[Type text]

1.INTRODUCTION

At the same time of consuming large amounts of oil resources, the exhaust emissions of vehicles have became one of the culprits of urban air pollution. The vehicles exhaust emissions have met or exceeded 60% of the total the amount urban emissions. With the energy and environmental pressures, developing electric vehicles and promoting transport energy transformation has become the important target of government in developed countries and China.

Electric drive vehicles can be thought of as mobile, self-contained, andin the aggregatehighly reliable power resources. Electric-drive vehicles (EDVs) include three types: battery electric vehicles, the increasingly popular hybrids, and fuel-cell vehicles running on gasoline, natural gas, or hydrogen. All these vehicles have within them power electronics which generate clean, 60 Hz AC power, at power levels from 10kW (for the Honda Insight) to 100kW (for GMs EV1). When vehicle power is fed into the electric grid, we refer to it as Vehicle-to-Grid power, or V2G.

With the popularization of electric vehicles and the construction of charging stations, the understanding of people to the electric vehicle and the changing station is not only confined to the transportation and the "gas station". It is desired to exploit more extensive application. The concept of V2G was firstly brought out by Willet Kempton of the Delaware University. The initial goal of V2G was to provide peak power, that is, the electric vehicle owners charging the vehicles in low load with lower price and discharging the vehicles in peak load with higher price. Then, the vehicle owners can get the profits from the V2G project. The functions of the vehicle in power grid were expanded, and the conclusion was get that benefit of providing peak power is significantly less than providing auxiliary services to the power grid . The V2G research also was carried out in some other countries such as Denmark, Britain and Germany, etc .
[Type text]

[Type text]

[Type text]

[Type text]

V2G:HOW IT WOULD WORK

California, along with New York, Massachusetts, Vermont, and Maine, have embarked on policies to encourage the development and spread of electric-drive and low pollution vehicles. The goal is to reduce air pollution from mobile sources. These policy initiatives, advances in power electronics, and the opening of electricity markets across the country create opportunities for electric-drive vehicles to reduce air pollution, and at the same time increase the reliability and efficiency of the electric power system. This opportunity is based on using the electric storage of battery vehicles, or the generation capacity of hybrid and fuel cell vehicles, for ancillary services and/or peak power. Three elements are required for V2G: 1)power connection for electrical energy flow from vehicle to grid, 2) control or logical connection, needed for the grid operator to determine available capacity, request ancillary services or power from the vehicle, and to meter the result, and 3) precision certified metering on board the vehicle. For fuelled vehicles (fuel cell and hybrid), fourth element, a connection for gaseous fuel (natural gas or hydrogen), could be added so that on board fuel is not depleted.

The first V2G requirement is the power connection. Battery vehicles must already be connected to the grid inorder to recharge their batteries; to add V2G capability requires little or no modification to the charging station and no modification to the cables or connectors, but on board power electronics must be designed for this purpose had zero incremental cost.

The second requirement for V2G is control, for the utility or system operator to request vehicle power exactly when needed. This is essential because vehicle power has value greater than the cost to produce it only if the buyer (the system operator) can determine the precise timing of dispatch. The automobile industry is moving towards making real-time communications a standard part of vehicles. This field, called telematics has already begun with luxury vehicles; over a period of time it will be available for most new car models. Whether using built-in vehicle telematics, or in the interim using add-on

[Type text]

[Type text]

communications, the vehicle could receive a radio signal from the grid operator indicating when power is needed.

The third element of precision, certified, tamper-resistant metering, measures exactly how much power or ancillary services a vehicle did provide, and at which times. The telematics could again be used to transmit meter readings back to the buyer for credit to the vehicle owners account

Thinking about the metering of V2G expands the usual concept of a utility meter. Electronic metering and telemetric appear to have efficiency advantages in eliminating the meter reader, transfer of billing data to the central computer, and the monthly meter-read cycle. More unnerving, electronic metering and telemetric also eliminates the service address! An onboard meter would transmit its own serial number or account number with its readings, via telemetric, and presumably this would be billed in conjunction with a traditional metered account with a service address. A large-scale V2G system would automate accounting and reconciliation of potentially millions of small transactions, similar to the recording and billing of calls from millions of cellular phone customers.Thus the mobile metered KWhs or ancillary services wold be added or subtracted to the amount registered on the fixed meter to reconcile both billing amounts.

The system operator or local utility may not wish to do business with hundreds or thousands of small providers of peak power or ancillary services. In this case, a third party could aggregate EDVs into MW blocks to sell in bulk power and ancillary services markets. At 16kW per vehicle, a 1MW block is 63 vehicles. Potential businesses to serve as aggregators include energy service companies (ESCOs), cell-phone operators (accustomed to automated dispatch and billing of millions of individual transactions), telematics service on board liquid fuel. To avoid V2G being seen as a threat to vehicle range, it is essentiaI that the driver be able to limit any draw down so travel is not affected. Following Kempton and Letendre (l997), that can be done with a control that the driver sets according to driving needs. The power buyer must limit the degree of battery discharge or fuel tank rundown in accordance with the vehicle owners settings. An example control panel is shown in Figure 1.

[Type text]

[Type text]

Fig 1

Whether the control is physical, on the dash, or on a Webpage, the idea is basically the same. The driver has two parameters to setthe length of the expected next trip (in the case shown in Figure 1, 10 miles at 6:45 the next morning), and the minimum range that must always be maintained, e.g. for an emergency room trip, two miles. (As we will see in Figure 2, when providing regulation up and down rather than peak or spinning reserves,there is little impact on range.) One conceptual barrier to understanding vehicles as a power source is an initial belief that their power would be unpredictable or unavailable because they would be on the road. Although any one vehicles plug availability is unpredictable, the availability of thousands or tens of thousands of vehicles is highly predictable and can be estimated from traffic and road-use data. For example, peak lateafternoon traffic occurs during the hours when electric use is highest (from 3-6 p.m.). A supposition one might have from personal experience, that the majority of the vehicles are on the road during rush hour traffic, is false. Based on 92 percent of vehicles are parked and thus potentially available to the grid during any given hour, including the peak traffic hours of 3-6 PM.

[Type text]

[Type text]

TYPES OF VEHICLES AND TYPES OF MARKETS

The three vehicle types are: (1) fuel cell, which produces electricity on-board from a fuel, such as hydrogen, (2) battery, which stores power from the electric grid in an electrochemical cell, and (3) hybrid, which produces electricity on-board from an internal combustion engine turning a generator. Most relevant to V2G among the many possible hybrid designs is the plug-in hybrid, which has a grid connection, allowing recharge from the grid as well as from fuel, and larger electrical components to allow driving in electric-only mode . The four power markets relevant to V2G, are base load, peak, spinning reserves, and regulation. Base load power is the bulk power generation that is running most of the time. Peak power is used during times of predictable highest demand, for example, on hot summer afternoons, when maximum air conditioning is running. The other two forms of power are less well known. Spinning reserves are supplied by generators set-up and ready to respond quickly in case of failures (whether equipment failure or failure of a power supplier to meet contract requirements). They would typically be called, say, 20 times per year; a typical duration is 10 min but must be able to last up to 1 h (spinning reserves are the fastest-response and highest-value component of the more general electric market for operating reserves). Regulation is used to keep the frequency and voltage steady, they are called for only one up to a few minutes at a time, but might be called 400 times per day (again, terminology and operating rules vary somewhat across jurisdictions); spinning reserves and regulation are paid in part for just being available, a capacity payment per hour available; base load and peak are paid only per kWh generated. Our companion article presents example calculations suggesting, for the vehicle and power markets examined, that V2G (1) is not suitable for base load power; (2) it may be suitable for peak power in some cases; (3) it is competitive for spinning reserves; (4) it is highly competitive for regulation. Continuous, bulk electricity can better be provided by large power plants because they last longer and cost less per kWh. But electric drive vehicles, with their fast response and low capital costs, appear to be a better match for the quick-response, short-duration, electric services, such as spinning reserves and regulation.

[Type text]

[Type text]

ILLUSTRATION OF CONCEPT OF V2G.

Figure schematically illustrates connections between vehicles and the electric power grid. Electricity flows one-way from generators through the grid to electricity users. Electricity flows back to the grid from EDVs, or with battery EDVs, the flow is two ways (shown in Fig. as lines with two arrow ). The control signal from the grid operator (labelled ISO, for Independent System Operator) could be a broadcast radio signal, or through a cell phone network, direct Internet connection, or power line carrier. In any case, the grid operator sends requests for power to a large number of vehicles. The signal may go directly to each individual vehicle, schematically in the upper right of Fig., or to the office of a fleet operator, which in turn controls vehicles in a single parking lot, schematically shown in the lower right of Fig., or through a third-party aggregator of dispersed individual vehicles power (not shown). (The grid operator also dispatches power from traditional central-station generators using a voice telephone call or a T1 line, not shown in Fig.)
[Type text]

[Type text]

THE FUNCTIONS OF V2G IN SMART GRID

The functions of the electrical vehicle as a mobile energy storage unit in grid includes four aspects: shifting the peak power of the regional load, responding to the frequency fluctuations, functioning as an emergency power supply, and stabilizing the power of the distributed generations.

A. Shifting the Peak Power of the Regional Load

At present, the main measures for shifting the peak power in the power system includes: hydropower generations, pumped-storage power stations, and thermal power generations. Each measure has certain shortcoming. The pump storage power stations have low efficiency (about 75%) and restrictions with construction area. There is difficult to construct pump storage power stations in water shortage area. The output of the hydropower generations is affected by seasons. And at the same time the proportion of hydropower generations in China is small. Shifting the peak power by the thermal power generations is economical inefficiency and harm to the equipment life. Some thermal power stations are even forced to shut down due to the limitation of the peaking limitation of the generations at the low power time. It can be draw from the above analysis that the current measures for shifting the peak power in the power system are mainly implemented from the power supply side and managed uniformly in n a large scale power system. There is lack of effective control measures for load in the distribution network side for a long time. The way of restricting load shedding in traditional form has become increasingly unable to meet the needs of the modern power grid. V2G can provide an effective means for the load regulation in the distribution network side because the V2G stations access the grid in the distribution network. Use of electric vehicles as mobile storage unit to shift the regional load is fast in regulation speed, and high in efficiency, and has significant social and economic benefits. The response time of the electric vehicle charging and discharging process can achieve milliseconds, because it does not involve mechanical components. There are test data shows that the electric vehicle battery charging and discharging efficiency is up to 80%, about 5% higher than the efficiency of pump storage power stations. Vehicles in V2G can make use of idle storage capacity of electric vehicles to shifting the peak power of the regional load with no additional devices while realization their driving functions. The vehicle participates in the V2G service such as shifting peak can make a win-win between the vehicle owners and the
[Type text]

[Type text]

power system. The vehicles owners can get revenue from participate in V2G services such as shifting peak. And on the side the power system can save additional investment of fix energy storage devices, reduce the plant capacity required for realizing the traditional corresponding function, and improve the running economic performance of conventional power plants.

B. Responding to the System Frequency Fluctuations

The fluctuation of load is also reflected in the fluctuation of frequency, so it is to meet the active power balance of the power system by adjusting the frequency of the grid.V2G can response to the fluctuations in grid frequency to assist the frequency regulation of the power system. In traditional power system frequency regulation, the primary frequency regulation is realized by the natural mechanical properties of the generator. However, the electrical vehicles participating in the electric power grid frequency response service does not have this feature. But it can be achieved through the following two schemes: Controlling the converter to simulate the primary frequency regulation characteristic (droop characteristic), on this basis, the V2G station control system receives the AGC signal through the regional grid dispatch center and move the power-frequency characteristics of the converter so as to realize the primary frequency regulation and the second frequency regulation of the power system. The converter does not simulate the frequency drooping characteristic of the generator. However, the V2G station control system receives the AGC signal from the dispatch center and controls the output power of the converter directly, that is, only to realize the second frequency regulation of the power system. The electrical vehicle as a mobile energy storage unit responding to the grid frequency fluctuation has smaller influence to the battery life than the deep charging and discharging for shifting the peak power due to that the battery is switched between charging and discharging frequently. Sothe cost for participating in the frequency regulation of the grid is lower than shifting the peak power.

[Type text]

[Type text]

C. Function of UPS
The power supply reliability rate is the most important factor of the power supply in distribute network. According to statistics, the power supply reliability rate of China's urban is about 99.9% and has significant gap with the developed countries, especially Japan, Singapore and so on. When electric vehicles as mobile energy storage unit are connected to the grid, it can supply power to a community, an office building, a shopping place, etc. by using the battery power of the vehicle as a UPS when the external grid faults. This not only helps for the emergency evacuation, but also can substantially increase the power supply reliability rate.

D Stabilizing the power of the distributed generations

Distributed generations have advantages such that do not need high-voltage power transmission equipment, and with simple installation, short construction period, small footprint, low operating cost, less pollution, etc. So it has been rapidly developed in various countries. Constructing distributed power in major developed cities can improve power quality, reduce transmission costs. However, the output power of wind power or solar power has certain randomness and intermittence, so there will bring out a series of operation and management problems to the distribution network while a large number of distributed energy access in. The electrical vehicle as a mobile energy storage unit and the distributed power supply can compose micro grid which can stabilize the disturbance of the output power of the distributed power supply without adding additional energy storage devices.

[Type text]

[Type text]

TOPOLOGY OF V2G
There are characteristics such as large numbers, difference in vehicle parameters, distribution in space and randomness in time for electric vehicles as mobile storage unit to access network. Currently, some scholars make certain research on V2G vehicle scheduling strategy, but generally, the vehicles response to the market price in order to maximize economic profit. When the number of vehicles participating in V2G reached a large-scale, it will cause certain influence to the operation of the distributed network if completely relying on the response of the vehicle on the load side. At the same time, it is obvious difficult for the regional dispatch center to dispatch each vehicle. The dispatch of V2G can adopt the principle of Unified control, hierarchical management to realize orderly charging and discharging of vehicles. That is, dividing the dispatch strategy into two parts: the dispatch strategy of regional dispatch center--V2G station, and the dispatch strategy of V2G stationvehicle, shown in figure below

Overall Structure Of V2G

[Type text]

[Type text]

[Type text]

[Type text]

V2G Station Vehicle Strategy

A. Dispatch Centre of Regional Network

The dispatch receives the V2G forecasting information and real-time charging and discharging of the battery status including: the total battery capacity, available capacity, available on the AC side discharge power, etc. from V2Gstation control system through Ethernet. Then the dispatch centre makes the each period out power of all V2G stations according to the received forecasting data. Meanwhile, the dispatch centre adjusts the real-time charging and discharging power value according to the actual load situation and real-time information of all stations V2G.

B. V2G Station Control System

The V2G station control system acquires the stations information including the total and available battery capacity, the user set parameters, the battery charge and dischargecharacteristics; reports the information to dispatch centre real time; monitors and
[Type text]

[Type text]

manages the quality and status of battery; receives the order from dispatch centre and assigns the out power of each vehicle according to this order; measures andvaluates the exchange energy of each vehicle.

C. Functions of Changing/Discharging Devices

The changing/discharging devices have bi-directional inverter power function and can implement the command of order from V2G station control system. The vehicle owners can set the users parameter through the changing/discharging devices, which including the allowed minimum value of SOC and the available time.

D. the Smart Meter

The smart meter has the function that it can realize two-way metering, realtime pricing, local information storing, communicate with CMS to send the measurement information and automatic load control.

[Type text]

[Type text]

KEY PROBLEMS OF V2G

The V2G application has bright prospects with the development of electric vehicles. In the procedure of the V2G technology promotion and application, there are several key problems to analyzed and solved.

A. Problem of V2G Parameter Forecasting

When the electric vehicles participate in regional distribution network for peak power regulation, it must be arranged in corresponding region scheduling scheme. The V2G forecasting is necessary, which include prediction of the number of vehicle participated in V2G service, the total available capacity, the available power in each time. Accurate forecast the parameters of V2G is the basic elements of realize the functions of V2G. It is because of V2G power with two-way interaction and the user interaction, so the prediction of V2G available capacity is more complex than the traditional load forecasting. From technology to analyze, V2G storage capacity can be acquired through the following two ways.

By way of through the user settings. It means that the vehicle owners set next week program of participate V2G vehicle in the weekend, then the V2G station control system can count the V2G available capacity in next week. In the actual implementation of charging and discharging priority use the plan capacity. The model is similar to the contract market and real-time market in power market and has good promotion prospects. By way of through forecasting. V2G capacity is closely related with the amount of participated vehicle, users Zhobbit, weather, energy price, season and the economic development. In the initial of V2G service, relatively few vehicles involved, so can adopt the method that discharge all the vehicle at the peak power time and charge in low power time. As technology and markets mature, the number of vehicle participate the V2G will increase, and the historical data will gradually accumulate. Then these predict methodscan be applied in V2G capacity networks, fuzzy prediction method etc.forecast, such as the time series method, exponential smoothing method, gray

[Type text]

[Type text]

modelmethod, Kalman filtering method, and some artificial intelligence methods such as expert systems, artificial neural

B. Problem of Accessing Capacity in Distribute Network

According to China's civil design standards, the electricity consumption design value in residential buildings is 20 ~ 60W/m2. In Beijing and Tianjin, the design consumption design value is 6Kw per apartments with 2 bedrooms, 8Kw per apartments with 3 bedrooms and 50W/m2 in others. In Shanghai, the design consumption power design value is not less than 8Kw per apartments. Meanwhile, the same factor of the transformer is generally between 0.26-0.4. The battery capacity of the passenger electric vehicle is usually in the 15-20kwh, then the charge and discharge power is about 6Kw when the charge and discharge current is 1/3C. It is not difficult to draw from above that the charging power of electric vehicles should be restricted so as not to exceed the family's supply line restrictions if there are other family loads. The relationship between the discharging power of electric vehicles and other family load is "subtraction", so if the electric vehicle discharged in 1/3C, the line restrictions limit can generally be satisfied. When the electric cars became commonplace, if the electric vehicle charging at the same time with cheap price at low load or the electric vehicle discharging at the same with time high price at peak load, the same factor of the transformer is difficult to meet the requirements. Therefore, the transformers power restriction should be considered in V2G dispatch scheduling static.

C. The Influence on the Operation and Control of the Distribution Network

The electric vehicles in the V2G service are not only mobile distributed loads but also mobile distributed generations. The effective operation of V2G depends on the grid scheduling and control system. The tradition distribution network is radial structure and a single power supply, and the protection of distribution network is designed on this basis. The structure of distribution network will be changed when the distributed powers access to distribution network. The distributed power will provide fault current in addition and change the node short-circuits value when the distribution network failure, which will affect the correct operation of the protection unit. The other problems include power quality; reliability influence and islanding detection are also need a further study.

[Type text]

[Type text]

D. The Cost Analysis of V2G

The promotion of V2G cannot do without the active participation of vehicle owners, and the active participation of vehicle owners cannot do without the reasonable price incentives. So, its necessary to analyze the cost of electric vehicle participating V2G service including the cost of changing, battery degradation, battery maintenance, the energy loss in AC/DC conversion, etc. On this basis, the reasonable incentives, time-of-use electricity charging/discharging price and ancillary service prices should be issued to encourage users participating V2G service and guide the users toselect the appropriate charge and discharge time.

[Type text]

[Type text]

CONCLUSION

With the popularity of electric vehicles, the effect of electric vehicles as mobile storage units in power systems cannot be ignored. EVs can be well combined with the smart grid to provide many services for the grid and increase the control means of the power distribution side at the same time reflecting the user participation and interaction. The application and promotion of V2G technology is undoubtedly of great significance

At the same time, the dispatch and management of electric vehicles is quite difficult because of the large amount and some certain randomness and distribution in time and space of the vehicles. The scheduling static of the regional grid dispatch centre and V2G station control system will greatly impact on the use efficiency of V2G. V2G as a new emerging technology, it needs more deep studies in many ways in order to make it practical.

[Type text]

[Type text]

REFERENCES

[1] Kempton, W. and Letendre, S., Electric vehicles as a new power source for electric utilitiesTransportation Research Part D 23, 1997, p157175 [2] Kempton, W. and Toru Kubo. 2000. "Electric-drive Vehicles for Peak Power in Japan" Energy Policy 28(1): 9-18 [3] Letendre, Steven and W. Kempton, 2002. "The V2G Concept: A New Model for Power?" Public Utilities Fortnightly 140(4): 16-26. [4] Kempton, W. and J. Tomi. 2005. "Vehicle to Grid Fundamentals: Calculating Capacity and Net Revenue" J. Power Sources Volume 144, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 268-279. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour. 2004.12.025. [5] Kempton, W. and J. Tomi. 2005. "Vehicle to Grid Implementation: from stabilizing the grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy". J. Power Sources Volume 144, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 280-294. [6] Kempton, W. and A. Dhanju, "Electric Vehicles with V2G: Storage for Large-Scale Wind Power". Windtech International 2 (2), pp 18-21

[Type text]