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CHAPTER
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO

T
he earth is constantly undergoing lithospheric plate boundaries is remarkably
change. Some changes are fast and strong.
some are slow. Earthquakes and
volcanoes are endogenic forces which cause TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
sudden changes on the earth. Weathering and
We have already discussed earthquake waves in
agents of sculpture are exogenic forces which
Chapter 3. In this section, we propose to examine
bring about slow changes. In the following
them in greater details. There are three types of
pages a description has been given about the
seismic waves generated by earthquake called
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Primary, Secondary and Long waves designated
as P, S, and L respectively. P waves are fast
EARTHQUAKE
travelling waves; they arrive first. S waves are
Earthquake is the trembling of the earth slower; they take almost twice as long to travel.
initiated by sudden shock. Sometimes it is so In fast travelling P waves, the individual particles
violent that it damages or destroys strong vibrate to and fro in the direction of wave
buildings. The devastation caused on propagation whereas in S waves the particles
26 January 2001 in Bhuj, Gujarat speaks of vibrate up and down at right angles to the
the violent nature of earthquakes. Most of the direction of propagation (Fig. 4.1).
shocks that cause the earth to tremble are The P waves travel through the body of the
associated with diastrophic movements. The earth at an average rate of 6 km/sec. They are
sudden slippage of rocks along the faults and faster at depth (about 8 km/sec to 11 km/sec)
also in some cases faults reaching the ground than near the surface. They travel through
surface, displace the objects on the ground. In
other cases, crustal rocks bend elastically and
set waves in motion.
The place where the earthquake originates
inside the earth is called its focus. The point
on the earth’s surface vertically above the
focus is called the epicentre. The waves travel
away through rocks in all the directions.
Shaking is the strongest near the epicentre.
Great accumulation of elastic strain is built up
constantly along active lithospheric plate
boundaries, particularly along converging
(where two plates meet) boundaries. Slippage
of opposed plates in these converging zones
release enormous quantities of energy in the
form of great earthquakes. The relationship Fig.4.1 : Earthquake Waves — Particle Motions
between earthquake activity or seismicity and in P Waves and S Waves
22
both solid and liquid medium. The S waves also
go through the body of the earth but at a slower
rate of 3.5 km/sec. L waves follow the
circumference of the earth and travel at more
or less constant rate. They are also known as
surface waves. Thus, P and S waves travel by
a direct path through the earth (Fig. 4.2) while
L waves follow its circumference.
Fig.4.2 : Cross-Section of the Earth — Paths of
P Waves; S Waves; and Surface Waves
The Seismograph
The seismograph is a sensitive instrument that
records earthquakes thousands of kilometres
distant and so weak that their vibrations could
not possibly be recognised by the human
senses. The seismograph design is based on the
principle of inertia — the tendency of any mass
to resist a change in a state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line is greater, the greater
the mass of the object.
The first indication that a severe
earthquake has occurred at a distant point is
the sudden beginning of the Primary waves
(P waves). These waves then die down
somewhat for a few minutes; then a second
burst of activity sets in with the arrival of
Secondary waves (S waves) which are
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
somewhat larger in height than the P waves.
Following it, smooth waves that increase
greatly in amplitude to a maximum and then die
slowly are recorded. These are the surface
waves. Two measurements are made directly
from the seismograph: (a) amplitude in mm of
the largest (highest) wave recorded; and
(b) time in seconds elapsed between arrivals of
the P and S waves.
Earthquake Prediction
Two approaches have been adopted in
earthquake prediction. One approach is the
measurement of several kinds of significant
physical changes that take place immediately
prior to an earthquake. The second approach
is historical i.e. long-term seismic history of
the affected region. The physical changes are:
P Wave Velocity
Numerous small earthquakes are expected to
cause change in the velocity of P waves that
return to normal immediately before the large
earthquake. This change is monitored on
seismograph.
Ground Uplift
Slow movement of crustal masses before the
earthquake causes a large volume of rock to
become riddled with countless minute cracks
or microcracks. The ground water moves into
the newly created microcracks. The presence
of water acts like hydraulic jack; the rock mass
swells and the ground surfaces experience
doming or uplift before major earthquakes.
This change is referred to as dilatancy.
Radon Emission
Emission of radon gas increases just before a
major earthquake takes place. Monitoring of
the emission of radon gas can serve as
forewarn to the major destruction.
Animal Behaviour
It has been observed that prior to the major
earthquake, animals especially burrowing
animals, behave unusually. The ants, termites
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO
and other burrowing animals shift their hiding
places. The birds chirp loudly and animals
such as dogs howl and bark very regularly.
Induced Earthquake
In a number of cases human activities have set
off earthquake. The pumping of fluids into the
oil fields to raise the hydrostatic pressure and
to increase oil recovery is responsible for
setting off minor earthquakes. Human beings
are responsible for setting off earthquakes by
building large dams on major rivers. The load
of water from new lakes impounded behind the
large dams is responsible for triggering
earthquakes.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE ZONES
Abundance of large earthquakes in a ring
surrounding the Pacific Ocean, known as
Circum-Pacific Belt is a line of intense volcanic
activity as well as seismic activity. The second
belt of intense seismicity stretches from
Mediterranean Sea to the Indonesian region,
corresponding to tectonically active boundary
between Eurasian Plate and the African and
Australian Plates. A third belt of high
seismicity runs down the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean basin through the Indian Ocean and
across the southern Pacific Ocean.
VOLCANO
The molten material coming out from inside
the earth through a pipe or vent and
accumulating around the pipe in the form of
a mound, is called a volcano. All volcanoes
result from magma, molten material below the
earth’s surface, which is brought to the
surface as lava or volcanic fragments.
Volcanoes show considerable variation in size,
shape and the kind of material ejected. Most
volcanoes produce lava. Lava is at very high
temperatures, between 800 0 and 1,200 0
celsius and it contains steam and many other
gases.
Let us find out how does magma,
originating inside the earth comes to the
surface as lava.
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Towards the base of the earth’s crust, hot
rock maintains its solid state because of the
pressure from rock above it. When pressure is
reduced by a crack in the earth or rock that
lies above, the hot rock can change to a liquid
in small chambers known as magma
chambers. Zones of weakness, regions of
lessened pressure or already existing fissures
are perfect paths for the passage of magma.
Gas pressure in pockets in the earth forces the
magma to move. Sometimes as magma moves,
it melts overlying rocks or forces them aside.
Volcanic Features
Extrusion of lava takes place from an opening
called volcanic vent. A saucer shaped
depression is created around the vent, which
is known as crater. On occasion, the explosive
eruption of a volcano blows out an enormous
mass of magma and previously solidified lava
from a considerable depth. Such explosion is
associated with the collapse or subsidence of
the central part of the crater. A steep sided
crater is formed by the destruction of the
crater formed by the gradual construction of
volcanic matter (Fig. 4.3). This steep-sided
crater is known as caldera. Besides the lava
that flows out from a volcano, rock and
mineral fragments are also blown out from a
volcano known as pyroclastic material. The
pyroclastic material range in size from solid
blocks to fine dust. Spindle or spherical
shaped masses are known as volcanic bombs.
Sometimes fluid or plastic lava falls close to the
vent after being thrown in the air to form
spatter cone. Smaller particles of lava, ranging
from 4 to 25 mm, are called volcanic lapilli
whereas particles under 4 mm constitute
volcanic dust or ash. Volcanic ash, when
thrown up in air, remains in suspension for a
long period of time. It is either drifted away by
wind or falls down with rainfall and is
transported by running water to be deposited
as sedimentary layers called tuff.
Eruptive Styles
Magma may cool enough to solidify before it
reaches the surface of the earth, or it may cool
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Fig.4.3 : Formation of Caldera by Collapse
of Volcano
A. Magma fills the reservoir and stands high up in
volcanic pipe as the final eruption begins; B. Violent
eruption of gas and pumice occurs as the magma from
reservoir drains downwards; and C. Collapse of the cone
fills the vacated space with a mass of broken blocks.
after it flows down the side of a volcano. If
eruption is violent, lava is hurled high into the
air, with solid rocks. Volcanoes may remain
dormant for thousands of years and then
suddenly erupt when the pressure has built up
beneath the ground. Eruption takes place in two
ways — fissure eruption and central eruption.
Fissure Eruption
The lava or pyroclastic material emanates from
long, narrow fissures or a group of such
fissures. The fluid lava flows away from the
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
fissures and does not build cones. Deccan
Plateau in India is an example of the fissure lava
eruption that took place about 60-62 million
years ago.
Central Eruption
The central eruptions are much like point
source eruptions, unlike the linear sources of
fissure eruption. The lava or pyroclastic
material erupts from a central vent or pipe and
gives rise to a cone. Viscous lava can barely
flow and produce volcanic domes.
Types of Volcanoes
On the basis of frequency of eruption, there are
three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and
extinct volcanoes. The volcanoes that erupt
frequently as compared to others are called
active volcanoes. The Barren Island of
Andamans in India is an example of active
volcano. The volcanoes that erupt
inter mittently are known as dor mant or
sleeping volcanoes. The volcanoes that have
not erupted for a very long time and have no
record of eruption in historic times are known
as extinct or dead volcanoes. The dormant
volcanoes may get activated suddenly and are
therefore dangerous. Krakatao in Indonesia
erupted in 1883 (the world’s greatest recorded
explosion).
Global Pattern of Volcanism
Chains of volcanoes are always associated
with places where the crust of the earth is
actively changing. The longest chain
surrounds the Pacific Ocean and is called the
‘Ring of Fire’. Another group exists in the area
of the Mediterranean and in the Rift Valley in
eastern Africa. Whole groups and chains of
islands are sometimes formed in the ocean by
volcanoes that erupt time and again. This is
how the Hawaiian and Aleutian Islands were
created. The effects of volcanic activity are not
all bad. The ejected material that comes from
inside the volcano is unbelievably fertile.
Another important product of volcanic activity
is geothermal heat, a source of alternate
power.
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO 25

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is an earthquake?
(ii) What is focus?
(iii) Which of the earthquake waves travels fastest?
(iv) Name the wave that follows the circumference of the earth.
(v) Which two measurements are taken directly from the seismograph?
(vi) How do human activities induce earthquakes?
(vii) What is a volcano?
(viii) How does hot rock at the base of the earth’s crust maintain its solid state?
(ix) Name the two ways in which volcanic eruption takes place.
(x) What is the ‘Ring of Fire’?
(xi) Name the three types of volcanoes.
2. Give one word for the following:
(i) The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus.
(ii) The earthquake waves, larger in height than ‘P’ waves but having a slower rate of
movement.
(iii) Spindle or spherical shaped masses thrown out from a volcano.
3. Distinguish between :
(i) ‘P’ waves and ‘S’ waves;
(ii) Magma and lava;
(iii) Vent and crater;
(iv) Dormant and extinct volcanoes.
4. Discuss main characteristics of various seismic waves.
5. Describe the two approaches followed for the prediction of the earthquakes.
6. Describe the distribution of earthquake prone regions in the world.
7. What are the probable causes of the volcanic eruptions? Describe the volcanic activity and
the major features associated with them.

Finding out
Collect information about the earthquake prone regions of India and the major earthquakes of
the country during past ten years. Prepare a report supported with a map of India showing the
location of these occurrences and the areas affected by the earthquakes.