2. The individual transport components are not simple functions of

flow velocity.

3. Bedload is transported in two layers:

• saltating well above the bed
• and creeping over the bed surface

Optional Hydraulic Laboratory

This course does not include a full treatment of open channel flow. It is assumed
that the reader has had a course in open channel flow, or has access to, and has
understood texts that cover the field. Nearly all undergraduate texts in fluid
mechanics for civil engineers have sections on open channel flow (e.g. Chadwick
and Morfett).

Topics treated in the Laboratory will include:

• Estimating Specific Energy

• Identify Sub and super critical flow
• Typical sub and super critical flow profiles

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