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In Sullivan, W. T. and Baross, J. A. (eds.) (2006) Planets and Life: The Emerging Science of
Astrobiology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Pr. (In press)
10 EVOLUTION: A DEFINING FEATURE OF LIFE
John A. Baross
University of Washington
In biology nothing makes sense except in the light of evolution. It is possible to describe living
beings without asking questions about their origins. [But] the descriptions acquire meaning and
coherence only when viewed in the perspective of evolutionary development
– Theodosius Dobzhansky (1970:6)
10.1 From Lamarck to Darwin to the Central Dogma
The basic notion of evolution is that inherited changes in populations of
organisms result in expressed differences over time – these differences are at the
gene level (the genotype) and/or expression of the gene into an identifiable
characteristic (the phenotype). The important underlying fact of evolution is that
all organisms share a common inheritance, or, put more dramatically, all extant
organisms on Earth evolved from a common ancestor. We see this in the universal
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nature of the genetic code and in the unity of biochemistry: (a) all organisms share
the same biochemical tools to translate the universal information code from genes
to proteins, (b) all proteins are composed of the same twenty essential amino acids,
and (c) all organisms derive energy for metabolic, catalytic and biosynthetic
processes from the same highenergy organic compounds such as adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
In On the Origin of Species Charles Darwin (1859) (Fig. 10.1) built his
theory of evolution using evidence that included an ancient Earth thought at the
time by many geologists to have an age in millions of years. He also took the
extinction of species to be a real phenomenon since fossils existed that were
without living representatives. Since different species showed close phenotypic
similarities, he argued that existing organisms descended from other organisms
including extinct groups. The key to his evolutionary theory therefore was that
inherited characteristics of organisms can change through time and that these
changes occur gradually and without discontinuities. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1809)
had earlier recognized a similar principle of evolution and offered an explanation
generally referred to as “inheritance of acquired characters.” By this Lamarck
meant that the variations in characteristics or adaptations seen in organisms were
acquired in response to the environment. Classic examples include the long neck
of the giraffe as an adaptation for foraging tender foliage on treetops, or the use of
long legs by some aquatic fowl to venture into deep waters in search of prey. While
this is certainly how these phenotypic characteristics are utilized to the advantage
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of the organism, under Darwinian principles they were not acquired as a response
to the needs of the environment.
One of Darwin’s major contributions was his explanation of how and why
organisms change over time and how they acquire characteristics useful for living
in different environments. Darwin referred to the mechanism for character
changes through time as natural selection. Natural selection is based on the idea of
the struggle for existence (survival of the fittest) in populations where there are
more individuals of each species than can survive. A variation in any characteristic
of an individual that gives an advantage in surviving (and therefore reproducing)
will be “naturally selected” since the new trait will be preferentially inherited by
subsequent generations. Darwin differed from Lamarck by recognizing that
character changes that offer a survival advantage and are “naturally selected”
originate from a pool of randomly generated character changes that are not directed
by environmental conditions. Note that Darwin proposed his theory without
knowing the mechanism for the inheritance of acquired traits – not until forty years
later would the field of genetics begin with the recognition that Gregor Mendel’s
principle of discrete units of inheritance (genes) was correct.
Mendelian genetics established that phenotypes are transmitted from one
generation to another following statistical principles and that these phenotypes
reside in simple heritable “characters.” The nature of these heritable characters
were unknown to Mendel, but their location was confined to chromosomes by 1910
and then to DNA as the genetic material by Hershey and Chase (1952). This
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immediately led to the discovery by Watson and Crick (1953) of the doublehelix
structure of DNA and shortly afterwards to the elucidation of the genetic code and
to the understanding that a gene is primarily a sequence along a section of DNA
that codes for a protein using an alphabet composed of the four bases that
constitute DNA. The steps leading from DNA to a specific protein are referred to
as the central dogma: a DNA gene is transcribed to make messenger RNA
(mRNA), followed by translation of mRNA into a protein. The exceptions to the
central dogma are those genes that specify not proteins, but instead the various
classes of RNA that are involved in both transcription and translation, such as
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
10.2 Evolution at the Molecular Level
The Watson and Crick discovery also opened the doors to studies of
evolution at the molecular level and helped develop classification schemes that
allow for the evolutionary comparisons of all groups of extant organisms, as well as
the construction of models for inferring the nature of Earth’s earliest microbial
communities and the emergence of multicelled organisms (Hedges, 2002).
Usually, ribosomal RNA genes and ribosomal protein genes are used for
evolutionary studies because they have highly conserved sequences, meaning
sequences that are found across all domains of life (Woese et al., 1990). Most
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functional RNA molecules have secondary structures that are associated with their
function. The base sequence determines to a great extent the functional secondary
structure. Mutations that change the secondary structure of RNA molecules will
frequently render them inactive. These conserved sequences must have originated
a long time ago in a common ancestor and be of fundamental importance to all
species. They are especially associated with the cell’s ribosomes, where proteins
are assembled, because this process is so fundamental to the functioning of all
cells.
A central concept in evolutionary theory is that a gene coding for a
characteristic is subject to mutation (change) in a random fashion, which in some
cases can lead to variability in that characteristic in the next generation. Mutations
come about due to mistakes made during DNA replication, or through external
factors such as ionizing radiation or toxic chemicals. Most mutations are moot, i.e.,
they have little or no effect on the protein product of the gene or (for ribosomal
RNA genes) the function of the RNA. Others, particularly those involving
deletions and insertions that can result in structural changes in the transcribed
protein or in a ribosomal RNA, can render it inactive. The most lethal mutations
are those that damage the genes involved in DNA replication, transcription of DNA
into mRNA, or translation of mRNA into a protein – in particular, mutations
involving deletions or insertions of bases can change the structure of the
transcribed mRNA and protein.
Changing environmental conditions can negatively affect growth and
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survival (inducing stresses), and depending on the degree and kind of stress, can
result in death of the organism. To survive such a lethal stress the organism must
have mutation rates sufficiently high to handle the stress, but not so high as to
cause lethal damage to the genome (the entire set of genes defining the species).
Moreover, all extant organisms have a set of conserved genes for repairing
mutations or proteins affected by environmental stresses such as starvation, heat,
radiation, changes in pH, etc. While these “stress” genes are not 100% effective,
they greatly reduce the number of deleterious mutations. The same genes can also
target other specific genes for an increased mutation rate under stress conditions –
these are called “stressdirected adaptive mutations” (Wright, 2004). For example,
this mechanism can be observed when bacteria are starving from lack of their usual
nutrient, but then undergo increased evolutionary rates of specific genes involved
in the metabolism of alternate nutrients for growth.
There is debate about how random mutations lead to useful characters, and
particularly about the mechanisms involved in adaptation that eventually results in
useful complex structures such as enzymes, bacterial flagella motors, eyes and
brains. In evolution, adaptation means more than simply being well suited to the
environment; it also involves in any generation the selection of one particular
genetic change (over many other possibilities) that results in maximum
reproductive success. But since many incremental steps are involved in evolving
complex structures and processes, it would seem that adaptation involves a
sequence of coordinated (not random) steps. Until recently, there was no
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satisfactory mechanism that could account for the evolution of complex structures.
Two kinds of evolutionary change are recognized. Microevolution results in
changes at the species level and accounts for the shortterm variability observed in
populations. The second process of macroevolution involves the more substantial
changes that over long times result in the development of new higher taxa such as
genera, families, orders, etc. Macroevolution affects the genotypes of individuals
within populations and thus also involves microevolution. Macroevolution is also
invoked as the mechanism that results in the gradual formation of novel complex
structures that involve multiple genes.
Development of the eye has provided a classic illustration for gradualism
producing increasing complexity and function. There are more than forty different
eye structures found in both invertebrates and vertebrates with a range of
complexity from light sensitive patches to compound eyes (Parker, 2003). It was
once thought that these photosensitive organs developed independently along
several different branches of the Tree of Life, a classic example of convergent
evolution (independent evolution of morphologically and/or functionally similar
structures). Recent molecular data, however, show that in many cases
macroevolution is not totally a gradual set of changes based on mutation and
natural selection. There appears to be a common set of genes that instigated the
evolution of the eye in as diverse a group as fruit fly, squid and humans. These
genes are called “tool box” genes (Carroll, 2005), and are common to many diverse
organisms, implying that they are inherited from a common ancestor. For example,
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one group of genes called HOX genes1 account for the incredibly high diversity
found in animal body plans. The three principal anatomical plans for wings
exemplified in birds, bats and pterosaur, were also thought to be the products of
convergent evolution. The bird wing developed from the entire arm, the bat wing
from a hand, and the pterosaur wing from a single finger. Similar HOX genes,
acting on different sets of genes in birds, bats and pterosaurs, resulted in the
evolution of different kinds of wings (Carroll, 2005). The profoundly important
point is that the origin of diverse body forms of animals and their organs may have
more to do with the way multiple genes are expressed and less to do with the
number of different kinds of genes. We are learning that a basic set of genes is used
in animals in different ways to produce the myriad different body forms,
appendages and organs. “Genetic switches,” specific gene sequences that “instruct
tool kit genes where to act and what to do” (Carroll, 2005), select which specific
genes get expressed.
This new combination of evolution with developmental biology is called
EvoDevo and is revolutionizing our understanding of macroevolution and
embryology. EvoDevo also offers an explanation for the rapid macroevolutionary
changes (termed punctuated equilibrium by Eldredge and Gould (1972)) that
appear in the fossil record and that cannot be explained by gradualism. An example
of punctuated equilibrium is the sudden appearance of diverse animal forms during
1
HOX comes from “homeo” (like), and “box,” from the fact that the DNA
sequence is short enough to fit into a box drawn on paper.
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the Cambrian Explosion 550 Ma (Sec. 16.3.1). EvoDevo studies indicate that this
sudden emergence of highly diverse animal forms was due to the evolution of key
regulatory HOX genes in the common ancestor to all Cambrian animals (Carroll,
2005)
10.3 Mechanisms for Acquiring New Genes
Besides mutation, other mechanisms can effect changes in genes that
coordinate cell structures, metabolism or physiological trait, whether for sudden
acquisition of new genes or incremental changes of individual genes or groups of
genes. These mechanisms are:
• fusion of different cells, sometime called endosymbiosis
• coevolution
• lateral gene transfer
Symbiosis is any interaction between two organisms (occasionally more than
two organisms are involved) in which at least one of the organisms benefits from
the relationship. This broad definition includes parasitic associations in which the
parasite benefits at the expense of the host, or mutualistic associations in which
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both organisms benefit. Some symbiotic associations are obligatory where either
the host or symbiont (or both) is unable to live independently. For instance, a recent
model based on whole genome sequences indicates that the first eukaryote cell may
have formed by the fusion of Bacteria and Archaea, and that Bacteria contributed
the operational genes while Archaea contributed the informational genes (Rivera
and Lake, 2004).2 While there are other models for the origin of eukaryotes
(Gupta, 1998; Martin and Müller, 1998), there is agreement about the bacterial and
archaeal origin of informational and key operational genes in eukaryotes. Such a
fusion would fall into the category of mutualistic symbiosis since both cells
benefited from this association. Furthermore, we have evidence for ancient
symbioses in eukaryote cells in that their mitochondria (involved in oxygen
respiration) and chloroplasts (involved in photosynthesis) both first occurred in
specific groups of bacteria (Sapp, 2005; Wakeford, 2002).
The proposed fusion of an archaeum with a bacterium somehow resulted in
conditions favorable for evolution to greater complexity, multicellularity, and
sexual reproduction. Similarly, the later acquisition by early eukaryotes of the
mitochondria and chloroplast from bacteria must have had a profound effect on
eukaryote evolution and particularly on their adaptation into habitats bathed in light
and oxygen. Unfortunately, most of the evolutionary steps from the proposed
2
The Tree of Life divides all species into three Domains called Archaea
(containing the archaea), Bacteria (containing the bacteria), and Eukarya
(containing the eukaryotes). See Fig. 11.1.
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fusionbased “protoeukaryote” to singlecell eukaryotes (Chap. 13) are unknown
since no known extant organism retains characteristics that can definitely be
interpreted as intermediate to those of modernday eukaryotes. For example, we do
not know the intermediate steps/structures involved in the transition from the
generally circular, doublestranded DNA chromosome of bacteria and archaea to
the complex linear DNAprotein chromosomes of eukaryotes.
While the fusion of two cells is not believed to have been a common
occurrence in the early life history of organisms, there are many examples of other
forms of symbiosis that are widely distributed in eukaryotes, allowing them to live
under conditions that otherwise would not be possible (Sapp, 1994). One of the
first cases to be identified was the symbiosis of an alga and a fungus to form a
lichen, researched in detail and recognized in the late 19th century by Beatrix Potter
(better known as the author of Peter Rabbit) well before symbiosis was accepted by
the British scientific community.3 Other examples of symbiosis include
hydrothermal vent tubeworms and clams that utilize inorganic chemical energy
sources, plants that assimilate nitrogen via nitrogen fixation by root hair bacteria,
and the microbial communities in the guts of ruminants and insects that
anaerobically digest complex polysaccharides such as cellulose (Sapp, 1994;
Wakeford, 2001). Parasitism, another form of symbiosis, can result in radical
3
Wakeford (2001) has an interesting account of Potter’s futile attempt to
convince the British scientific community of the importance of her
observations.
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changes in the physiology of the host that include mating and feeding behavior, and
morphological changes. It has been suggested that other ancient symbiotic events
involving bacteria and eukaryotes occurred that are not as obviously visible in the
cell as are mitochondria and chloroplasts, but are nevertheless important in the
early evolution of eukaryotes (Margulis, 1993; Margulis et al., 2000).
Coevolution is a special kind of symbiosis in which two kinds of organisms
interact in such a way that each exerts a selective pressure on the other. Classical
examples include flowering plants and their insect pollinators, and predators and
their prey. Less obvious examples may include whole ecosystems in which all
trophic levels from bacteria to animals have coevolved. Understanding the nature
of coevolving ecosystems is one of the most difficult and important challenges in
ecology.
Lateral gene transfer (also referred to as genetic exchange and horizontal
gene transfer) is the transfer of DNA from one organism to another such that it
effects a “permanent” change in the genetic composition of the recipient. Genetic
exchange can be mediated by cellcell contact (conjugation), by viral infection
(transduction), or by incorporation of DNA from the environment (transformation).
The recent accumulation of complete genome sequences from
representatives of all the domains of life have revealed a universal pattern of lateral
gene transfer for acquiring genes or parts of genes. Woese et al. (1990, 2002)
speculated that this mechanism was widespread in the early evolutionary stages of
life and vital to producing the diversity reflected in the present three domains of
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life. Furthermore, we now know that viruses4 have played and continue to play a
significant role in the evolution of life through lateral gene transfer (Canchaya et
al., 2003). This is illustrated by the high abundance of bacterial viruses
(bacteriophages or phages) in marine environments, exceeding the bacterial
population by an order of magnitude. Viruses are the most abundant biological
entity on Earth, yet poorly understood. It is presumed that the primary role of
viruses in the environment is causing death in bacteria (or producing disease in
eukaryotes), but their significance as vehicles for transmitting new genes to
bacteria in situ is not well understood, although likely extensive. Jiand and Paul
(1998) calculated that at the low rate of infection of 108 per infected bacterial
population, viralmediated gene transfer takes place in Earth’s oceans at the rate of
~2 x 1016 per second.
The characters transmitted by phage in the environment, their rate of
transmission, and the environmental factors involved in the transfer of genes are
generally unknown. However, recent evidence shows the presence of bacterial
genes in marine phages, including genes that code for proteins necessary for
photosynthesis (Hambly and Suttle, 2005). Similarly, a significant portion of
eukaryote chromosomes (approximately 45% for humans and a much higher
percentage for some plants and an amoeba species) is composed of remnants from
RNA viruses (called retrotransposons, or mobile genetic elements that replicate by
4
A virus is defined as an intracellular parasite and is incapable of living without a host
cell. While it shares many of the biochemical characteristics of a living cell including
nucleic acids and proteins(although much smaller and simpler) except that it cannot
reproduce independently, only by infecting a normal cell.
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reverse transcription: RNA to DNA rather than DNA to RNA) (Bushman, 2001).
Most of these viral sequences in eukaryotes are not transcribed into proteins. But
do they nevertheless serve some important function to the organism? And if not,
why do organisms retain them anyway? Some retroviral sequences have been
implicated in the evolution of vertebrate genes including the development of the
human placenta and the regulation of the gene for starch hydrolysis, but most have
no apparent function and along with other nonprotein coding regions on
eukaryotic chromosomes, have been called “selfish DNA” (Bushman, 2001).
How important is lateral gene transfer in evolution? Results from whole
genome sequences of bacteria and archaea indicate that lateral gene transfer may be
the most important mechanism for acquiring new genes, including those involved
in complex and coordinated phenotypes. For example, ~16% of the genome of
Escherichia coli K12 is viral genes. Microorganisms have evolved elaborate
mechanisms for incorporating acquired genes into their chromosome at specific
sites. These sites can serve as “pathogenicity islands” if all of the acquired genes
are involved in disease production, such as for the choleraproducing bacterium
Vibrio cholerae (Faruque and Mekalanos, 2003), or they may be “genetic islands,”
which align acquired genes involved in key physiological activities such as
magnetotaxis (Grünberg et al., 2001) or the dissimilatory reduction of sulfate
(Mussmann et al., 2005).
It is very unlikely that the formation of a genome with sufficient information
to lead to freeliving (selfsufficient) cells could have originated without a
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mechanism for acquiring “functional” genes from other early cells or communities
of interdependent cells or “precells” (Baross and Hoffman, 1985). This is certainly
consistent with the fact that all life on Earth is derived from a common ancestral
pool of genes based on a universal genetic code (Woese, 1998). Darwinian
evolution would have played an important role in these early stages and selection
would have favored specific biochemical and molecular structures and mechanisms
over others. Could this imply that if we started over again by resetting the clock to
4 Ga, the resultant life would have the same biochemical and molecular properties,
including the same genetic code, as presentday Earth life? If environmental
conditions and the starting pool of organic compounds were the same, it is
probable that a second genesis would result in biochemistry that would resemble or
possibly be indistinguishable from presentday Earth life. The strong link between
specific nucleotide bases and specific amino acids is one more example verifying
that there are “rules of organic chemistry” that favor specific reactions or
macromolecular structures (Copley et al., 2005). In such a second genesis,
however, contingency in evolution could result in the selection of organisms and
ecosystems significantly different from those found on Earth. Yet, compared to
presentday organisms, they would share a similar biochemistry and evolve many or
all of the same phenotypes (both structural and functional), albeit possibly with
different genotypes. Further discussion of these points is found in Chap. 27.
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10.4 Could There Be Life Without Evolution?
Many of the definitions of life include the phrase “undergoes Darwinian
evolution” (Chap. 5). The implication is that phenotypic changes and adaptation
are necessary to exploit unstable environmental conditions, to function more
optimally in the environment, and to provide a mechanism to increase biological
complexity. Evolutionary changes have even been suggested for hypothesized “clay
crystal life” of CairnsSmith (1982), referring to randomly occurring errors in
crystal structure during crystal growth as analogous to mutations (Sec. 27.4.2).
Would a selfreplicating chemical system capable of chemical transformations in
the environment be considered life? If selfreplicating chemical compounds are not
life, then replication by itself is not sufficient as a defining characteristic of life.
Likewise, the ability to undergo Darwinian evolution, that is, a process that results
in heritable changes in a population, is also not sufficient to define life if we
consider minerals that are capable of reproducing errors in their crystal structure to
be equivalent to evolution. Although this property of clays may have been vital in
the origin of life and particularly in the prebiotic synthesis of organic
macromolecules and as catalysts for metabolic reactions, can the perpetuation of
“mistakes” in crystal structure result in the selection of a “more fit” crystal
structure? It is important to emphasize that evolution is not simply reproducing
mutations (mistakes in clays), but selecting those variants that are functionally
morefit.
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The canonical characteristics of life are an inherent capacity to adapt to
changing environmental conditions and to increase in complexity by multiple
mechanisms, but particularly by interactions with other living organisms (and, at
least on Earth, also with viruses). Natural selection is the key to evolution and the
main reason why Darwinian evolution persists as a characteristic of many
definitions of life. Clays could never evolve an eye or a nose, or adapt behavioral
strategies to exclude clays with other crystal characteristics. Hmmm – would
Michael Crichton’s Andromeda Strain (1969), a carbonbased crystal capable of
using chemical and physical energy sources, be considered life? (Incidentally, the
Andromeda Strain could also mutate, which was probably a necessity to reach a
happy ending to the story.) The only alternative to evolution for producing
diversity would be to have environmental conditions that continuously create
different life forms, or similar life forms with random and frequent “mistakes”
made in the synthesis of chemical templates used for replication or metabolism.
These mistakes would be equivalent to mutations and could lead to traits that gave
some selective advantage in an existing community or in exploiting new habitats.
This could lead to life forms that undergo a form of evolution without a master
information macromolecule such as DNA or RNA. It is difficult, however, to
imagine such life forms being able to “evolve” into complex structures unless other
mechanisms such as symbiosis or cell/cell fusion are available.
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10.5 Evolution and Extraterrestrial Life
We have seen that evolution is much more than mutation and natural
selection. It is the key mechanism for heritable changes to occur in a population.
Mutation is not the only mechanism for acquiring new genes. Lateral gene transfer
appears to be one of the most important mechanisms and clearly one of the earliest
mechanisms for creating diversity and possibly for building genomes with the
requisite information to result in freeliving cells, as opposed to codependent
communities of “precells” with insufficient genetic information to escape
communal life (Baross and Hoffman, 1985). Lateral gene transfer is also one of the
mechanisms to align genes from different sources into complex functional activities
such as magnetotaxis and dissimilatory sulfate reduction. It is possible that this
mechanism was important in the evolution of metabolic and biosynthetic pathways
and other physiological traits that may have evolved only once even though they are
present in a wide diversity of organisms. The coevolution between two or more
species is also a hallmark of evolution manifested in many ways from insect/plant
interactions to the hundreds of species of bacteria involved in the nutrition of
ruminant animals. The organisms and the environment also coevolve depending on
the dominant characteristics of the environment and the availability of carbon and
energy sources. Even some of the most extreme environments on Earth, such as
hydrothermal vent sulfide chimneys and the very acidic Rio Tinto River in Spain,
have a remarkably high diversity of organisms (Kelley at al., 2002; Zettler et al.,
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2003). Diversity drops off, however, in environments with combinations of
stressors such as high temperature and high pH, or high salt and high or low
temperature (Chap. 14).
If the ability to undergo Darwinian evolution is a canonical trait of life no
matter how different that life form is from Earth life, then are there properties of
evolving extraterrestrial organisms that would be detectable as positive signs of
life? Evolution provides organisms the opportunity to exploit new and changing
environments, and one piece of evidence for the probable cosmic ubiquity of
evolution is that on Earth life occupies all available habitats and even creates new
habitats as a consequence of its metabolisms. Another hallmark of evolution is the
ability of organisms to coevolve with other organisms and to form permanent and
obligatory associations. Also, it is highly probable that an inevitable consequence
of evolution is the elimination of radically different biochemical lineages of life
that may have formed during the earliest period of evolution of life. Extant Earth
life is the result of either selection of the most fit lineage or homogenization of
some or all of the different lineages into a common ancestral community that
developed into the present three major lineages (domains). All have a common
biochemistry based on presumably the most “fit” molecular information strategies
and energy yielding pathways among a potpourri of possibilities. One caveat and
perhaps a verification of the above statement is that genetic remnants of other
lineages may still exist in some of the deeply rooted archaea as evidenced from the
unique 16S rRNA found in Nanoarchaeum equitans and novel and presently
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undelineated metabolic pathways in some hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeota (Huber
et al., 2003; Hügler et al., 2003).
Thus, one of the apparent generalizations that can be made from extant Earth
life, and the explanation for the development of a “unity of biochemistry” in all
organisms, is that lateral gene transfer is both an ancient and an efficient
mechanism for rapidly creating diversity and complexity. Lateral gene transfer is
also an efficient mechanism for selecting the genes that are most “fit” for specific
proteins and transferring them into diverse groups of organisms. The result is both
the addition of new genes and the replacement of lessfit genes having a similar
function. Natural selection based solely on mutation is not likely an adequate
mechanism for evolving complexity. More importantly, lateral gene transfer and
endosymbiosis are probably the most obvious mechanisms for creating complex
genomes that can lead to freeliving cells and complex cellular communities in the
short geological time available from life’s origin to the establishment of microbial
communities more than 3.8 billion years ago (Sec. 12.3). An important implication
of the existence of viruses or viruslike entities during the early evolution of
cellular organisms is that their genomes may have been the source of most genetic
innovations due to their rapid replication rates, high rates of mutation from
replication errors, and gene insertions from diverse host cells. It is interesting that
Darwin perceived evolution as random changes in individual species that could
lead to selection of more fit traits, but he could not have known that some of these
fit traits could be transferred to species that were not only not sexually compatible
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but belonged to separate domains.
It is clear that both the individual organism and its community coevolve. In a
sense, evolution is evolving, allowing cells to control their own evolution – accept
or reject changes in genotypes from newly acquired foreign genes. While this has
already been demonstrated in bacteria, the source of foreign genes and the kinds of
genes most likely to be selected for permanence are largely not known. However, it
is clear that the evolution of a useful trait by one organism frequently means that it
is likely to be acquired by other organisms. It appears that the field of biology is
beginning to break out of its molecularreductionist “egg” and emerging more
focused on what Carl Woese (2004) terms “holistic biology,” where the emphasis,
rather than just on genes, is on the cell, communities and ecosystems. This would
also take evolution to a new level of inquiry with emphasis on coevolution, cellular
complexity, and the reexamination of the concept of ecosystems as “super
organisms.” The new science of EvoDevo integrates well with this new holistic
approach while offering another lesson about evolution: chance mutations or
microevolution create the panoply of gene variation, but it is key genes and
combinations of key genes that “better meet the imperatives of ecological necessity,
and they arise and are selected for repeatedly” (Carroll, 2005).
Finally, what are the limits of evolution for Earth life? This is a complex
question with many different components. On the one hand, it involves the
different possible biochemistries from carbon chemistry that are not found in extant
Earth organisms but could be better suited for environmental conditions that exist
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on other planets and moons (Chap. 27). The technology exists to design genes and
groups of genes that could lead to novel phenotypes suited to exploit new habitats
and novel energy sources. These kinds of studies would be important and perhaps
essential in our quest to search for life elsewhere. Another component to the
question of the limits of evolution is where we are going and what will Homo
sapiens or its successors be like if it continues to evolve for tens of thousands or
million of years? This is an integral part of our search for advanced extraterrestrial
intelligence, which requires us to imagine our future portrait (Chap. 26). We
cannot imagine all of the possible changes that will occur after millions of years of
evolution but based on the just the tens of thousands of years of primate evolution,
it is likely that one possible outcome will be an increasing ability to control our
environment and all that is evolving. It is also likely that we will someday know if
we are alone in the Universe.
10.6 Summary
It is evident that cells are more than the information encoded in their
genomes. They are part of a highly integrated biological and geochemical system in
whose creation and maintenance they have participated. The unity of biochemistry
among all of Earth’s organisms emphasizes the ability of organisms to interact with
other organisms to form coevolving communities, to acquire and transmit new
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genes, to use old genes in new ways, to exploit new habitats, and most important to
evolve mechanisms to help control their own evolution. It is expected that these
characteristics are likely to be present in extraterrestrial life even if it has had a
separate origin and a very different unified biochemistry from that of Earth life.
Since evolution is an essential feature of Earth life and probably all life, the
search for life elsewhere should include a search for evidence of evolution.
Baross – 2/3/06 – wts rev 2/6/06 24
Figure Caption
Figure 10.1. Charles Darwin (18091882), in his later years at Down House,
his combined home, office and laboratory (see App. D). (photo courtesy John van
Wyhe)
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General Reading and Surfing
Desmond, A. and Moore, J. (1991). Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist.
New York: Warner.
This is an excellent and thoroughly researched biography of Darwin. As the
title implies, Darwin struggled as to how to present the theory of evolution in a way
that was acceptable to a community shackled by Victorian mores.
Judson, H. W. (1979). The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of Revolution in
Biology. New York: Simon and Schuster.
This is the definitive historical study of the mid20thcentury birth of
molecular biology and a must read for anyone interested in how revolutions in
science get started. It has been reprinted with an updated preface (New York: Cold
Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996).
Knoll, A. H. (2003). Life on a Young Planet: The First Three Billion Years of
Evolution on Earth. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr.
This is a “tour de force” portrait of life from Earth’s beginning to the
Cambrian explosion. Knoll is masterful in blending geology, geochemistry and
biology in the context of Earth history.
Lovelock, J. E. (1979). Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth. Oxford: Oxford Univ.
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Pr.
James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis first put forth the proposition that the
composition and temperature of the atmosphere is an evolutionary product of
interrelated activities in the biosphere, especially those of microorganisms, and that
the entire biosphere behaves as a single selfregulating organism. The Gaia
Hypothesis has been every bit as influential as it is controversial (see Sec. 10.5 for
related thinking).
www.mendelweb.org
An excellent website for learning the details of what Mendel actually did.
Conway Morris, S. (2003). Life’s Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely
Universe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr.
Conway Morris has a different perspective on evolution. He argues for
determinism rather than contingency: Evolution has predictable and inevitable
outcomes. His metaphysical arguments are interesting and certainly thought
provoking and somewhat reminiscent of chapter 31 in Christian de Duve’s
excellent book, Vital Dust: Life as a Cosmic Imperative (New York: Basic Books,
1995)
Ptashne, M. (1992, 2nd ed.). A Genetic Switch. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell
Science.
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This classic work describes the basic molecular reactions underlying the
regulation of gene transcription in all organisms and how the genes involved in
these reactions, when combined, produce complex regulatory circuits. The
regulatory circuits found in bacteria are the forerunners to the evolution of the more
complex regulatory circuits involved in macroevolution and the emergence of
EvoDevo (Carroll, 2005)
Ridley, M. (ed.) (1997). Evolution. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Pr.
This is an excellent compilation of many of the classic papers on evolution.
The list of authors is the “Who’s Who” of great evolution thinkers and includes
Charles Darwin, Stephen J. Gould, Ernst Mayr, George Gaylord Simpson, Richard
Dawkins, Francis Crick and many others. The topics covered include adaptation,
macroevolution, molecular evolution, biodiversity, human evolution, and evolution
and philosophy.
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