Engine International Showcase 2009

2010
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Case studies
Aston Martin | Bowman Power
Fuji Heavy Industries | DSM
Lotus Engineering | Gomecsys
A&D Technology | AVL
ContiTech and many more
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Accelerating innovation into the new reality.
Supporting our customers in the development
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01
contents
12
45 A&D Technology
A new system that integrates
combustion analysis and
automated calibration
48 AVl
A range of e-motor, battery,
and hybrid testing solutions is
helping suppliers and OEMs
59 SySTec
A highly innovative technology
for producing a new generation
of diamond-like carbon coatings
cASe STuDieS
06 ASTon MArTin
Two powertrain partners have
joined forces to create one of
the best sounding engines ding engines
12 Fuji heAVy inDuSTrieS
Subarus latest boxer diesel
powertrain meets stringent
Euro 5 emissions regulations
without compromising power
output, fuel economy or NH
18 loTuS engineering
Electric and hybrid vehicles
may soon transmit synthesized
external noise to alert
pedestrians to their approach
22 MenzoliT
A look at how composite
materials are playing an
important role in the latest
powertrain systems
30 BowMAn Power
By harnessing waste heat,
exhaust energy recovery
systems can improve fuel
economy and cut emission
levels of diesel engines
36 AuBerT & DuVel erASTeel
The key to designing the eco-
friendly IC engines of the future
lies in advanced materials,
often involving innovative
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40 conTiTech
A detailed analysis of new
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minded solutions for all tasks
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42 goMecSyS
Introducing the third-generation
GoEngine technology, which
boasts numerous performance,
emissions output, and overall
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45 18
Annual Showcase 2010
06
40
CONTENTS
02
Editor Dean Slavnich
Chief sub-editor Alex Bradley
Sub-editor William Baker
Editorial assistant Bunny Richards
Proofreaders Christine Velarde,
Frank Millard
Art director Craig Marshall
Art editor Ben White
Design team Louise Adams, Andy Bass,
Anna Davie, James Sutcliffe, Nicola Turner,
Julie Welby
Production manager Ian Donovan
Production team Joanna Coles, Carole
Doran, Lewis Hopkins, Emma Uwins
Contributors John Challen, Brian Cowan,
Matt Davis, Jonathan Lawson, Adam
Gavine, Max Glaskin, Maurice Glover,
Burkhard Goeschel, Graham Heeps, Greg
Offer, Mike Magda, Jim McCraw, Keith
Read, John Simister, Saul Wordsworth
CEO Tony Robinson
Managing director Graham Johnson
Sales and marketing director
Simon Willard
Circulation manager Suzie Matthews
Contact us
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2010. ISSN 1460-9509 Engine Technology International. Printed by William Gibbons & Sons Ltd, Willenhall, West Midlands, UK.
63 DSM
A new innovation is delivering
weight, noise and system cost
benets in oil sump pplications
76 SOGEFI FILTRATION
Innovations in lter designs are
helping car makers to reduce
critical emissions output
78 F-DIESEL
A leading Chinese supplier is
offering high-speed, high-power
advanced diesel engine R&D
FEATURES
26 OEM INTERVIEW: WOLFGANG STROBL
BMWs general manager of
CleanEnergy on building
cars powered by hydrogen
50 OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
Design of the worlds fastest
hydrogen fuel cell electric
vehicle: Buckeye Bullet 2
66 IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON
A student engineering team is
gaining extensive experience in
the design and development of
alternative fuel race cars
74 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
An online program is bringing a
Masters degree in engineering
within easier reach of working
engineers around the world
80 BIG END
Our verdict on some of the new
vehicles weve driven recently
News and exclusives | Supplier directory | Recruitment |
Industry opinions | Image gallery | Read the latest issue online
50
AN ENGINE TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATION
JANUARY 2010
Whats new? ZF and Porsches all-new
seven-speed DCT unit
Hyundais innovative
six-speed automatic Who is leading the way
in hybrid concepts?
Franois Gougeon, director
of engineering for transmissions
projects, Renault Jrgen Greiner, head of
product development, ZF
Dr Harald Maelger, global
OEM manager, Afton Chemical
Roger Stone, engineering
director, Torotrak
G
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Headaches aplenty for engine
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EXPORT GOODS:
Chinas leading car makers are
thinking global with European and
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INTERVIEWS:
Ken Weisman, executive vice
presdient, Ricardo shanghai
Hong Chen, president, SAIc
John, Parker, executive vice president,
Asia Pacic, Ford
F
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Welcome to this very special edition
of Engine Technology International. For this,
our rst offering of the new decade, weve
decided to do things a little differently: this
entire issue is written by the industry for the
industry. Thats right, the copy you hold in
your hands is brimming with technical
papers written by engineers at car maker,
supplier and academic level.
We start with a piece from Aston Martins
chief powertrain engineer, evaluating the
companys awesome One-77 heart (p6).
Thats followed by a technical insight into
what Fuji Heavy Industries and Subaru
engineers are doing to bring to market a
second-generation Boxer Diesel engine that
offers better fuel consumption, fewer
emissions and far greater power (p12). Oh,
and be sure to read an interesting piece from
Lotus Engineering that focuses on safety issues
related to hybrid and electric vehicles (p18).
As well as the latest on activity at OEM
level, this special edition boasts white papers
from some of the leading global suppliers,
from Tier 1 right through to Tier 3. Theres
an exclusive piece from Gomecsys, revealing
details about the companys innovative third-
generation powertrain (p42). Thats followed
by a white paper on combustion analysis
from A&D in the USA (p45). And before
A&D, be sure to read Bowman Powers
theory on how diesel engines for heavy-duty
vehicles can be greatly improved by using
exhaust recovery systems (p30). Other
supplier papers come from ContiTech (p40),
AVL (p48), Systec (p59), DSM (p63) and
Soge-Filtration (p76). Signing off this issue
is a very interesting piece from F-Diesel on
the quality, high-tech diesel development
opportunities in China (p78).
But before you get to F-Diesels piece,
there are three academic papers Id like to
bring to your attention. The rst is a rare
insight from Imperial College London one
of the UKs leading engineering institutions
on its motorsport development program
(p66). Joining Imperial in our University
Focus, from across the Atlantic, is Ohio State
University, which details its
involvement in the Buckeye Bullet 2 program
(p50), and then theres also the University
of Wisconsin-Madison, which is celebrating
its virtual world academic services (p74).
And do we stop there? Of course not.
Theres more some 48 pages more, in
fact in the form of a free Transmission
Technology International supplement, a
must-read for all engineers concerned with
gearboxes, drivetrains, and general engine
development. Enjoy!
Dean Slavnich editor
Foreword
04
FOREWORD
FREE SUBSCRIPTION
AND READER
ENQUIRY SERVICE
Request your FREE copy of Transmission
Technology International magazine at:
www.enginetechnologyinternational.com
www.ScuderiEngine.com
SG_Engine_Technology_Intl_Ad_Sept_2009.qxd:Layout 1 8/12/09 1:22 PM Page 1
Up and Running!
Case study: aston martin
06
When two powertrain teams came together to develop a new
V12, they created the best-sounding Aston Martin to date
Powertrain
partners
Author: Dr Brian Fitzsimons, chief engineer of powertrain, Aston Martin
123
HEADING CAsE stuDy: AstoN MArtIN
07
08
CASE STUDY: ASTON MARTIN
The One-77 is Aston Martins
take on a denitive sports
car, and one that epitomizes
everything that the UK brand
is about, from state-of-the-art
technology to the all-new V12
and the eye-catching design.
From an engineering
perspective, the One-77 V12
project was an automotive
engineers dream come true. The
brief was to make Astons V12
engine as extreme as possible
but right for the road. Yet, as
highly motivating as such a brief
was, with management setting
tough targets for the powertrain
team to meet, it posed serious
engineering and technical
challenges for the powertrain
engineers, as highlighted in
Tables 1 and 2.
Swept-volume increase 5,935cm
3
to 7,312cm
3
Bore increase 89mm to 94mm
Stroke increase 79.5mm to 87.8mm
Maximum power speed 7,500 rev/min
Maximum mechanical engine speed increase 7,300 to 7,750 rev/min
F1-derived dry-sump lubrication system
New port design built upon F1 experience
Variable valve timing on intake
best skill set and experience that
would complement the Aston
Martin powertrain engineering
team, possessed experience of
delivering production engine
designs and components, and
understood Aston Martins
manufacturing and quality-
process functions. Thus
Cosworth, which had
previously delivered the
Vanquish S cylinder-head
design, was selected as the
engine-design partner for
the V12 project.
The benet of a good team
cannot be underestimated,
because it is that team and not
technologies such as the best
CAD and analysis packages
that delivers the engine. The
team was led by Aston Martins
Chris Porritt as the project
manager, with design direction
coming from Cosworths Bruce
Wood. Integration into the One-
77 was led by Aston Martins
Richard Morley, with a joint
team of module owners,
designers and development
engineers. Engine and vehicle
calibration was performed by
the Aston Martin calibration
team, led by John McLean.
Engine specication
It was clear from the start of the
One-77 program that the basis
of the engine was to be the
6-liter V12 that powers both
the DBS and V12 Vantage
models. This engine has a
fantastic track record but
perhaps even more importantly,
it had considerable development
potential. Therefore the team set
out to maintain as much of the
original architecture as possible
and only change features that
enabled them to make the V12
as extreme as possible but right
for the road.
The usual rst step with
such a project was using 1D
simulation to design the
primary engine parameters to
meet the performance targets.
Because the basis of this engine
was to be the Aston Martin
V12, there was a considerable
amount of already-validated
data, so a good level of
condence existed in the model
from the beginning.
The opportunity was the brief
to examine considerably more
extreme design options for
this unique application. The
modeling results led to the
primary engine specication
in Table 3, and this gave a
power and torque curve that
appreciably exceeded the targets
a good position to be in at the
start of the design process!
Engine features
Each major design decision was
analyzed and evaluated using
Table 3: Early simulation modeling results of Aston Martins One-77 V12 powertrain
Power output more than 700bhp
Torque output more than 700Nm
Specication naturally aspirated V12 engine
Installation as low and rearward as possible
Range more than 300 miles
NVH the best-sounding Aston Martin
Table 2: Aston Martins initial engine target for the One-77 development project
0-60mph under 4 secs
0-100mph under 7 secs
Top speed more than 200mph
Vehicle mass less than 1,500kg
Cd less than 0.4
Power/weight more than 450PS/T
Weight/power less than 2.3kg/PS
Operating environment -15C to +50C
Table 1: Aston Martins initial vehicle target for the One-77 development project
The Cosworth co-developed V12 One-77 heart generates 750bhp at 7,500rpm The 7.3-liter powertrain will sit 257mm further rearward of the One-77 front axle
It was judged that
Cosworth had the
best skill set and
experience that
would complement
the Aston Martin
engineering team
There were, however, some
unquantiable targets during
the project, as shown in Tables
1 and 2. Terminology such
as more than and less than
was used to encourage the
engineering team not to stop
when the engineering target was
achieved, taking the V12 and
the One-77 beyond the projects
set goals.
As an independent sports-car
manufacturer, Aston Martin
is free from any corporate
prejudice or skill-set bias that
can build up in an engine-
design function over time.
This gave the engineering team
tremendous freedom to select
the best skilled partner to
deliver the new V12. It was
judged that Cosworth had the
09
experimental data, analysis data,
surrogate data, and experience.
Naturally, the most difcult to
quantify was experience, but it
was a priceless input to the
design process. Each design
decision was evaluated for
impact on performance, friction,
package, mass, aesthetics,
emissions output and cost.
One of the most critical
systems in achieving the initial
performance target was the
intake system. It was here that
meticulous attention to detail
yielded very good results. At the
heart of the One-77 engine was
an F1-derived port design that
specically targets ow velocity
at 7,500 rev/min. The shape of
the port gives this subsystem a
free-owing path to the
combustion chamber.
The ports and combustion
chamber were fully machined,
enabling them to be accurately
manufactured, free from defects
that might disturb the ideal
function, and repeatability. The
actuation of 12mm intake and
11mm exhaust valves was by
lightweight, direct-acting
buckets coated with DLC giving
ultra low friction at high speed.
Analysis and experiment
showed that roller-nger
followers would have lower
friction at lower engine speed
where cycle fuel economy is
important, but this engine
focused on lower friction at the
high-power end.
The volume in the intake
manifold plenums around the
induction trumpets was
maximized to allow good
airow and take full benet
of the gas dynamic tuning.
This led to a bigger and
heavier intake manifold but to
counteract this, the plenums
were manufactured in
lightweight carbon ber.
Four throttle bodies were
used, two on each bank,
symmetrically arranged.
This enabled optimal ow
distribution and maximized
the V12s sound quality.
Cylinder block and crankcase
The cylinder block has retained
the original architecture bore
spacing of 102mm but the bore
has been increased to 94mm.
Replacing the original
pressed-in cast-iron liners,
the bore has been plasma-
iron sprayed onto the
parent metal, using the
Sulzer Metco RotaPlasma
process. This has given a
weight saving, improved the
cooling performance, and
increased the engine knock
resistance. The block casting
was modied slightly to
accommodate the increase in
stroke from 79.5mm to
87.8mm. This manufacturing
process continued to use the
DBS engine CosCast process a
pressurized sand-cast process,
developed by Cosworth. In
addition, the casting was subject
to the hot isostatic process
to give improved fatigue
properties, with the increased
engine performance. On the
bottom end, the cast-iron main
bearing caps were replaced with
aluminum for mass reduction
and redesigned to seal the
chambers for the dry-sump
system. The original cross-
bolting structure was retained.
The eight-counterweight
crankshaft setup was replaced
with a 12-counterweight design.
A forged-steel V12 crankshaft
is a considerable proportion
of the engine mass. However,
extensive design analysis
resulted in a fully optimized 12-
web crankshaft that, despite
increases in both stroke and
engine speed, yielded a saving
of 1.4kg in mass. Original
bearing pin diameters were
retained and to increase fatigue
life, design changes were made
to the llet radii on the big-end
pins. The crankshaft web radius
was machined to match piston
motion and minimize clearance
to minimize engine height.
Piston-guided steel connecting
rods were used rather than the
crank-guided rods that feature
in the Aston DBS engine. This
change reduced friction levels
and gave a 1.2% power gain.
The piston-guided steel
connecting rods also reduced
connecting-rod mass.
The pistons were entirely new
and constructed from a bespoke
forging with a 32mm skirt
Meticulous attention was paid to the air intake
subsystem to ensure V12 met performance goals
Above and right: The V12 features four
throttle bodies two on each bank
which are symmetrically arranged
length. FEA and race experience
was used to optimize the piston
design for minimum mass,
resulting in a mass reduction of
24g over the original assembly,
despite being considerably more
loaded. The piston pins were
DLC coated to further reduce
friction levels, and the standard
oil-cooling jets were retained.
The packaging challenge
The packaging of a 7.3-liter V12
unit in a front-engined sports
car is a considerable challenge.
Engine performance dictated
that the intake system should
not suffer any compromises due
to the package. The key enabler
to achieve this was the new dry-
sump system.
There was considerable
experience and expertise
coming from the Aston Martin
V8 Vantage application, as well
as Cosworths F1 and WRC
projects. The result was a dry-
sump system that enabled the
engine to sit 100mm lower in
One-77 than in any of its other
Aston Martin applications. This
produced a 16.5mm clearance
from the intake system to the
body, at the top of the engine.
The key features of the dry-
sump system are fully sealed
bays in the oil pan, each of
which are scavenged by a
separate scavenge pump with a
scavenge ratio of 4:1. The
scavenge pumps feed the oil
tank via a swirl pot, and
thereafter, a de-aeration plate.
The oil is then picked up by the
oil-pressure pump, which
retains the original V12 oil-
pump internals, but in a
bespoke housing to facilitate a
chain drive for the scavenge
pumps. The installation
process was difcult; other
major achievements
included maintaining the
same oil volume as the standard
wet sump-system V12, and
achieving aeration of only 7%.
Exhaust system
The One-77s exhaust system
provided a major packaging
challenge, because the engine
position was too low for the
exhaust to pass below the bell
housing. Making things all the
more challenging was the Euro
5 emissions target, the 700bhp,
and the One-77s carbon-ber
construction. The only solution
was to route the exhaust
manifold out to the side of the
car and along the sills.
The next hurdle was to dene
the best compromise between
engine performance and
emissions. Two scenarios
were evaluated and both
of these designs had
equal length primary
pipes with good
catalyst inlet conditions,
which represented
a considerable
geometrical achievement.
Performance evaluation of the
exhaust manifolds were outlined
in the development project and
this is a good example of where
the nal decision was not in
favor of the higher power
output. Instead, a shorter
primary system was selected
because of its emissions
potential, and the compromise
on performance was quantied,
understood, and accepted.
Induction system
A high-performance sports car
needs to have a very efcient
air path. The solution was a
very elegant one. The front
longitudinal structure in carbon
ber was designed to perform
three functions without
compromise: provide the air
path, be a structural crash
member, and provide mounting
for the front fender. This helped
provide an efcient, high
volumetric-ow path to the
quad throttles located mid-car
from the twin airboxes at the
front, and demonstrated the
integrated functionality that was
critical to achieving the best
result for One-77.
Such developments, as well as
attention to detail, allowed for
all targets to be met. More than
700bhp and more than 700Nm
of torque was achieved, the
engine was positioned as low
and rearward as possible, and it
is the best-sounding Aston
Martin to date. ETi
Engine weight was high on the
development agenda. As a result, the
V12 tips the scales at just 260kg
Above: AM says some 80% of parts
on the One-77 engine are new
Below: The lightweight cam cover
Piston-guided steel
connecting rods
were used rather
than the crank-
guided rods that
feature in Aston DBS
10
Invented for life?
Yes
Innovations from Bosch.
Innovations from Bosch. Invented for life is our mission. We develop
innovations that respond today to the global problems of the future.
Thats why many of the 14 patents Bosch registers every day contribute
to progress in renewable energies, emission reduction and fuel economy.
Doing our share for a better future. www.bosch-environment.com
CASE STUDY: FUJI HEAVY INDUSTRIES
12
Subarus latest boxer diesel engine meets Euro 5 emissions regulations
without compromising power output, fuel economy or NVH performance
Next-generation
boxer diesel
In recent years, being
environmentally friendly has
become an important feature for
new passenger cars. Diesel cars,
which produce lower CO
2

emissions, dominate new car
sales in Europe, taking a 50%
share of the market. It was for
this reason that in 2008,
Subaru launched the Euro 4-
compliant boxer diesel Legacy.
Employing a common-rail
system and a variable nozzle-
type turbocharger, the Subaru
boxer diesel offers output
performance and fuel economy
that are well suited to an AWD
vehicle platform.
The 2008 boxer diesel won
praise from consumers, the
media and the industry alike.
However, the development
concept of the second-
generation boxer diesel was to
satisfy Euro 5 regulations while
maintaining the engine output
performance, fuel economy, and
NVH characteristics of the Euro
4-compliant boxer diesel.
For Euro 5, the NOx and PM
elements must be reduced by at
least 30% and 80% respectively
from the Euro 4 levels. To
realize this, the development
team reduced PM by improving
the DPF that is employed in the
Authors: Kenji Harima and Yoshinori Nakajima, engine design department, Fuji Heavy Industries
13
New Legacy has been launched with the second-
generation diesel boxer an engine that offers excellent
NVH behavior, engine performance and fuel economy
14
four-cylinder boxer petrol
engine, the boxer diesel
employs a diagonally split
connecting rod and a different
method of assembly. This has
minimized the increase in the
cylinder block deck height.
Furthermore, the piston height
is kept compact by employing
high-strength aluminum alloy
pistons. The cylinder head
comprises four valves and
center injection. Employing
proprietary fuel spray injectors
with short overall length, the
cylinder-head height is lower
than in the boxer petrol,
successfully maintaining the
engine overall width equivalent
to that of the petrol.
In general, diesel engines are
much heavier than their petrol
counterparts. To minimize the
increase in weight, the overall
length of the boxer diesel engine
is shorter than that of the boxer
petrol. The bore pitch was
shortened by 14.6mm
compared with the boxer petrol,
giving an overall length of
353.5mm, which is 61.3mm
shorter than the boxer petrol. In
total, the boxer diesel achieved
a weight reduction of 10kg
compared with a typical 2-liter
four-cylinder diesel powertrain,
through the compactness of
short overall length and width,
combined with the balancer
shaft-less structure coming from
the good noise and vibration
characteristics and the weight
reduction of various parts.
The turbocharger is of a
variable nozzle type, which
controls the vane opening
around the exhaust turbine
according to the operating
range, giving highly efcient
supercharging in all ranges. The
turbocharger is located under
the engine to ensure good
exhaust gas conversion and
give a low center of gravity.
The characteristic dynamic
performance of the Subaru is
realized through the lowered
center of gravity and enhanced
supercharging response.
The oxidation catalyst and
the DPF are located directly
downstream of the turbocharger.
This layout enables the catalyst
to warm up more quickly,
securing the exhaust gas
conversion performance in a
wide operating range.
Aftertreatment system
The aftertreatment system for
the Euro 5-compliant boxer
diesel incorporates several new
features. The DPF system
located directly downstream
of the turbocharger, equipped as
standard in the rst-generation
boxer diesel for the Forester, has
improved PM converting
In total, the boxer diesel achieved a weight
reduction of 10kg compared with a typical
2-liter four-cylinder diesel powertrain
Table 2: Further important differences between the two boxer diesel powertrains
Table 1: Comparing the technical features of the two boxer diesel powertrains
Forester and Impreza models,
and reduced NOx by developing
advanced combustion control.
Engine conguration
The main conguration of the
new engine is based on the
conventional boxer diesel. The
benet of the boxer engine is
that it enables a compact,
lightweight and highly rigid
design compared with an inline
four-cylinder unit. It also offers
excellent NVH behavior, engine
performance, and fuel economy.
To extend the stroke, but
keep the overall width of the
engine equivalent to that of a
15
Compliant with Euro 5 legislation, the all-new boxer diesel
engine (below) has been launched in the new Legacy (left)
capability. For emissions
conversion, especially the NOx,
ve features have been adopted:
large EGR cooler; new fuel
injection system; new
combustion chamber shape; low
compression ratio; and lift
sensors for variable nozzle-type
turbocharger actuators.
The major difference in the
regulations between Euro 4 and
Euro 5 is in the permissible
emission levels of PM and
NOx. The improvement of air
utilization factor is effective for
the reduction of PM emissions,
and the decrease of combustion
temperature is effective for the
reduction of NOx emissions. To
restate: the two keywords for
PM and NOx reduction are
combustion temperature and
air utilization factor. In general,
when a large volume of EGR
gas is introduced into the
combustion chamber with a
large-sized EGR cooler, the low
temperature levels of the EGR
gas helps to reduce NOx
emissions. However, the
decreased combustion rate often
impairs the thermal efciency
and leads to poor fuel economy.
Moreover, the increased EGR
rate lowers the air utilization
factor in the cylinders and
increases PM emissions. A
large-sized EGR cooler is
good for NOx reduction, but
could worsen fuel economy
and raise PM.
Furthermore, the new fuel
injection system has an
increased fuel pressure at
normal range, with eight holes
that are 9% smaller in diameter
than those of the previous
system. This promotes the
atomization
of fuel spray
and the
increase of air
utilization factor,
leading to PM
reduction and
quick, efcient
combustion for
better fuel
economy. Yet
there is a risk of
increased combustion
temperature levels
and NOx emissions.
For Euro 5 compliance,
Subaru chose to employ a
large-sized EGR cooler and a
new fuel injection system.
Engineers also set out to
develop a combustion chamber
shape that maximizes the
benets of the large-sized EGR
and the new fuel injection.
The shape of the combustion
chamber is an important factor,
because it is where the atomized
fuel meets oxygen to cause
combustion. The development
team used CAE analysis of space
and time to investigate the
combustion of the fuel injected
into the chamber.
In the Euro 5 system, where
the diameters of the chamber
lip and the chamber cavity are
extended and the cone angle is
optimized, it is clear that the PM
generation in the cavity is
reduced. In addition, the high Table 3: The degree of inuence of each combustion factor for NOx and PM emissions
PM consistency area at 26
ATDC (after top dead center)
has been considerably reduced
compared with the Euro 4
system. This is the result of
PM oxidation, which has been
promoted by the improvement
of air utilization factor.
The intake airow is another
important factor for controlling
fuel diffusion in the combustion
chamber and the combustion
rate. The air is taken in through
a helical port and a tangential
port to create a swirl inside the
combustion chamber and to
diffuse the fuel so that oxygen
and fuel are mixed. The optimum
velocity and streamline are
where the neighboring fuel
sprays are not made to overlap
each other by the swirl. The
engineering team also focused
on the lowered compression
ratio, which is aimed at
decreasing the combustion
temperature to reduce NOx.
The combustion temperature
has been decreased by about
100C. As well as satisfying the
Euro 5 NOx limit, the inuence
of the low compression ratio on
theoretical thermal efciency
and on PM emissions has
been minimized.
The development team
concluded that the best
compression ratio for the Euro 5
system is 16.0, compared with
16.3 in the Euro 4 system.
The nal feature to be
introduced is the lift sensors for
the variable nozzle-type
turbocharger actuator. The lift
sensors help to keep the boost
pressure high at low load range,
thereby raising the oxygen
concentration in the combustion
chamber and improving the air
utilization factor. This leads to a
reduction in PM emissions.
To maximize the effects of
these ve new hardware items,
the development team
conducted a series of elaborate
and highly accurate calibration
tests. The engine control
strategy is made up of a
complicated matrix structure
compared with the Euro 4
system. The inuence on the
combustion varies according to
combinations of parameters
such as the pressure, timing,
the number and the time
period of fuel injections. In
addition, by optimizing the
EGR rate control and boost
pressure control at all operating
ranges, the best performances
of engine output, fuel economy,
and emissions conversion have
been achieved.
Figure 1 illustrates a graph
that compares cylinder pressure,
rate of heat release and cylinder
temperature levels for the Euro
5 and Euro 4 systems. The
operating conditions are third
gear, 1,600rpm, which is
equivalent to 25mph vehicle
speed, and mid-level load of
750kPa indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP).
In the Euro 5 system, as more
EGR gas is introduced and the
combustion rate is controlled at
a much faster level compared
with the Euro 4 system, the
overall thermal efciency level is
vastly improved, and as a result
of this, the combustion
temperature level is maintained
at about 100C lower.
Table 3 shows the degree of
inuence of each combustion
factor for NOx and PM
emissions respectively. The
reduction of NOx and PM was
realized by the combination of
ve hardware components and
seven combustion factors. As
can be seen, the inuence of
combustion factors on NOx and
PM varies. By balancing these
complex factors, the new engine
cut NOx by about 60%.
NVH performance
The Euro 5 boxer diesel
maintains the NVH standards of
the Euro 4 system while also
satisfying the Euro 5 regulation.
In general, the high
combustion pressure of diesel
engines leads to greater
combustion noise and engine
vibration. The boxer diesel
reduced such NVH and
maximized its potential for
stillness, realizing smooth and
lively driving with low noise
and vibration in all ranges from
idling to high speed, without
Figure 2 compares the cylinder pressure levels of the two boxer diesel powertrains
16
The second-generation boxer
diesel boasts several new features
including a new DPF system (right)
Figure 1 compares the rate of heat release of the two boxer diesel powertrains
the need for balance shafts. The
combustion noise, which could
have deteriorated by making it
Euro 5 compliant, has been
maintained at the same level as
the Euro 4 system, after
reviewing the number of multi-
stage injections and calibration
strategies for driving conditions.
The second-generation boxer
diesel has been launched into
the European market, satisfying
the Euro 5 regulation while
maintaining the engine output,
fuel economy, and NVH and
vibration characteristics of the
rst-generation engine.
The development of this
engine had two outcomes. First,
ve new features have been
introduced: a large-sized EGR
cooler; a new fuel injection; a
new combustion chamber
shape; low compression ratio;
and lift sensors for the actuators
of variable nozzle-type
turbocharger. These features, in
combination with the DPF,
enable the second-generation
boxer diesel to meet Euro 5.
The second outcome is that the
quietness and fuel economy of
the rst-generation engine have
been maintained. ETi
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CASE STUDY: LOTUS ENGINEERING
18
Lauded for helping to drive down emissions and improve
fuel economy, electric and hybrid vehicles are now facing
criticism for being too quiet in urban environments
NVH
optimization
Electric and hybrid vehicles
have been coming in for
criticism recently from a group
of consumers that dont drive:
the blind. The lack of noise
from hybrid vehicles at slower
speeds when running on electric
power creates a hazard,
according to blind and partially
sighted people, who rely on
their ears to determine whether
it is safe to cross the road or
walk through a parking lot.
It is not only the blind and
partially sighted who experience
greater risk: the problem has
became evident to the engineers
at Lotus Engineering, as the
hybrid and electric vehicles the
company develops for its long
list of clients move slowly
around its workshops. Even
fully sighted people use audible
cues to judge the proximity of
moving vehicles. In response,
Lotus Engineering has developed
a system to synthesize external
sound from electric and hybrid
vehicles to overcome what is
seen as a growing problem
facing pedestrians.
Similar concerns were
expressed some years ago when
almost silent electric trolley
buses replaced trams in some
US cities, meaning that
pedestrians, familiar with the
noise of tram wheels on rails,
would not notice the much
quieter buses approaching. For
the same reason, commercial
vehicles in the UK have used
external noise systems for some
time. Buzzers, beepers, and
synthesized voice systems are
regularly heard when reversing
to warn pedestrians. And now
the issue is receiving attention
from legislators.
In Washington DC, a bill is
going through Congress to
establish a minimum noise
requirement for hybrid and
electric vehicles. The EU is set
to follow suit, with the
European Commission also
reviewing proposed legislation.
This could make the need for
added noise on hybrid and
electric vehicles a legislated
requirement for all vehicle
manufacturers. And this is where
Lotuss technologies come in.
External electronic sound
synthesis is a part of the Lotus
suite of patented active noise
control (ANC) technologies,
which comprises three main
systems: electronic sound
synthesis, road noise
cancellation, and engine
order cancellation. Each of
these systems can be used
individually or in combination.
Lotus began developing its
ANC technology a method
of canceling out one noise
by generating an equal and
opposite noise more than 15
years ago. The major obstacle to
wide-scale adoption at that time
was that established solutions to
intrusive noise issues were
widely available in the form
of conventional passive
NVH material or other more
established engine technologies,
such as balance shafts. The fact
that these alternative solutions
usually added mass to the
vehicle or consumed more
energy was not seen as
important, and ANC, although
feasible, never succeeded as a
commercial product.
Over the past few years,
however, things have changed.
The computing power required
to run the ANC system is now
Hybrid and electric vehicles have been questioned in
terms of safety especially in urban environments
The new Evora, but are Lotus engineers
working an all-electric derivative?
Author: Jamie Turner, Lotus Engineering
frequently present on a single
chip in high-end audio systems
at a fraction of the cost of 15
years ago. The need to save
energy and reduce CO
2
levels
means that the conventional
approaches that sidelined
ANC are now less desirable.
Harman International, a
manufacturer of premium
in-car audio systems, has
acquired the exclusive
rights to develop the
Lotus ANC technologies
for volume production.
This represents a major
step toward making
this technology
to customers.
Although ANC
is now viably
advantageous for
more efcient
vehicles generally, the
emergence of hybrid
and electric vehicles has
created new
applications. Most
obviously, the emergence of
hybrid and electric drive
vehicles has led to the
reapplication of internal
electronic sound synthesis to
create external electronic sound
as a means to enhance
pedestrian safety. Amid growing
claims that these almost silent
vehicles present a danger to
pedestrians and other road users
such as cyclists, by generating
an external warning sound of
the right character, not only can
these vehicles be made safer, but
also the character of the brand
identity can be enhanced.
Of course, hybrid and electric
vehicles do make a sound in the
form of road noise, but this
noise is generally heard when
the vehicle is travelling at speeds
of more than 20mph. At slower
speeds, they are very quiet. A
recent study by the University of
California found that electric
and hybrid vehicles had to be
about 65% closer to a person
than a car with a gasoline engine
before the person could judge
the direction of travel correctly.
Which also begs the question,
what is a hybrid or electric
vehicle supposed to sound like?
Interestingly, while road users
ideally want a sound that is
instantly recognizable as an
approaching vehicle,
manufacturers and owners of
these vehicles want a distinct
electric vehicle sound. This has
led to a series of new sounds
being generated that are
Lotus Engineering has developed a
system to synthesize external sound from
electric and hybrid vehicles to overcome
what is seen as a growing problem
19
Some are calling for EVs to generate
the same sound as IC-powered cars
As well as NVH matters, Lotus
Engineering is also working
on eco-friendly systems, such
as this range-extender unit
20
futuristic enough to be
distinguished from a
conventional engine, but
have enough similarities with
existing engine sounds to be
recognizable as an approaching
vehicle. Careful positioning and
design of the speaker ensure the
sound is projected forward from
the vehicle in a fairly tight beam
exactly where it is needed as a
warning to other road users
without generating undue
extraneous noise.
As part of the agreement
between Lotus Engineering
and Harman International, a
Toyota Prius has been used as a
technology showcase. Three out
of the four technologies are used
in conjunction with each
other, removing
audibly unpleasant
frequencies and
adding external
sound to increase
pedestrian safety.
For engine
order cancellation,
input signals from the
engine are fed into the
electronic controller, as are
sound signals, measured by
microphones located in the
cabin. The software algorithms
of the controller then calculate
what sound is needed to
provide cancellation and the
speakers of the in-car
entertainment system are used
to put this into the cabin. This
process takes only a few
hundredths of a second and is
continuously repeated,
seamlessly and instantaneously
adapting to changes in speed or
road condition.
The second system is internal
electronic sound synthesis, the
purpose of which is to enhance
sound in the cabin. The control
system uses the engine speed
signal, a throttle position sensor
and the in-car entertainment
system to add sound. This can
be particularly useful to disguise
the change in frequency during
the switch from battery power
to engine. This system also
forms the basis of external
electronic sound synthesis.
To synthesize the engine
sound, a road speed signal is
taken from the vehicle. The
sound is transmitted through a
waterproof loudspeaker system
positioned behind the front
grille. Sound can be synthesized
from the rear of the vehicle in
the same way, to give a warning
when the vehicle is reversing.
When a car is operating
on the electric motor only,
throttle and speed-dependent
synthesized sound projects an
engine sound in front of the
vehicle. If the hybrids engine
starts operating at higher speeds
or throttle demands, or lower
battery levels, the control
system automatically stops the
external synthesis. When the
powertrain control system
switches the car back to running
on the electric motor only, the
synthesis controller instantly
reactivates the system. The
process is completely automatic
and the driver hears almost
none of the additional sound.
To generate a realistic sound,
recordings of a suitable donor
engine are made and analyzed
to establish the characteristic
frequencies at various engine
speeds. These frequencies are
then entered into the synthesis
controller in the form of a voice
that outputs the sound via an
amplier and the loudspeakers.
Alternatively, more futuristic
sounds for electric vehicles
can be created using sampled
sounds and generated
waveforms. As proven in the
Toyota Prius demonstrator,
used together or individually,
the ANC technologies offer
numerous benets.
With increasing use of
common platforms shared
between manufacturers, ANC
offers a way to provide a
premium high-end product
from a mainstream donor
platform with a high level
of commonality, and to
provide some level of brand
differentiation through
acoustics. In addition, the
normal acoustic development
between different body styles
(sedan, wagon, coupe) can all
be reduced because the ANC
system adapts to all vehicle
types with minimal retuning.
So although the benets and
relevance of ANC are numerous,
the agreement reached between
Lotus and Harman International
is hugely signicant. For the
rst time, through the combined
expertise of Lotus and Harman,
there is a dened route to
production for the worlds car
makers. It will not be long
before these systems are
improving the renement and
safety of future vehicles. ETi
Emissions reduction and safety
enhancement are key areas at Lotus
Based on a Proton Gen.2 with a 1.6-liter gasoline engine, the Lotus EVE technology
demonstrator features a start/stop system, full parallel hybrid drive and a CVT unit
To synthesize the
engine sound, a road
speed signal is taken
from the vehicle. The
sound is transmitted
through a waterproof
loudspeaker system
positioned behind
the front grille
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Case study: Menzolit
22
A look at how new composite materials are playing
an important role in the latest powertrain systems
nSince the invention of the
steam engine, iron and steel
have been the materials of
choice in engine design.
Aluminum and magnesium
were added when they became
available for mass production.
Today, engines incorporate
many materials, including
polymers, which must
withstand increasingly higher
temperatures, stresses and loads.
Industrial composites are a
relatively new class of low-
density, high-performance
materials that appeared on the
market after the invention of
glass fbers in the late 1930s.
Precise performance
Author: Peter Stachel, director of technology, Menzolit
Figure 1: the composites position
within the polymeric materials
Today, engines
incorporate many
materials, including
polymers, which
must withstand
increasingly higher
temperatures,
stresses and loads
However, most composites
cannot be molded into complex
shapes; they are diffcult to
process and unsuitable for high
volume production.
But if they are modifed
through the addition of fbers,
fllers, catalysts and stabilizers, a
material called sheet molding
compound (SMC) or bulk
molding compound (BMC) can
be made. Such fber-reinforced
composites combine the best of
two worlds: they provide high
strength per weight for
structural performance, and
easily fowing resins give
fexibility in molding.
Composites have applications in
boats, cars, trucks and even in
challenging areas such as
primary aircraft structures.
These materials are cost effective
for high volume production and
can be molded to any shape
using established processes such
as injection or compression
molding. Figure 1 shows the
position of composites and
thermoset composites within
the feld of polymeric materials.
These simple-to-mold
materials have applications
within the electrical,
construction, sanitary, truck
and car industries. However,
23
they can also be applied to
engine components, replacing
metals such as steel and
aluminum, magnesium and
zinc. Metal casting processes are
well established, but their net
shape capabilities are limited
and they require precision
machining. Some components
such as oil pans and valve
covers may be made from
stamped steel, but again
precision and shape are limited.
SMC and BMC are glass fber
reinforced for strength and
stiffness, and based on a
thermoset resin to provide
resistance to the high
temperatures and corrosive
substances encountered in an
engine. Figure 2 shows shear
modulus versus temperature for
various materials.
SMC and BMC are usually
molded in different ways. SMC
is a sheet-like material sold in
coils. It is compression molded
on hydraulic presses, which
results in higher mechanical
properties than BMC, which is
more likely to be injection
molded. Molding pressure is
low, at about 100 bar, but this is
a natural choice for molding
larger components on big
engines such as truck engines.
BMC is produced in volume
for headlight refectors, more
than 90% of which are made
from this material. High levels
of precision, excellent surface
appearance, high service
temperature, short cycle time,
effcient molding, and low
material costs make it an ideal
choice for this application.
BMC is sold in the form of
slugs that require specifc
feeding equipment for injection
molding; apart from this feeding
mechanism, the injection
machines are similar to standard
injection molding equipment.
Mechanical strength is largely
controlled by the type and
quantity of fbers added. Glass
fbers are most commonly used
for reasons of cost and
performance. The amount
added depends on whether
SMC or BMC is used and the
automotive application for
which it is intended.
For example, an oil pan on a
heavy-duty engine would use
SMC with about 40% glass
content, and a valve cover on
the same engine may be made
with only 25% glass to reduce
material costs and improve the
fexibility of the mold. On a
smaller engine, the same
components may be made of
BMC with less than 25% glass.
In both cases, the resin and
basic formulation may be
identical; only the fber content
and compounding process
differ, which is an effcient way
to customize the process.
Thermosets typically have
excellent temperature resistance,
with no melting or softening.
They also exhibit good media
resistance, since their 3D
molecular network makes it
diffcult for low molecular
weight materials to penetrate.
typical BMC formulation
Figure 2: stiffness versus temperature levels
24
This intrinsic behavior means
that should an engine overheat,
there is no sudden failure
of SMC or BMC; even if the
powertrain catches fre, an SMC
or BMC oil pan will have greater
fame resistance.
The greatest advantage of
plastic or composite materials is
the ability to integrate functions
into as few parts as possible. In
contrast with a metal stamping
process, compression molding
of SMC and injection molding
of BMC allow a true 3D fow,
enabling complicated shapes to
be manufactured.
SMC and BMC can also
be tailored to ensure zero
shrinkage at molding. Since the
processing temperature is lower
than for casting metals (150C
compared with 900C),
dimensional changes at
cooldown to room temperature
are small. The coeffcient of
thermal expansion (CTE, 10 x
10
-6
m/mK) is in the same range
as steel, making very precise
moldings possible. Tolerances of
H5 to H6 can be achieved,
eliminating the need for costly
machining, in turn giving
signifcant cost savings
compared with metal
components. A polymer
material will perfectly copy a
mold cavity. Undercuts can be
handled by means of sliding
cores, threads or metal
bushings molded in to provide
fastening elements. This makes
SMC/BMC the true net
shape material, combining
complex geometry with high
levels of precision.
SMC/BMC also offer great
cost advantages. Any material
that is based on expensive raw
materials (oil) or high energy
consumption (aluminum and
magnesium) will refect global
changes in material prices. The
petrochemicals-based raw
materials content of SMC/BMC
is less than 30%. Filler and glass
are based on minerals available
nearly everywhere in the world,
and the quantities and energy
required to produce SMC/BMC
are small. As a result, SMC/BMC
prices increased by only 9%
between 2000 and 2008, while
the price of aluminum and
crude oil tripled within the
same period. And although
metal prices declined sharply at
the beginning of the 2008-09
crises, it is certain that they will
soar once again.
The cost of processing
depends on the number of steps
in the manufacturing process
and the amount of labor needed
to produce a fnished
component. Compression
molding and injection molding
are mature technologies that
have been optimized for many
years. So when they are applied
to SMC/BMC, one can take
advantage of proven and
effcient manufacturing
processes. However, there is one
key difference: Thermosets
molding requires defashing.
During molding, the
low-viscosity resin of the
Compression molding of sMC
the injection molding machine for BMC
Current applications
in the European
market for SMC/BMC
include oil pans for
Daimler and Volvos
heavy-duty trucks
25
compounds matrix leaks into
the gaps within the mold,
creating thin fash lines. In the
case of BMC, these fash lines
can be removed with standard
pellet blasting. The SMC process
can also make use of defashing
equipment, and this includes
such things as abrasive brush or
a high-speed milling device.
Market research suggests that
fuel costs will continue to rise.
Governments around the world
have implemented legislation
that calls for drastic reductions
in emissions. It is known that a
reduction in weight results in a
reduction of fuel consumption
and emissions. So a 100kg
weight saving results in roughly
half a liter less fuel consumed.
Low-weight design at low cost
will be the challenge facing most
vehicle and engine designers in
the coming years. The density of
steel and aluminum are 7,85
and 2,7 respectively, but the
density of SMC/BMC is 1,8,
meaning a weight reduction of
30-40% is possible.
Current applications in the
European market for SMC/BMC
include oil pans for Daimler and
Volvos heavy-duty trucks, both
of which are in their second
generation. On smaller engines,
subsystems and components
such as valve covers and throttle
bodies constructed from BMC
are increasingly popular.
Menzolit is a pioneer in SMC
technology, with plants in Italy,
Spain and the UK. Its products
are mainly used in electrical and
transportation applications. The
company is well known for its
Class A SMC products for
global automotive and truck
applications, as well as its long-
standing experience in the
electrical industry. ETi
the dimensional change due to Cte at cooling down after molding
oil pan made of sMC
for heavy truck engine
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Engine Technology 12.10.2009 12:28 Uhr Seite 1
OEM intErviEw: BMw
26
Lone ranger
Despite announcing plans for numerous hybrid and electric
applications, BMW remains committed to building cars powered by hydrogen
Words: John Challen
OEM IntErvIEw: BMw
27
explains Wolfgang Strobl, the
general manager of CleanEnergy
and EfcientDynamics within
BMWs research and technology
group. So in 2000, the
technical status was frozen
and a quality process was
implemented. At the moment,
the engine can be driven by
gasoline, but in the long run
we will optimize the engine
dramatically and focus on
just one fuel: hydrogen.
There is little doubt that the
Hydrogen 7 project is one of the
greatest powertrain challenges
BMW has set itself. Strobl
admits that problems regarding
fuel delivery mean his research
and development team is
currently exploring both
While most car makers are
hurriedly pushing through plug-
in electric vehicle programs that
will result in a new breed of
eco-friendly vehicles hitting our
roads within the next ve years,
BMWs hydrogen-fueled vision
remains much the same as it did
at the turn of the millennium.
Now armed with data from four
million test miles completed in
a eet of 100 7 Series sedans
equipped with 6-liter hydrogen-
fed IC engines, BMWs
powertrain engineers are about
to take hydrogen technology to
the next level, in the form of
several new, exciting projects.
In the Hydrogen 7s engine
development, the most
important element is quality,
CELL OUT?
BMW says that development on its auxiliary power unit (APU)
for fuel cell cars continues despite work on this system
having started over a decade ago with United Technologies.
One fuel cell can provide 100W, which means you need 500
cells for one system, explains Strobl. That is more complex
in the long run, but for replacing the alternator and battery, a
small fuel cell APU would be an interesting development.
Our objective is to do the APU series production
development for the Hydrogen 7. We have solved many
problems recently and have achieved lifetime figures of 5,000
hours, which was one important task. Strobl also claims that
the BMW engineers have got over the hurdle of cold starts
and operating in subzero temperatures. However, as patents
are still pending, nothing can be announced until next year.
In the Hydrogen 7s engine
development, the most
important element is quality
WOLFGANG STROBL, GENERAL MANAGER OF BMW CLEANENERGY AND EFFICIENTDYNAMICS
Having overcome several major engineering
challenges and undertaken eet trials in
California, BMW is now ready to move to the
next stage with its hydrogen-fueled vision
BMW is currently looking at optimizing the weight of the Hydrogen 7s tank system
compressed and liquid
hydrogen forms. And whichever
route the company takes
will affect storage, so tank
development is a priority
for Strobl: We are currently
running a research program to
optimize the weight of the tank
system, using a high-pressure
gas tank and a liquid hydrogen
gas tank system.
The combination of both
technologies enables the tanks
to have better boil-off rates.
The normal lightweight liquid
hydrogen system will always be
a problem for customers who
dont drive regularly [because of
evaporation rates], and for those
customers we are developing
another system, which is a
combination of a hydrogen tank
OEM INTERVIEW: BMW
28
Rumors from Munich suggest that the next hydrogen car will be based on a 3 Series
and a pressurized tank system.
According to Strobl, this latter
tank can extend boil-off times
from 3 days to 10 days.
The tanks are constructed of
a combination of steel and
carbon-reinforced plastics,
and BMW is currently testing
different combinations, with the
nal product likely to appear in
two years time. The specic
volume for the cryogenic
pressurized tank will be similar
to Hydrogen 7s [8kg/170-liter]
tank, says Strobl. For each
type of hydrogen storage we
need four times the volume
used for gasoline and up to
seven times the volume needed
for compressed hydrogen, either
at 350 bar or 700 bar. Strobl
says the aim is to use no more
than 1kg of hydrogen per
100km, giving a theoretical
range of 800km.
Although rumored to be
based on a 3 Series, the next
BMW hydrogen car has not yet
been ofcially decided, but one
thing is certain: it wont be
another 12-cylinder-powered
vehicle, says Strobl. In
2000, we needed a big car
to accommodate the extra
hydrogen tank. We needed a
bigger engine for bi-fuel
operation and we were looking
at 30-50kW of power per liter,
which meant the 6-liter engine
in the Hydrogen 7 Series offered
around 190kW. We will most
likely replace the 12-cylinder
engine with a smaller, four-
cylinder engine.
But results from BMWs recent
evaluations show that there is a
possibility that the engine could
be smaller still. Our research
on single cylinder data has
enabled us to reach maximum
power output of 100kW per
liter of engine displacement,
reveals Strobl. Our specic
value is normally the number of
kilowatts per liter of engine
displacement, and we reached
50kW on a single cylinder
(500cc), which means
we reached 100kW
per one liter of engine
displacement. You
usually need two
cylinders for one liter.
Based on the
existing engine in the
Hydrogen 7, this
would give the car
600kW and nearly
1,000bhp! We are
aiming for a 100-
200kW engine, so a
two- or three-cylinder
engine will be enough
in the long term. ETi
BMW will trade the current 12-cylinder
for a smaller four-cylinder in the next
hydrogen technology demonstrator
FROM HYDROGEN TO HYBRIDS
Before the excitement of fuel cells is fully realized, BMW like
many others is investing time and capital in creating hybrid
products. The plug-in Vision EfcientDynamics concept may
have been the star attraction at the Frankfurt Motor Show, but
for Strobls colleague Wolfgang Nehse, department manager
in charge of drivability and functional assessment, the main
focus is the ActiveHybrid 7 Series and X6 models. The two
vehicles use different hybrid systems, with the 7 Series
deploying the same mild hybrid architecture that features in
Mercedes S400 petrol-electric. Perhaps most noteworthy is
that the ActiveHybrid 7 is the rst car in the world to combine
a V8 petrol engine, a three-phase synchronous electric motor,
and eight-speed transmission (supplied by ZF). Meanwhile,
the full hybrid ActiveHybrid X6 features two electric motors
one mounted on each axle and can run in electric-only
mode at up to 60km/h for up to 3km.
Nehse explains why two different systems were used in the
cars: packaging and driver preference. One reason we
decided to use the (mild hybrid) system in the 7 Series was
because there is not much room in a normal limousine. The
battery pack needed to allow the possibility of electric-only
driving, says Nehse, which would take up too much valuable
space in the trunk. It was a case of a 40-liter battery pack,
versus 120-liter.
The other reason [for the two systems] is that with a four-
wheel-drive car you can recuperate energy with all four
wheels; with a two-wheel-drive [in the sedan] there is only
one driven axle, so you dont need as much power from the
generator or electric engine.
These two vehicles highlight BMWs hybrid capabilities, but
Nehse is also aware of future goals and products. The next
step will be to introduce a hybrid version of the 5 Series,
probably using the 7 Series mild hybrid system. Based on
the savings of up to 20% that are made on the ActiveHybrid
models, Nehse says a hybridized 5 Series would consume as
much fuel as a current 3 Series.
Batteries are a major talking point at BMW, with Ni-MH
cells in the X6 and Li-ion for the 7 Series. And then there is
lithium polymer, as seen in the stunning EfcientDynamics
concept. Lithium polymer is too early in its development at
the moment to be used on these cars, warns Nehse. Nickel-
metal hydride and lithium-ion are both on the market. We
know with lithium technology there is a high power output
and maybe in turn this technology will have a bigger capacity
to drive effectively. If we look at all the cars able to drive with
electric energy, they all use Ni-MH. At the moment this is the
only way to drive electronically, but using lithium technology
we are developing other systems, ultimately to ensure future
hybrid cars have safe batteries.
OEM INTERVIEW: BMW
29
CASE STUDY: BOWMAN POWER
30
Diesel cycle engines remain
the de facto technology for
powerplant and commercial
vehicles from 150kW. Yet 30%
of the energy in the fuel is lost
through the exhaust system. In
todays market it is becoming
essential to recover some of this
wasted energy and put it to
good use. Exhaust heat recovery
(EHR) systems are playing an
increasingly important role in
the emissions and fuel
consumption challenges facing
todays heavy commercial
vehicle (HCV) and off-highway
markets globally.
Turbocompounding using a
high-speed electric
turbogenerator (TG) is now a
technically mature solution that
can address this need for
improved fuel economy.
The Sankey diagram in
Figure 1 illustrates the energy
path of a classic diesel engine.
Energy is lost in several forms,
one of the largest being through
the hot exhaust gases.
With the cost of fuel rising on
an ever-increasing trend, and
CO
2
emissions featuring in new
legislation, recovery of some of
that wasted exhaust energy is a
logical step in making these
engines more efcient. Indeed,
the primary running cost for
end users of these engines is the
fuel itself, and OEMs have been
under pressure for many years
to implement strategies and
technologies to improve fuel
consumption levels.
Engine manufacturers
have introduced different
technologies over the years to
improve fuel efciency. Some of
these technologies involved the
Diesel development
for HCVs
recovery of wasted energy. Many
HCV OEMs have introduced
mechanically coupled
turbocompound systems to
their engine range, notably
Scania in 1995 and Volvo in
2002 with its D12-500TC,
followed by Iveco and then
Daimler in 2008, when it
introduced the rst of its global
HDEP engines, the DD15 from
Detroit Diesel.
There are essentially four key
drivers for introducing EHR
systems on modern engines:
improved fuel consumption and
reduced CO
2
emissions; reduced
harmful exhaust emissions;
improved engine power output
and power density; and assisting
the migration toward a more-
electric vehicle
When it comes to the rst
two benets improved fuel
consumption and reduced CO
2

emissions it is clear that if an
EHR system is able to harness
wasted exhaust energy and feed
that back into the crankshaft,
for the same power output, the
engine will not need as much
of the combustible fuel as an
engine without an EHR system.
In addition, CO
2
is widely held
to be a contributory factor in
global warming. Governments
across the world are committed
to reducing the annual CO
2

emissions tonnage, of which
land vehicles represent a
considerable portion. CO
2
is
an inevitable result of the
combustion of carbon fuels; the
amount formed is therefore in
direct proportion to the amount
of fuel burned. Legislation to
reduce CO
2
and indeed fuel
consumption from HCVs
already exists in Japan and is
pending in the EC and USA.
The second key driver to EHR
technology focuses on harmful
exhaust emissions. Elements
such as NOx, CO and PM are all
considered harmful to human
life. Subsequent rounds of
government legislation have
been demanding ever-reducing
pollution levels from engines, as
shown in Figure 2. These
reductions have not been
achieved without a
Figure 1: The typical fuel energy
path in a diesel-powered vehicle
Improving the fuel economy of a diesel engine
while using exhaust energy recovery systems
Author: Jon McGuire, engineering director, Bowman Power
31
corresponding fuel economy
penalty, negating or suppressing
advances made elsewhere.
Nevertheless, with all other
factors equal, if an EHR
system enables less fuel to be
combusted, then it logically
follows that harmful exhaust
emissions will correspondingly
be reduced. EHR therefore
represents a way of clawing
back fuel efciency that may
have had to be sacriced to
achieve a cleaner exhaust.
The third advantage to EHR is
power output. Conversely, if the
same level of combustible fuel is
used and the recovered exhaust
energy is fed back into the
crankshaft, it is clear that the
engine would have a larger
power output than the non-EHR
engine. This could be used to
extend the capability design
envelope of an existing engine,
or open up engine downsizing
opportunities.
Finally, EHR as a technology
also paves the way for a future
where there are far more electric
vehicles. OEMs, for example,
are becoming extremely
interested in more-electric
vehicles for three main reasons:
efciency improvements by
electrifying auxiliaries (such as
the cooling fan and water
pump); more exible packaging
(especially when it comes to
subsystems such as air
conditioning); and interworking
with a mild hybrid system.
The four drivers previously
mentioned are strong reasons
for any engine OEM to
implement an EHR system. In
practice the interaction between
all these factors is complex, and
there are other parameters such
as combustion efciency, air/fuel
ratios, in-cylinder temperatures
and pressures and combustion
chemistry. Advanced simulation,
measurement and analysis
techniques enable engine
makers to seek the best balance
of all the above parameters, but
considerable engine testing is
still needed to crystallize the
optimum conguration.
As described, the EHR system
is designed to recover heat
energy in the exhaust system
and convert it into useful energy
for the vehicle. Existing
mechanical turbocompounding
(m-TC) systems convert some of
the exhaust heat energy into
mechanical energy that is fed
back to the crankshaft via a
hydraulic coupling and gear
train. Bowman has successfully
developed an alternative electric
turbocompounding (e-TC)
method that converts some of
the heat energy in the exhaust
into electrical energy.
The underlying technology is
based on integrating a compact
high-speed electrical machine
with a high-performance
turbine stage. Other
congurations include putting
the electrical machine on the
shaft of the turbocharger to
electrically assist the
turbocharger process (such as
the motor assist). However, this
paper focuses more on the
combination of a turbine-driven
generator, applied to the
exhaust stream to create an
e-TC system.
Most electrical generators run
at a low speed (typically below
3,600rpm) and are therefore
relatively large and heavy. The
e-TC technology uses very
compact, high-speed
(>30,000rpm), high-efciency
(>98%) electrical alternators,
which can be directly added to
the high-speed turbine shaft
(and do not need a gearbox) for
use as a generator.
However, although there is
a considerable exhaust heat
energy available in the exhaust,
Figure 2: A comparison of stringent emissions regulations in the European market
The illustration above charts Bowman TG turbine efciency levels
Bowman Powers
TurboGen technology
32
a turbine requires a pressure
drop to convert this heat into
mechanical (rotational) work.
Simple introduction of a TG
into an existing engine will
therefore introduce additional
exhaust back-pressure that will
increase the pumping work
done by the engine, reducing its
power and efciency. The net
increase in the combined power
output (engine + TG) is
therefore rather limited, and
may even be negative as a result
of this situation .
The key to success is in
careful redesign of the
turbomachinery to make
optimum use of the available
exhaust manifold pressure.
Bowman achieves this by using
very high-efciency turbo
machinery, that is typically
ve-10% above traditional
HCV technology.
For a given total pressure
drop, the use of higher-
efciency turbocharger
technologies (such as
compressor and turbine
sections) means less exhaust
energy given up to the
turbocharger system, and
therefore a greater amount of
energy is available to the TG.
Separately maximizing the TG
turbine stage efciency levels
further increases the generated
TG power.
With a well matched solution,
the net result is a system with
the same total power output,
a lower overall exhaust
temperature the exhaust
having given up energy to
generate power and lower
fuel consumption. The same
technical principles the
conversion of exhaust energy to
shaft rotational energy apply
also to m-TC systems. An e-TC
system differs only in how that
rotational energy is transmitted
back to the drivetrain.
The gain in fuel economy
levels for m-TC systems has
generally proved to be modest,
with the saving being around
3%. This is essentially because
the turbine wheel is constrained
to operate at a speed with a
xed relationship to the
crankshaft speed (aside from
uid coupling slip) and
therefore cannot run at the
optimum speed for highest
efciency for much of the
operating envelope.
However, the m-TC system
may absorb power at some load
conditions while generating
power at other conditions. In
contrast to this output, the e-TC
method of extracting power
electrically enables the turbine
wheel of the TG to run at
controlled speeds designed to
optimize the efciency of energy
recovery, and can provide a
much higher fuel saving as an
average across a typical vehicle
duty cycle.
Figure 3 shows actual engine
full load test results achieved by
John Deere with a Bowman TG
system applied to a Deere 9-liter
Tier 3 off-road engine. The total
system power at each operating
speed, (crankshaft torque) is the
same for the base engine or the
(engine + e-TC) system, but
the latter demonstrates a 10%
brake specic fuel consumption
(BSFC) reduction across a broad
operating speed range.
Much of the data generated
from vehicle OEM testing and
development is condential and
cannot be publicly released.
However, data that can be
released includes that recently
gathered from eld trials in a
PowerGen application, showing
a brake thermal efciency level
of 47% for an engine running
on biogas fuel. This information
has been used to calibrate a GT-
Power model of the engine.
The results show that the
m-TC gives maximum power at
the 100% load points. However,
different trucks have different
load cycles and a highway HCV
spends a lot of its life at sub-
75%. The important factor to
note is that e-TC has a better
BSFC at all load cycles and
shows great improvement at
the loads that most vehicles see
most of the time. This means
that more fuel is conserved
more of the time.
For some off-highway vehicle
applications, there may be a
desire to optimize energy
recovery for 100% load cycles.
In this instance, e-TC is still an
informed choice over m-TC.
At certain conditions, the e-
TC system conserves as much as
three times more fuel than the
m-TC does over the base
engine. Even at all the other
conditions, the e-TC system
beats the m-TC in BSFC %
improvements. What is not
shown is that m-TC systems
are an energy consumer at low
loads and idle, therefore pulling
down the average BSFC.
A properly designed e-TC
system does not consume
energy at any stage, it just varies
how much fuel saving is
achieved. The result of the
above improves the cycle
efciency levels.
Exhaust heat recovery
technologies have proven
stability with reciprocating
engines for several decades. The
m-TC system has been used in
the HCV market since the early
1990s but with only a limited
fuel consumption benet to eet
owners around the world.
New turbine and e-machine
technologies, together with
available hybrid architectures,
mean e-TC systems are now a
viable next engineering step in
improving the brake thermal
efciency of a modern diesel
engine. ETi
Figure 3: BSFC comparison base
versus e-TC engine (9-liter capacity)
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Europes most important dedicated trade fair for powertrain design, production, components and technology!
THE INTERNATIONAL
ENGINE OF THE YEAR
AWARDS 2010
Taking place on the second day of Engine Expo, the highly acclaimed
International Engine of the Year Awards have become some of the most
sought-after accolades in the industry, with the winners often using the
logo as a centrepiece of their television and advertising campaigns. The
ceremony attracts the most senior engine designers, executives and
journalists from all over the world, and takes place in an open-seated
area within the exhibition halls.
CASE STUDY: AUBERT & DUVAL ERASTEEL
36
The key to achieving successful designs for new eco-friendly IC engines lies
in advanced materials often involving innovative metallurgical processes
It is most likely that IC
engines will still power cars,
trucks, trains, and ships,
exclusively or in combination
with electric engines, for a few
more decades. But for this to
happen, IC engine technology
will have to evolve, and the
multiple innovative designs
that will emerge will require
innovation in the eld of
materials, and particularly steels.
What will be the drivers for
IC engine innovation? A rst
driver is performance, and in
Advanced materials
for future IC engines
particular performance that
focuses on the environment.
The necessary technological
changes to meet the increasingly
stringent environmental
regulations emissions and
pollutants control, use of
biofuels, downsizing, or even
novel IC engine designs will
call for materials that can cope
with increasingly aggressive
operating conditions.
In addition to this trend,
there are specic markets where
reliability, safety, or performance
will be key to the success of
powertrains such as heavy-duty
diesels and racing engines.
IC engines are mature systems
in a very competitive market,
but cost is and will continue
to be the other major driver.
The recent raw material price
surge has shown how highly
alloyed grades could negatively
impact product cost. Cost
reduction can be achieved
through optimization to reduce
the content of expensive
elements or through the use of
alloyed grades that enable
engineers to avoid using
expensive PVD coatings.
Although in most cases these
contradictory drivers cost and
performance must be taken
into account, advanced alloys
can still be relevant solutions,
with advanced not only
meaning optimized grades/
compositions but also state-of-
the-art metallurgical
manufacturing processes.
Does this mean that new
grades/processes need to be
developed each time the
standard material toolbox is
not sufcient? There is no easy
answer to such a question.
From a steel suppliers
perspective, grade innovation
strongly depends on volumes.
Applications with large volumes
can justify specic grade
developments. This is typically
the case for valves or light-duty
engine parts where yearly
volumes reach several thousand
tons. In such cases material
development is done through
partnerships between suppliers
and OEMs, and sometimes even
with exclusivity agreements. For
smaller volume applications, the
approach is different and the
designer must often go to great
lengths to source existing
materials. Grade development
can to some extent still be
triggered but this becomes
generic and the supplier in this
case must spend time targeting
several markets. Historical
examples of such material
transfers include: high-speed
steels for diesel injection parts,
originally designed for cutting
tool/cold work markets;
martensitic stainless steels for
gasoline injection parts,
developed for bearings or
knives; or Ni-based alloys for
exhaust line parts, originally
developed for aerospace.
Melt size inuences the
critical volume for grade
development. For continuously
cast grades, the key gures are
in the hundreds of tons, while
in air-melted ingot cast steels,
some tenths of tons are to be
considered. Special melting
processes such as VIM/VAR
remelting (typical for aerospace
or Formula 1) or powder
metallurgy have lower critical
masses (of up to 10 tons).
To nd the right grades and
treatments for the multiple parts
of innovative engines, suppliers
with experience of a range of
materials are extremely valuable,
as they have the ability to guide
the designer through the
materials jungle and provide
valuable feedback during
development or early market
launch. One such example
represents one of the most
challenging areas for engineers:
diesel injection. Advanced
steels/surface treatments are
used in pumps and injectors,
Author: Dr Angelo Germidis, development manager, Aubert & Duval Erasteel
The innovative ASP process, rst established in 1972 by Erasteel, consists of
gas atomization of metallic powders followed by hot isostatic compaction
Case study: aubert & duval erasteel
37
which are often the most
severely loaded parts of the
system. To meet emission
requirements, temperatures of
the system have increased to
400C and more, and pressure
has also increased to 3,000 bar
and more. Numerous families of
grades that are either hardened
or case hardened/nitrided, cover
a wide range of automotive
applications including
carburizing steels, nitriding
steels, tool/high-speed steels
(conventional or PM) and
martensitic stainless steels
(conventional or PM).
Carburizing grades are used
because they are cost-effective,
suitable for mass production,
and provide a deep case depth.
Carbon contents range between
0.15-0.2% and 0.4-0.7%, with
various amounts of Si, Ni, Mo,
and Cr being added.
A common handicap for these
grades is temperature resistance,
which does not exceed 200C
(between 150C and 250C).
They tend to soften, which
restricts the choice of PVD
coatings that can be applied. A
special grade called FND has
been developed by Aubert &
Duval, which enables an extra
operating temperature of 100C.
This is achieved mainly through
additions of Si and Mo. The
slightly increased Ni content
improves hardenability, enabling
gas quenching and therefore
limiting distortion. Another
possible solution is CX13VD, a
martensitic stainless steel with
11.5 w% Cr. Its mechanical
properties are close to FND, but
after carburizing it displays
corrosion resistance up to 58
HRC. In very specifc designs,
the carburized part can be
locally removed at annealed
state by machining to fully use
the corrosion resistance of the
grade. Both grades are tempered
typically at 250C, and easily up
to around 200C.
At the other end of the range,
ASP grades, hardened or
nitrided, are very interesting
materials for engineers to look
at when resistance is needed
and temperature requirements
exceed 350C, and tool steels/
nitriding steels cannot cope.
ASP is an industrial process
established in 1972 with the
trade name of Erasteel. It
consists of gas atomization of
metallic powders followed by
hot isostatic compaction.
The ASP process brings major
microstructural benefts for
alloyed steels, typically high-
speed steels that include high
amounts of carbon and carbide
forming alloying elements such
as W, Mo, and V: ASP 2023,
2030, 2060 are most popular
for cutting and cold work tools.
But continuous improvements
in cleanliness have recently
opened up the components
markets for a range of ASP
grades: ASP 2012, ASP 2017,
ASP 2005, ASP 2004, and
Bimax 42 are all very interesting
candidates with increasing levels
of carbides. As a result of all this
development, it becomes clear
that the ASP process can be
used for classes of alloys other
than HSS/TS, and is also
suitable for martensitic stainless
steels and superalloys.
The main microstructural
benefts of the ASP process are
the drastic reduction of carbide
size to a very few microns up
to 10 times less than for ingot
cast material and the isotropy
and lack of macrosegregation,
even for large sizes. In addition,
this process enables the
exploration of compositions that
cannot be ingot cast. All ASP
grades consist of a steel matrix,
but different amounts and types
of carbides provide different
property combinations, such as
the above illustrations show it is possible to achieve 1,400 Hv for components made of bimax42. such a high level provides
automotive engineers with a cost-effective alternative to ceramics in terms of hardness levels and overall wear resistance
all: Carburizing grades are now used
because they are cost-effective, suitable
for mass production in the automotive
industry, and also provide a deep depth
38
Case study: aubert & duval erasteel
hardness, impact resistance, and
abrasion resistance. The very
high cleanliness levels are
achieved through process
development and control based
on investigations involving
destructive testing such as
ultrasonic testing, LOM/
automated SEM analysis, and
fatigue testing, and allow for a
generic resistance to brittle and
fatigue failure. The average
cleanliness is comparable to
remelted steels. These general
features give ASP grades several
exciting key characteristics for
engine designers.
Most ASP grades can be
tempered at high temperatures,
typically 560C for PM high-
speed steels, and this makes
them stable at up to 500C for
hundreds of hours. In some
cases, ASP grades can even
be pushed up to 600C if
temperature excursions are
not so frequent.
Wear resistance particularly
abrasion and erosion resistance
is achieved through overall
high hardness and the amount/
size and types of carbides. The
hardest are the MC carbides,
which are rich in V, followed by
the M6C carbides, rich in Mo
and W, and fnally MxCry
carbides found in the stainless
grades or in most Cr alloyed
tool steels. Chromium carbides
can be hard enough for less
abrasive environments.
The ASP process enables an
outstanding combination of
high hardness and impact
resistance to be achieved,
typically above 53-4 HRC, and
terms of mechanical properties
as diesel injection, but this
powertrain area has its own
challenges in terms of corrosion
resistance in connection with
the use of fexfuels.
A very successful grade is N-
Alloyed X15TN, which is closely
related to the XD15NW grade
that was developed for
aerospace bearings. Its
composition enables it to reach
59 HRC and it can be tempered
at low (180C) and high
(500C) tempering
temperatures. It has an
outstanding corrosion resistance
and almost outperforms the
high-temperature tempering
grade 440C. The trick is the
limitation of carbon content and
the addition of N. This mixture,
in combination with a very
sophisticated remelting process
control and a very strict
conversion scheme, provides
exceptional homogeneity for
this kind of grade, as well a
strictly bound inclusion content
ensuring exceptional reliability.
Such examples of material
development for the automotive
industry show how advanced
materials often involving
advanced metallurgical
processes can be key to
achieving successful designs at
controlled cost for the new
environmentally friendly IC
engines of the future, thereby
creating value for engine
developers, suppliers, OEMs,
and for society as a whole. ETi
a very high strength ASP
grades are the strongest metallic
alloys of all on the market.
One of the most interesting
properties is fatigue resistance.
The small carbide size together
with the high cleanliness level
give exceptional fatigue
resistance at a high number of
cycles. Typical fatigue resistance
in rotating bending at 20
million cycles ranges between
1,100MPa and 1,450MPa,
depending on the grade and the
heat treatment. It must be
emphasized, however, that the
experience of using such grades
in such applications is relatively
new; more work needs to be
done to quantify and improve
the reliability of cleanliness for
PM grades. Using the potential
of these materials for brittle
fracture or fatigue sets very high
requirements on surface fnish.
The potential is there and
component testing should
determine whether these
materials are suitable for any
given application.
An unexplored property is the
specifc modulus. Grades with a
signifcant volume fraction of
carbides, particularly V
carbides, can display a fairly
high Youngs modulus for a
moderate density, giving specifc
moduli E/ up to 25% higher
than high-performance
construction steels. This gives
ideas for decreasing component
weight for motorsport
applications in particular.
Another way to use these
materials for applications such
as rollers is to use nitriding.
Nitriding of ASP steels is not a
very easy process to control, as
the white layer formed is brittle
and the case is shallow, typically
50m. However, if performed
according to the best practices,
it enables 1,100-1,200 HV and
high compressive stresses to be
easily reached, which improves
the components lifespan. It is
even possible to achieve 1,400
HV for components made of
Bimax42, providing a cost-
effective alternative to ceramics
in terms of hardness and wear
resistance levels.
PM MSS can be considered
when corrosion resistance and
serious mechanical properties at
certain temperatures are needed.
Two grades are available today:
APZ10 and RWL34, a PM
version of martensitic steel 618.
An advantage of the PM
structure is that it limits the
extension and intensity of the
local Cr depletion around
phases such as carbides, hence
decreasing the risk of pitting.
There are enough carbides
to provide good abrasion
resistance, and this enables
the range to expand.
It is important to note that all
applications and grades do not
require or proft from the
specifcs of powder metallurgy.
Particularly in the feld of
stainless steels, many exciting
properties can be achieved with
other melting techniques.
Gasoline injection is a feld
that is not as demanding in
the graph above illustrates the temperature level advantages to the asP process
the graph above highlights the reduction in the number of large non-metallic inclusions
Case study: ContiteCh
40
Author: Mario Topfer, ContiTech AG
There are some ideal sustainable and performance-oriented
solutions for all tasks involving the carrying of media
nSustainable solutions that
satisfy requirements with regard
to performance, comfort, and
safety: this is what the auto
industry is in search of for its
present and future customers.
ContiTech Fluid Technology
already has the right solutions
and is able to offer optimally
matched components for all
tasks involving the carrying of
media for everything related to
modern high-performance
assemblies and the powertrain:
from high-performance charge-
air hoses to cooling and
lubrication systems for the
engine, turbocharger, and
the transmission.
The Panamera premium
grand tourer from Porsche is a
good example, demonstrating
that performance and
environmental awareness no
longer have to be at odds with
each other. With this model, the
sports car maker together with
ContiTech successfully managed
to reduce fuel consumption by
20% in comparison with the
Cayenne model, which has a
similar engine. It helps that the
Panamera has to carry around
400kg less, thanks to elegant
solutions such as transmission
oil cooler lines by ContiTech.
The transmission oil cooler
lines now weigh in at a mere
900g nearly a 50% reduction
in weight, and 10% lighter than
Porsche had originally
requested. We had to blaze
new trails in the development
phase, explains Dr Michael
Hofmann, head of automotive
products at ContiTech Anofex
in Caluire, France. Together
with the customer, an impressive
solution was quickly found. The
line consists of a thin-walled
aluminum tube. In addition, the
number of components was
reduced. All of the connections
are formed and not soldered,
High-performance
engine technologies
and the hose portion was
reduced to a minimum
length. The tube had to be
adapted to extreme installation
space requirements; special
tools also had to be developed
to manufacture the tight
bending radii. In the ContiTech
Anofex testing laboratory, the
prototypes were thoroughly
tested in a series of vibration,
service life, and aging tests
within a very short period of
time. The ports do not require
special measures to be
connected to the automatic
transmission and oil cooler,
says Hofmann. As a result of
this, the extensive know-how is
available to be used by future
vehicle generations.
Anofex also produces
hydraulic lines for the
Panameras active chassis with
roll stabilizer with an oscillating
motor. Anofex supplies the
entire underbody hose system,
above: in the lubrication of the turbo,
the rigid tubes developed by Contitech
engineers close the oil circuit between
engine block and turbocharger unit
Case study: ContiteCh
41
from the actuators on the axle to
the main valve manifold. In
addition, ContiTech supplies
refrigerant, as well as charge
air hoses and lines, hydraulic
engine mounts, and a
lightweight torque rod support,
multiple V-ribbed belts, and
diaphragms for the fuel system,
plus automotive interior
materials from Benecke-Kaliko.
Smaller and lighter, but at the
same time with higher torque
and greater fuel effciency
these are the additional
requirements that car
developers have for
modern diesel engines.
With this new kind of
hybrid hose, ContiTech
Fluid Technology has
developed the ideal
solution to master the
challenges charge air and
cooling water hoses will
encounter in the future. For
the upcoming generations of
highly supercharged engines,
fexible hoses capable of
withstanding a positive pressure
of over 3 bar (approximately
43.5psi) will be needed. This
fexibility, as well as high
pressure and temperature
resistance to the different media
fowing through them, are
essential for pressure hoses.
Therefore ContiTech MGW has
developed a fexible hose that
satisfes all these requirements
and enables a combination of
different knitted and rubber
materials to accommodate
different temperature levels.
The hybrid hose combines
extruded- and knitted-hose
manufacturing processes with
those for wrapped hoses, notes
developer Robert Dill.
New knitted hoses from
ContiTech Hose have also
entered into series production of
the new four-cylinder engine at
Mercedes-Benz. They are made
using a new knit setting designed
for high pressure and dynamic
stressing, and are constructed
for pressure loads of 3.2 bar.
Curved charge air hoses made
with the new technology are
intended for a positive
pressure of over 3.5 bar. For
a special application, the
hose has already been
tested with a positive
pressure of 4 bar.
For turbocharger
lubrication, ContiTech
engineers have has developed
corrugated stainless-steel pipes
for the high temperature levels
in that specifc application area.
The stiff, corrugated stainless-
steel pipes can be installed
easily, but are fexible enough
to absorb thermodynamic
movements and vibrations. In
addition to this development,
they demonstrate high corrosion
and temperature resistance.
In manufacturing rigid
tubes for the lubrication of
turbochargers, ContiTech relies
on robotic technology. The
upshot is top quality, utmost
purity, extremely low ppm
fgures, and marked cost
advantages. By reducing
complexity the company has
also reduced the error potential;
fewer parts have to be stocked,
and the end result is a sturdier
product. By means of two
moving annular components,
the rigid tubes for diesel and
gasoline engines allow for
tolerance compensation on the
mounted engine without the
hose piece common in the past,
which also cuts costs. The tubes
are currently being used by
BMW, Ford, PSA, and Volvo.
Solutions for other customers
and engines are in the pipeline.
For turbocharger cooling,
lines were also developed in
which aluminum pipes are
joined with a hose section
without the need for soldering,
thus making the process cost-
effcient. The lines can be
manufactured in highly
automated production, making
them competitive with products
from countries such as China.
By continuously developing
new sustainable products,
ContiTech, as a leading rubber
specialist, is making a key
contribution to the future for a
mobile and environmentally
conscious society. ETi
above: Cost and weight of transmission
oil cooler lines could be cut nearly in
half thanks to Contitech developments
the hybrid hose is manufactured by
combining processes and materials from
extruded- and knitted-hose production
with those from wrapped-hose production
CASE STUDY: GOMECSYS
42
Author: Bert de Gooijer, technical director, Gomecsys
Dutch engineering company
Gomecsys is successfully
demonstrating the companys
Generation 2 GoEngine
technology in a Mercedes
C-Class sedan. The
demonstrator four-inline clearly
shows benets when it comes to
variable compression ratio,
increased fuel efciency at low
loads and enhanced torque and
power from low rpm. With a
minimum compression ratio of
7:1, the VCR GoEngine realizes
400Nm of torque with peak
pressures just above 100 bar.
Such performance
characteristics mirror a diesel
powertrain with low-end
torque, which makes it possible
New GoEngine
VCR development
Introducing third-generation GoEngine technology that boasts
numerous performance, emissions, and fuel economy benets
to down-speed the engine under
all driving conditions. Driving at
100km/h, a reduction of engine
rpm by 20% (from 2,200rpm to
1,800rpm) gives a 8% reduction
in fuel consumption while
ensuring extremely good driving
comfort levels.
Furthermore, when driving at
100km/h the engine is still on
its maximum compression ratio
of 16:1. The combination of
VCR with down-speeding
gives a 20% reduction in fuel
consumption levels.
When comparing the 300bhp
four-inline GoEngine with a 3.5-
liter V6, fuel and CO
2
reduction
could be as great as 40%.
The problem with the four-
inline engine in general is that
friction levels are just too high
when driving at lower speeds.
At 50km/h, about half the fuel
energy is used to run the engine,
even when the Gomecsys engine
runs at very low speeds. As a
result, the only way to
make a big improvement
in fuel reduction is to
make use of smaller
engines. In fact
downsizing is the way
to go, and VCR
technology boosts the
result of downsizing.
While demonstrating
the companys second-
generation four-inline
GoEngine, engineers at
Gomecsys have been working
hard to improve the technology
when it comes to friction levels,
durability and NVH, which has
led to the introduction of the
third-generation GoEngine
technology. The development
goals of this project included:
reducing total GoEngine friction
to under normal engine levels;
reducing peak gear load to
under 50Nm (durability and
light-weight gears); and
reducing intermediate gear
speed to normal level (friction
and NVH). The other aims of
the project were to realize a
normal engine layout with
normal ring order and
balancing; to realize a 50% fuel
reduction compared with
existing engines with the same
power output; and to realize a
25% production cost reduction
When comparing the
300bhp four-inline
GoEngine with a
3.5-liter V6, fuel and
CO
2
reduction could
be as great as 40%
The two-inline GoEngine can
easily replace four-cylinder
engines that produce 200bhp
CASE STUDY: GOMECSYS
43
four times the crankshaft speed.
Yet with the third-generation
engine this problem has
been solved by placing the
intermediate gear between the
eccentric gear and the sun gear.
During the development
project, Gomecsys engineers
agreed that this was a simple
engineering solution that offered
many advantages. And with this
new position, the intermediate
gear not only runs at only 1.5
times the crankshaft speed
(instead of four times the
crankshaft speed), it also
doubles the contact ratio
between the satellite gear and
the actuation ring gear, all
of which leads to far better
NVH characteristics. The new
position of the intermediate gear
also makes it possible to transfer
the gear load from the eccentric
gear to the sun gear, which in
turn reduces the gear load by
50% while further enhancing
NVH levels.
When looking at the
system, the rst reaction of any
powertrain engineer around the
world will be that the gears of
the third generation will never
be durable due to the rigorous
combustion forces in a high
boosted engine. Yet in reality
the gear loads are very low.
Peak eccentric gear load when
running at full load and at 120
bar peak combustion pressure
results in only 25Nm. It might
be hard to believe, but this
outcome is simply realized by
placing the eccentric position
in-line with the combustion
force at the lowest compression
ratio position.
In fact, the peak forces under
full load on all the gears is only
600N, all of which means that
the gears could almost be made
from plastic. ETi
DIESEL DEVELOPMENT
Such a reduction of the gear loads makes it possible to use the
GoEngine VCR technology for diesel applications. For a diesel
engine, the technology needs less variation in the compression
ratio (from 18:1 to 12:1), which means the technology can work
with a smaller eccentric as seen on gasoline engines (2mm
eccentricity instead of 4mm). This reduces gear load by 50%
when compared with gasoline specications, which means that
the technology can easily use the same gear dimensions with
240 bar peak combustion pressure on a diesel application.
The advantage for diesel applications is reduction of the peak
combustion loads at higher engine loads, which makes it
possible to reduce the size of engine parts and bearings.
Furthermore, the technology enables diesel applications to
increase peak torque without increasing peak combustion force,
which as with gasoline applications makes it possible to
down-speed the engine. Another big advantage is the reduction
of friction levels as well as factors such as NVH and NOx.
With the introduction of the third-generation GoEngine
technology, Gomecsys has introduced a line of engine
congurations with an actuation system at the front of the engine.
Below: The V4 VCR GoEngine can easily replace
V6 and V8 engines that produce over 600bhp
Above: The three-inline GoEngine can easily
replace powertrains developing up to 300bhp
compared with existing engines
with the same power output.
With the introduction of the
second-generation GoEngine, a
big improvement in friction
reduction was realized because
the eccentrics that realize the
variation in compression ratio
run at only half the crankshaft
speed. With the eccentric
bearings and the big-
end bearings running at
half the crankshaft speed,
the total engine friction of the
second-generation engine was
already at the same level as
normal engines. A problem was
that the intermediate gear ran at
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Case study: a&d teChnology
45
Author: Craig Giraud, A&D Technology
A new systems solution that automates calibration through
an innovative interface promises many advantages
nThe reality facing many
OEMs today is how to keep
innovating while reducing
development time. Adding to
that challenge are smaller
budgets and fewer resources.
Those involved in the engine
development process face
increasing pressure to provide
engines that meet tougher
government-mandated
emissions regulations, as well as
increased customer expectations
for durability, performance, and
fuel effciency. The engine
mapping and base calibration
tasks necessary to help meet
Innovative
combustion analysis
abandon the task entirely or
submit to having the original
equipment supplier do the
implementation, usually at a
higher cost and with less than
best-in-class equipment.
A&D Technology offers a
clever solution that provides
automated calibration through
an ASAP3 interface, which is the
most common protocol used in
existing facilities. Combustion
analysis is performed via A&Ds
CAS, and the automated
calibration environment is run
through A&Ds ORION
software. The high-speed ASAP3
driver is used to integrate these
new tools with the existing data
acquisition and control system.
The CAS system provides
real-time combustion analysis
on up to 16 cylinders, as well as
instantaneous feedback for
closed-loop control.
Combustion analysis results
including power, burn rates,
maximum pressures, and knock
are transmitted to the test cell
automation system and ORION
mapping software in order to
monitor the progress of the
optimization experiment.
these requirements have
traditionally consumed many
months of a platform
development schedule.
Faced with an increasing
backlog of test schedules, OEMs
are forced to either install new
testbeds or add automation to
their existing facilities. However,
upgrading an engine test bed to
full automation represents a
major investment, and
navigating the plethora of
available communications
interfaces and equipment can be
a daunting task. In the end,
most engine developers either
a&d is making engine development easier
with new and innovative technologies
46
The ORION automated
calibration environment is a
supervisory testbed control
system for automating the
characterization and calibration
of engines. ORION provides
fexible test automation through
user-defned test sequences, as
well as an expandable function
library. The open interfaces
support a wide variety of DoE
(design of experiment) and
calibration tools.
The ASAP3 connection is a
logical choice because of its
universal compatibility with
data acquisition and control and
ECU development systems. The
availability of recognized
standards such as ASAP3 helps
powertrain engineers to enhance
project operations and preserve
their original investment in
testbed systems.
clients on the same PC, a feature
that was used to run the
combustion analysis system and
the ECU development tool.
Server confguration is a
simple task of selecting the
parameters required by each
client by way of drop-down
menus. A&D Technology
equipment accesses an
automatically generated
database of parameter names
when setting up the data links.
Most third-party equipment can
be set up by importing an Excel
fle containing parameter names.
Combustion data from the
CAS system is sent via ASAP3 to
the data acquisition and control
system, which combines the
CAS data with ECU parameters
and data from other testbed
equipment (the data path
through the data acquisition and
control system is required to
align all data from the unit
under test). This combined data
is transmitted to ORION over
a separate ASAP3 link.
Orion then compares the
combined data sets with
experimental inputs and adjusts
ECU parameters by using its
own ASAP3 link directly to the
ECU development system.
The mapping process
typically requires several
months of repetitive testing to
accurately determine an engines
optimum operating calibration.
However, with a low-cost,
straightforward way to integrate
automated calibration
capabilities into a data
acquisition system, it becomes
possible to effectively reduce the
time required for development
and localization projects by a
matter of months. ETi
Case study: a&d teChnology
A&D Technologys
recommended high-speed server
is compatible with most testbed
hardware, which makes it very
easy to add functionality
because almost all systems
support the ASAP standard. The
high-speed server fts between
the software application and the
Windows network driver,
wrapping application data into
the ASAP3 protocol. Capable
of rates up to 100Hz, the
server uses TCP/IP or UDP
transmission over Ethernet,
improving system performance
by avoiding problems with TCP/
IP packet resubmissions. Server
architecture is compact
and effcient, and avoids
performance degradation of the
original application. It is even
possible for the server to
support multiple Ethernet
above: oRIon automated
calibration technology
left: Cas data screenshot
Below: asaP3 driver is
used to integrate new
tools with the existing
data acquisition
and control system
8 C 1
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NoveLC /novels:/ n
the FIRST amorphous carbon coating (DLC) to utilize
HIPIMS technology for improved adhesion, toughness
and hardness. Was developed by Systec in 2008-2009 in
response to increasing demand for more fuel efcient
powertrains.
HIPIMS /hapms / n
the FIRST new deposition technology of the 21st century
(high intensity pulsed magnetron sputtering). Allows for metal ion
implantation. Produces coatings with unique properties
due to presence of highly ionized metal plasma
SYSTEC /sstek/ n,
the FIRST company to commercialize HIPIMS
deposition technology and produce NoveLC - high performance
family of diamond-like coatings.
POWER BEHIND TURBOCHARGED ENGINES
TURBO ENERGY LTD.
TEL
+1 z;z;c6 +1 z;z;1c
Case study: aVL
48
Author: Beatrice Joerer, AVL
A professional range of e-motor, battery, and hybrid testing solutions
uses a model-based approach that integrates simulation, development,
and validation to reduce development time and overhead costs
nThe successful development
of hybrid vehicle concepts
requires the introduction of new
calibration and testing methods
and tools especially for the
electric systems such as electric
motors, power modules and
converters with corresponding
control units. With respect to
reduced development time and
increased product reliability, the
performance of test runs based
on a fully functional virtual
hybrid vehicle together with
simulation of the human driver,
the track and the surrounding
traffc is benefcial. AVL List
provides electric motor testbeds
for developing, optimizing, and
validating electric motors as well
as power electronic systems.
Electric motor testbed
Common to all hybrid-
electric vehicles (HEV) today
is the requirement to develop
the electric components with
respect to different targets in
the validation phase of the
development process. This
includes: experimental
measurement and analysis of
physical states with respect to
the specifcation, such as the
measurement of performance
parameters or effciency maps;
loading of the physical
components and analysis of the
observed effects with respect to
the required durability, such as
electrical or mechanical stress
tests; and optimal calibration of
the electronic control units for
the electric components, with
respect to the many required
functions, including calibration
for performance and drivability.
All these activities have to be
carried out within the given
constraints from regulations
such as those relating to
consumption and emission
limits, the characteristics and
expectations of the human
driver and the specifc
environment for the hybrid
vehicle such as ambient, road
and surrounding traffc.
Specifc testbeds have been
used for experimental validation
of electric motors and their
power modules since the early
days of electric drives. In such a
testbed the unit under test
(UUT) and the dynamometer
system operating in speed or
torque control are key
components. Both are
connected with an intermediate
shaft. The power module of the
UUT is connected to a real
vehicle battery or an AC/DC
converter that simulates the
vehicle battery. In addition, a
power analyzer device
connected to the DC and AC
lines of the UUT and the speed
and torque signals from the
dynamometer system enables
precise calculation of the power
and effciency map for the
operating range of the electric
motor and its power module.
Another task performed on
the testbed is operation under
stationary or transient loading
conditions to determine the
mechanical and electrical
durability of the UUT. Dedicated
devices such as surge testers
are used before a test run
to perform the resistance
measurements and high-voltage
isolation tests with a locked
rotor, to determine the electrical
parameters of the UUT. During
a test run the electric, mechanic
and thermal characteristics are
measured and compared against
the specifed targets.
aVLs advanced range of hybrid testing solutions is helping car
makers and suppliers to reduce development times and costs
The e-motor testbed has also been
developed to cover testing under the
same high speed and torque gradients
Case study: aVL
49
For automotive application
the basic testing of the electric
components has to be enhanced
by a model-based approach to
enable very realistic testing
conditions compared to the real
vehicle. The AVL e-motor
testbed is optimized for: testing
of the electric components
within an integrated design,
optimization and validation
process; calibration and testing
within the complete virtual
hybrid vehicle including
simulation of the driver,
ambient and traffc; calibration
and testing within the complete
control network of the vehicle,
such as the hybrid powertrain
CANbus network.
The e-motor testbed has also
been developed to cover testing
under the same high speed and
torque gradients, especially for
e-motors acting as starter
generators or e-motors mounted
in power-split transmissions;
testing with the same
reproducible highly dynamic
behavior of the electric energy
storage system as in the vehicle;
and testing under the same
reproducible climatic conditions,
such as varying cold start or
hot conditions.
The electric motor and power
module are mounted into a
climatic chamber that controls
an ambient temperature ranging
from -40C to 302C. The
cooling fuids for the UUT are
also conditioned to that
temperature range. The power
module is connected to the
hybrid control unit (CU) from
the real vehicle. Other control
units, such as those for the
internal combustion engine and
the transmission (T/M), are set
up on the testbed. All control
units are networked with the
hybrid powertrain CANbus and
connected to the corresponding
real-time models on the
simulation system with analog
and digital I/O. The AVL
InMotion simulation system is
also connected to the
dynamometer and battery
simulator hardware located
outside the climatic chamber.
The performance and
dynamics of the battery system
strongly infuence the design
and optimization of the electric
motor and have to be
considered carefully during
testing of the e-motor. Very often
the energy storage system and
the powertrain are developed in
different locations; it therefore
makes sense to replace the
battery with a battery simulator
for simulating the batterys
state of charge, operating
temperature, and operating
voltage. For this purpose a
fast real-time controller is
implemented into a powerful
DC supply based on IGBT
technology. This is achieved by
using the AVL battery simulator.
The automation and
calibration system interfaces
with the different control units
over CAN using XCP, which is a
universal measurement and
calibration protocol for data
stimulation, data acquisition,
and calibration access based on
ASAM standards. XCP is used to
optimize the parameters of real
control units mounted on the
testbed or of virtual control
units implemented on the
simulation system.
A permanent magnet
synchronous machine (PSM)
with low inertia levels acts as
mechanical load unit and can
achieve speed gradients up to
100,000rpm/sec, all of which
is necessary to accurately
simulate the higher-order
dynamics of the complex
hybrid powertrain on the
e-motor testbed.
The behavior of the complete
virtual hybrid vehicle on the
e-motor testbed is simulated
with a real-time platform
running detailed models of the
driver, combustion engine,
battery, transmission,
suspension, wheels, chassis,
track and surrounding traffc.
The model block for the e-motor
is replaced with a signal
interface to the dynamometer
and battery simulator on the
testbed. In the operator
room a three-dimensional
visualization of the virtual
vehicle driving on the simulated
track, together with the display
of the cockpit instruments,
provide immediate feedback of
the current test status. ETi Chart illustrates the torque (Nm) and speed (rpm) capability of aVLs testing systems
aVL new battery simulator technology will help speed up real-world development
aVLs electric motor system (left) and the companys battery testing capability (right) testing such systems as batteries has been made easier thanks to aVLs investment
CASE STUDY: OHIO STATE
50
CASE STUDY: OHIO STATE
51
Bulletproof
The Buckeye Bullet program
at Ohio State University is a
one-of-a-kind program that
utilizes land-speed racing to
push clean technology to its
limits on the ultimate proving
ground: The Bonneville Salt
Flats. On September 25, 2009,
the Venturi Buckeye Bullet 2
became the rst hydrogen fuel
cell vehicle to eclipse the
300mph mark, setting an
international speed record of
302.877mph* (*pending
ofcial FIA certication) in
the ying mile. The Buckeye
Bullet 2 program included
over two years of initial
conceptual design,
followed by three
years of testing,
development,
and racing.
The 15
th

anniversary of Ohio
States involvement in electric
racing was reached in 2009.
Beginning in 1994 with the
Formula Lightning series, OSU
campaigned its vehicle, the
Smokin Buckeye, until 2002.
The series was a collegiate open-
wheel formula-style race that
traveled to major racetracks
around the country. Thirty-one
lead-acid batteries powered an
AC induction traction system
capable of racetrack speeds over
120mph. The team could do a
pit stop with a full battery
change in under 17 seconds.
Ohio State dominated the
competition, winning more than
50% of the races entered and
every national championship
ever awarded. In 2002,
the nal running of the
Smokin Buckeye took place.
As the Formula Lightning
series was being phased out,
the team found themselves with
a great deal of electric racing
experience, but no venue in
which to put it to use. After
some brainstorming and
discussions with existing
program sponsors, the team
decided to take electric racing
to a whole new level and go for
all-out speed. The goal was to
break the world record for top
speed in an electric vehicle:
248mph. Over two years
(2000-2002) the team of
undergraduate engineering
students designed and built the
Buckeye Bullet 1. The vehicle
debuted on the Bonneville Salt
Flats in October 2002. Over the
course of three years of racing at
Bonneville and optimization
back in the shop in Ohio, the
Bullet worked its way up to a
top speed of 321mph. October
of 2004 saw the top speeds of
the Buckeye Bullet 1 and the
shattering of the existing
records. The new US record was
set at 314.958mph. The
Buckeye Bullet was retired after
its October 2004 runs, but still
holds the US land-speed record
in the E/III class (electric power,
over 1,000kg).
Design of the worlds fastest hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle: Buckeye Bullet 2
Authors: Carrington Bork, Ed Hillstrom, Kevin Ponziani,
Ben Sinsheimer, and Giorgio Rizzoni (Ohio State
University, USA); Michael Procter (AFCC Automotive,
formerly with Ballard Power Systems, Canada), Systec
52
Case study: OhiO state
anode and a cathode separated
by a polymer electrolyte
membrane. Hydrogen is
supplied to the anode and
oxygen to the cathode. At the
anode, the hydrogen gas ionizes,
forming electrons and protons.
The acid electrolyte carries the
proton through the membrane
to the cathode. An external
electrical circuit carries the
electron to the cathode. The
open circuit value for a typical
cell is about 1V. Similar to
batteries, these cells are
connected in series to create a
high-voltage circuit.
The fuel cells must provide
the required DC electricity to
the inverter. They must supply
electrical current, at an adequate
voltage for the inverter to create
the proper wave forms to drive
the motor at maximum power.
In a fuel cell, the relationship
between the current draw and
the voltage available is defned
by the fuel cells polarization
curve. The polarization curve is
dominated by three areas of
losses. Activation losses are
present at low currents, and are
dominated by the reaction
kinetics, primarily on the
cathode side. The next major
area of loss is the ohmic loss
region. The ohmic losses are
generally proportional to
Following the success of the
Buckeye Bullet 1, the team was
looking for a new and exciting
challenge, and the Buckeye
Bullet 2 (BB2) was born. After
years of racing with batteries,
the team sought to test a new
type of power source: fuel cells.
The move to fuel cells from
batteries depended on a few key
pieces, both technological and
logistical. Technologically, the
fuel cells delivered a fat power
profle, meaning the amount of
power available at the end of a
run was the same as at the
beginning, which was not the
case with batteries. Thus, when
power was most needed, at the
end of the run, there was more
power available with fuel cells
than with batteries. Logistically,
fuel cells are still a very
proprietary technology, so a
major fuel cell sponsor was
necessary to make the project a
reality. After getting many
industry sponsors together,
including Ford Motor Company
and Ballard Power Systems, the
BB2 was designed from 2004-
2006, and fabricated in 2007.
In August 2007, it achieved a
peak speed of 201mph.
Returning in October of 2007,
the BB2 achieved a peak speed
of 223mph, but still faced many
challenges to reach its target of
eclipsing 300mph. Between
2007 and 2008 the team
focused on increasing the power
available from the fuel cells, and
returned in August 2008. The
vehicle then recorded a timed
mile of 286mph, but ran into
severe reliability problems due
to oxidant pressure control. For
the 2009 race season, much
effort was put into the pressure
control of the fuel cells. With
the support of Venturi, the
vehicle returned for a fnal
attempt at an FIA record. On
September 25, 2009, in the fnal
run, the BB2 became the fastest
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle in the
world, setting an average speed
in the mile of 302.877mph*.
equation 1
InternatIonal racecourse
International speed records may be set on any length of course.
In recent years at Bonneville, an approximately 11-mile course
has been available. The vehicle is timed over the middle mile.
The vehicle must eclipse the timed section in opposite
directions, within one hour, and the average speed of the
two runs will defne the record.
The inverter and motor
controller was a piece of
technology, along with the
motor, that was carried over
from the Buckeye Bullet 1
program, where the batteries
were the limiting factor. The
inverter and motor controller
was designed and programmed
by Saminco Electric Traction
Drives. Interestingly, this
controller was originally used
with the fuel cell system that
was provided by Ballard Power
Systems, long before being
used for land-speed racing.
The basic I/O structure of
the motor controller is a torque
reference and DC power input,
and three-phase AC power
output. Internally there are
preset torque limits and other
calibration adjustments to tune
and optimize the power output
from the motor. The DC/AC
inversion is performed using
variable voltage, variable
frequency switching. Ultimately,
the electrical power is converted
to mechanical energy through
the induction motor, and is
sent to a six-speed transmission
and to the ground via special
land-speed tires.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical
device that converts chemical
energy into electricity. The
single cell is constructed of an
In a fuel cell, the relationship between
the current draw and the voltage available
is defned by the cells polarization curve
The design of a land-speed
vehicle requires the
optimization of the vehicle
powertrain to overcome the
loads against the vehicle. The
loads of a land-speed vehicle are
fairly easy to predict due to the
race conditions. Most of the
calculations are actually quite
simple, but to quickly evaluate
the trade-offs of different design
proposals requires the use of
simulation tools. Simulink was
used as the simulation tool to
predict total vehicle
performance. The following
paper shows some of
the details involved in the
design of the critical systems.
The standard vehicle road
load equation (Equation 1,
below) can be simplifed due to
the Bonneville track conditions.
The force to overcome grade is
negligible because the track only
varies a few centimeters over a
span of fve miles. The vehicle
has no accessory loads in the
conventional sense. Most days
are very calm, and typically
racing is paused if winds are
greater than 5mph. The winds
velocity and direction can then
safely be ignored and the
aerodynamic load simplifes into
longitudinal drag.
123
HEADING CAsE stuDy: OHIO stAtE
53
current, and come from the
resistance of the cells electrolyte
to conduction of protons. The
fnal region of loss comes from
the concentration losses. This is
where the gas concentrations are
depleted near the reaction sites,
and reaction cannot be sustained.
The power available from a fuel
cell is defned by its power curve,
which is calculated directly from
the polarization curve. Since
electrical power is the product of
voltage and current, the power
can be plotted versus current.
From the power curve it is clear
that to attain peak power, the fuel
cell should be operated at higher
current levels near the power
peak. Many components that
supply the fuel cell were modifed
to maximize the peak power
attainable from the fuel cells.
The losses in the fuel cell
polarization curve are all
subtracted from the open circuit
voltage, which is governed by
the Nernst equation. The Nernst
equation (Equation 2) describes
the open circuit cell potential as
a function of temperature, and
the partial pressure of hydrogen
and oxygen. Inspection of the
Nernst equation reveals that
higher-pressure operation is
a key to maximizing voltage,
and therefore power.

The hydrogen and oxygen
must pass through a conductive
gas diffusion electrode to reach
the catalyst where the fuel is
oxidized. At high currents, the
partial pressure of oxygen at the
fuel cell catalyst is limited by
the rate of diffusion between
the gas delivery channels and
the catalyst. The reduced
oxygen partial pressure reduces
the fuel cell performance. The
rate of diffusion, J, is governed
by Ficks law (Equation 3).
The diffusion coeffcient can
be increased by changing the
balance gases in the oxidant
supply. In the Buckeye Bullet 2,
a mixture of oxygen and helium
is used to increase the diffusion
coeffcient. This increases the
delivery rate of oxygen to the
catalyst, where it reacts with
protons and electrons to
complete the hydrogen
oxidation reaction.
As will be shown below,
reactant consumption is linearly
proportional to current in a fuel
cell. The reactants must be
made available in suffcient
quantities to ensure that the
current demand can be
supported. Insuffcient reactant
delivery will result in a loss of
power. If the reactant delivery is
less than that required to
provide enough electrons, then
all of the reactant will be
consumed almost instantly and
the voltage of the fuel cell will
drop to zero. In addition, the
reactants should be supplied at
the highest possible pressure.
The following sections detail the
calculation of the fow rates, and
the pressure control.
In a fuel cell, electrons are
stripped from hydrogen
molecules and conducted
through an electrical circuit.
Theoretically, hydrogen only
needs to be supplied to the fuel
cell at the rate it is consumed.
This is impractical because as
hydrogen fows through the
stack and is consumed, the
hydrogen concentrations will
reach zero at the outlet. In
reality, the partial pressure and
the concentration need to be
much higher for the reaction to
be effcient. Hydrogen gas must
be supplied at higher mass fow
rates than the rate it is actually
consumed. The unreacted gas
exiting the stack is recirculated
back to the inlet via a pump.
During normal use, water and
other contaminates migrate
from the cathode across the
membrane and accumulate
in the fuel loop. The fuel loop
must be periodically purged to
clear out these contaminates.
The wasted hydrogen is
BB2 traveling at 300mph through the timed mile.
At this high speed, with the fuel cells operating at
over 500kW, the massive amount of water being
generated can be seen exiting the two exhaust
ports on the side (Image courtesy of Ray the Rat)
the Buckeye Bullet 2 team pictured
at Bonneville salt Flats, utah, in 2009
Equation 2
Equation 3
accounted for in a hydrogen
utilization factor ( < 1).
Typically, only a small
percentage of the total fuel
is wasted to satisfy purge
cycle conditions.
The rate of hydrogen
consumption is proportional to
the current drawn from the
stack. The mass fow rate of
hydrogen can be calculated for a
given current. In Equation 4 the
current is divided by Faradays
constant (the amount of charge
in one mole of electrons), the
number of electrons per
molecule of hydrogen, and
multiplied by molar mass of
hydrogen and the number of
cells in series.
Much like the hydrogen
system, the amount of oxygen
needed for the reaction is
proportional to current. Typical
fuel cell vehicles are designed to
use oxygen that is in the air
outside the vehicle. A
compressor is used to pump air
to the desired inlet pressure to
fow across the cells. Driven by
an electric motor or a belt
attached to the main motor, the
compressor power takes away
from the overall tank-to-wheel
effciency. The compressor is the
largest parasitic subsystem for
fuel cell vehicles. Often close
to 20% of the total power
produced by the fuel cell is lost
to power the compressor. For a
land-speed vehicle, a difference
of 20% would severely affect the
acceleration and top speed. For
the BB2, a special air fltration
requirement would also be
imposed due to the salty
conditions of the air at
Bonneville, which could lead
to stack damage.
The short duty cycle of a
Bonneville speed run enabled
other non-traditional
automotive oxidant supply
systems to be considered. An
oxidant supply architecture
similar to that of the hydrogen
would eliminate the largest
parasitic loss. Reflling a
pressurized gas cylinder
between runs enabled gas
mixtures other than air to be
considered. It was shown
previously that higher oxygen
concentrations could allow the
fuel cells to run more effciently
on pure oxygen compared with
the 20.9% concentration oxygen
found in air. Pure oxygen,
however, is considered by many
to be more dangerous than
hydrogen. A mixture of helium
and 40% oxygen was chosen to
reduce fow rate requirements,
while gaining some of the
benefts of oxygen enrichment
and maintaining a reasonable
level of safety. The oxidant loop
differs from the hydrogen
because it is not recirculated.
The oxidant must also be
supplied at a ratio higher than
needed to support the reaction
requirements. The oxidant mass
fow calculation is expressed in
Equation 5.
The oxidant delivery control
system consists of two mass
fow controllers that regulate the
fow of oxidant into the fuel cell
cathode. The traction drive
controller interprets the driver
command for torque and, given
the motor speed, computes a
total power demand from the
fuel cell. This power estimate is
converted into an electric
current demand using a
polarization curve derived from
With the collaboration of Ballard Engineers, Ohio State Students
designed and built the Buckeye Bullet 2 to perform a very specifc
task: to set the land-speed record for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
Load bank testing
A 600kW capable resistive load bank (below left) is used to test
the fuel cell system. Switches are used to progressively increase
the load taken by the load bank. The load profle is manually
switched to mimic the load seen in Bonneville conditions. The
plot (below right) shows module A and B current from Bonneville
with the test stand current profle overlaid. The test stand
simulation of the transient load profle was instrumental to the
success of the BB2 in its 2009 race season.
CaSE Study: OhiO StatE
54
Equation 4
Equation 5
load testing of the fuel cells. The
electric current demand is
communicated to the fuel cell
controller via a CAN network.
The current request is converted
into an oxidant mass fow using
Equation 5. The required
oxidant is directed by the
oxidant mass fow controllers.
The supply rate of the gases
is one critical aspect of
maximizing the fuel cell power;
the other critical aspect is
maintaining the gases at the
highest possible pressure to
minimize voltage losses.
However, the fuel cell stack does
have pressure limits, which, if
exceeded, can result in costly
damage to internal seals. The
pressure limits were exceeded
twice in the 2008 race season,
leading to a focus on eliminating
this problem for 2009.
For simplicity, the BB2
regulates the oxidant pressure
using passive internally piloted
back-pressure valves. These
valves are adjusted to provide
the desired operating pressure
at peak temperature and load.
On the anode side, hydrogen
pressure is regulated through
a quick-reacting high-fow
hydrogen regulator that is
referenced to the cathode
pressure. The hydrogen
regulator tries to maintain a
constant anode pressure that is
roughly 500mbar above the
cathode pressure.
A big pressure control
challenge faced by the BB2 is
the result of the integration of a
manual transmission shifting
sequence. This provides a very
dynamic change in current draw
on each shift. The fuel cells can
be operating at over 400A per
module, but on each shift the
current will momentarily drop
to 0. On the cathode side under
load, the exiting gases are a mix
of the unused oxygen and the
product water in liquid and
vapor form. When current draw
is stopped, the exhaust gases
switch from a low-density, water
droplet-rich stream, back to a
higher-density pure oxidant
stream. The passive back-
pressure valves cannot maintain
a constant pressure with such a
drastic change in gas density,
and a pressure spike is seen
with each shift.
On the hydrogen side, during
high current draw there are
pressure losses due to the high
hydrogen fow rates. When
current draw is momentarily cut
for a shift, hydrogen is not being
consumed, so the pressure
losses are removed, and the
hydrogen pressure will spike
further above the oxidant
pressure level.
To allow operation near the
pressure limitations of the stack,
without exceeding design
pressures, pressure relief valves
were installed on the oxidant
and hydrogen supply systems.
Extensive testing and system
modeling was conducted, so
that the pressure spikes during
shifts remained below the
design limits, and operating
pressure is maximized when
drawing full load.
One of the challenges for a
fuel cell system is the removal of
heat. A PEM fuel cell stack
could theoretically operate
above 70% effciency, but the
effciency level decreases with
the increased current density.
The Buckeye Bullet 2 pushes the
current density levels to nearly
the peak power point of the fuel
cell system, which is a region
that operates at approximately
50% effciency. As a result, this
means that if there is 500kW
of electrical power being
produced, then an equal
amount of thermal energy
must be removed.
The use of a traditional
liquid-air radiator was quickly
eliminated due to the
aerodynamic drag imposed by
the large cooling requirements
of the fuel cell systems.
The graphic on the left is a typical fuel cell polarization curve, with polarization properties identifed by plotting current
versus voltage. The graphic on the right shows a typical fuel cell power curve with the power plotted versus the current
The BB2 vehicle layout. The major factors considered when placing the parts in the vehicle were safety and aerodynamics
Case sTudy: OhiO sTaTe
55
Fuel cell power
This plot shows the fuel cell DC power versus time for one of
the record runs. Each drop in power corresponds with a gear
shift. For a majority of the run, the Ballard Fuel Cell system,
originally designed for 250kW, is operating well over 500kW,
with no problems.
against the theoretical peak
tractive force of the tire and
sent through the driveline.
The actual power is sent to
the fuel cells, where the
theoretical gas fow rates are
computed. The cooling
controller manages the heat
generation in the stack and
maintains the optimal
temperature. The total power
losses in the driveline system are
taken out and the force at the
wheel is determined. The road
loads are considered, and the
resulting acceleration is
calculated. The shift controller
monitors output power and
predicts when output power is
better in the next gear. The
simulation is terminated when
the vehicle has traversed the
length of the course.
The results of all the
simulation, testing, and design
are best seen through the plot
of the fuel cell power when the
vehicle is raced. The fuel cells
delivered peak power output of
over 540kW to the inverter.
Although no certifable record
for this exists, the vehicle is
most likely the most powerful
PEM fuel cell vehicle ever
created which underlines the
importance of this project, both
in terms of the goals achieved
and the technology that has
been developed.
September 25, 2009, was the
last day of racing for the FIA
event. At approximately 15:30
local time, traveling west the
vehicle achieved an average
speed in the timed mile of
301.949mph*. Less than one
hour later, the vehicle then
The cooling system is set up
as a two-loop system, with a
heat exchanger removing heat
from the primary loop to the
secondary loop through a
liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger.
The primary loop goes through
the fuel cells, a pump, and the
heat exchanger. It contains
deionized water, since it runs
through the fuel cells and is in
contact with high voltage. The
secondary loop contains regular
water, and goes through such
subsystems as an ice bath,
pump and heat exchanger.
Ideally the fuel cells would
be held at an operating
temperature of 80C, with an
inlet temperature of 65C, so
a delta T across the stack is
maintained at 15C. However,
fortunately the desired thermal
cycle is very predictable. To
maintain this temperature
differential, the fow rate of the
secondary loop is regulated with
a feedback controller.
With the basic properties of
each system of the car
understood, a simulator was
used to evaluate the overall
performance levels of the
vehicle. The basis of the
simulator resembles that of a
traditional vehicle when viewed
from the driveline to the wheels.
Simulation packages such as
MATLAB and Simulink
provided the computation tools
to implement and analyze such
models. The simulated driver
keeps the throttle foored at all
times except during a shift.
Based on known engineering
models of the motor, the
requested power is checked
traveled east and recorded an
average speed of 303.795mph*,
setting the mile average at
302.877mph*.
With the collaboration of
Ballard Engineers, Ohio State
Students designed and built the
Buckeye Bullet 2 to perform a
very specifc task: to set the
land-speed record for hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles. It has a very
specifc use profle, so the
systems of the car were
optimized for this purpose. At
the conclusion of the fve-year
program, the Buckeye Bullet 2
became the fastest hydrogen-
powered vehicle in the world,
including vehicles using
hydrogen for combustion. Using
fuel cells to drive an electric
motor, the vehicle is also the
fastest electrically powered
vehicle to hold an international
FIA* record. The BB2 is also the
frst hydrogen-powered vehicle,
and the frst electric traction
vehicle to eclipse the 300mph
mark under FIA regulations.
ETi
*These are unoffcial speeds, and do
not qualify as records until the
vehicle and speeds have been
verifed by the record sanctioning
body. As such, any record is subject
to FIA (or ASN) recognition before
it may be recognized as an offcial
record.
References:
1. Larminie, J. and Dicks, A., Fuel Cell
Systems Explained (second ed), John
Wiley and Sons Ltd (2003).Diamond-
like carbon (DLC) coatings are among
the newest materials, which provide
surface function beneft of the end
customers in automotive and other
applications.
Gas delivery
The approximately 1kg of gaseous hydrogen is stored at 350
bar (5,000psi) in a single tank. The oxidant is a mixture of 40%
oxygen and 60% helium, stored at 230 bar (3,300psi) in two
separate tanks. The gases are regulated and delivered to the
fuel cells at approximately 2.5 bar (36psi) at the reaction site.
Case study: OhiO state
56
At the conclusion
of the program,
Buckeye Bullet 2
became the
fastest hydrogen-
powered vehicle
in the world
BB2 is not only the frst hydrogen-powered
vehicle, it is also the frst electric traction vehicle
to eclipse the 300mph mark under Fia regulations
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Case study: systeC
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improvements in quality of IC
engines exhaust gases remains
one of the avenues being widely
pursued by auto manufacturers.
Diamond-like carbon (DLC)
coatings are among the newest
materials, and provide surface
functionalities that go beyond
the capabilities of bulk material.
DLC coatings have enabled the
operation of fuel injectors in
gasoline and diesel engines,
providing necessary protection
against wear, scuffng, and other
adverse effects of lubricant-lean
friction. DLC flms have become
a de facto standard when
friction reduction coupled with
outstanding wear resistance is
required. Typical automotive
components that beneft from
DLC protection are components
of the valvetrain, fuel injection
systems, transmission, piston
pins, connecting rods, and
many others.
In the case of diesel engines,
improvement in combustion
effciency is directly linked to
the rail pressure of the fuel.
Higher pressures lead to fuller
atomization and more complete
Diamond-like
coatings development
systec IMPaX reactors for
producing NoveLC coatings
Authors: Val Lieberman and Thorsten Zufrass, Systec SVS Vacuum Coatings
60
CASE STUDY: SYSTEC
combustion of the fuel, which
explains a clear trend toward
increasing the injection pressure
beyond 2,000 bar.
Unfortunately, this challenging
engineering task pushes the
existing DLC coating technology
to the limit.
Systec Vacuum Coatings has
been researching and developing
a radically different family of
DLC coatings, with the goal of
bringing them to the new
performance level. Substantial
increase in coating ability to
resist wear, scufng, and fretting
while maintaining adequate
adhesion were identied as the
targets. The limiting factor was
commercial viability: the new
coating should be produced in
a reactor of commercial size at
acceptable cost.
Following years of research
and development efforts,
Systecs technologists succeeded
in producing a new generation
of DLC coatings, as well as
commercial equipment for its
production. Aptly named
NoveLC, the new coating family
capitalizes on two breakthrough
developments in thin-lm
technology: HIPIMS-assisted
metal-ion implantation and
a-UBM/PACVD processing.
High Power Impulse
Magnetron Sputtering (HIPIMS)
is a new, innovative process of
pulsed sputtering, where the
power is input in short, but
very intense (up to 8MW)
pulses. As a result, sputtered
metal becomes ionized, enabling
ion implantation to be carried
out. This way a very strong,
diffusion-like bond between the
coating and substrate is formed,
leading to high levels of adhesion.
Securing high adhesion levels
was an important engineering
achievement, as high-
performance DLC coating
demands extraordinarily strong
interface with the substrate.
The second major technical
innovation embedded in
NoveLC is Systecs proprietary
new deposition technique (a-
UBM), which is a fusion of a few
concurrently running deposition
processes. Although advanced,
it was tamed to bring it to a
production-friendly level. The
NoveLC deposition process
is fast and has superior
repeatability and reproducibility,
with yields up to 100%. The
deposition temperature does
not exceed 200C, therefore
making this process suitable
for coating the majority of
automotive components and
subsystems. The NoveLC
process also eliminates the
usual problem of DLC coatings
related to localized coating
delaminating (pinholes).
Importantly, the process costs
are comparable to competitive
technologies, while produced
coatings have much better
properties. The NoveLC
process is carried out in Systecs
commercial coaters IMPAX
1200 with a coating zone of
900mm diameter and height
measurement of 900mm.
Three formulations of
NoveLC (F1, F2 and F3) cover
all application spectrums from
the hardest F1 version to
softer, more lubricious F3 type.
NoveLC F1 coating boasts
superb adhesion even at a
thickness of 5m and hardness
of 4,000 HV, and demonstrates
outstanding lubricity and wear
rates of a few hundred times less
than conventional DLC. Unlike
competitive coatings, NoveLCs
are very smooth with negligible
intrinsic roughness, eliminating
the need for post-coating
polishing operations.
The NoveLC coatings became
commercial at the beginning of
2009 and since then have been
successfully penetrating the
competitive DLC market in
racing, automotive, and other
engineering applications. A few
racing valvetrains adopted
NoveLC F1 as a better-
performing alternative to
competitive offerings. Among
the automotive applications,
Systec NoveLC demonstrated
superb results for cam follower
applications (for example, nger
followers), producing not only
excellent wear protection, but
reduced friction level losses as
well. Fuel injectors with
NoveLC were able to easily
withstand even the highest
injection pressure. Equally, such
components and subsystems
as piston rings, piston pins,
intake valves, and other
NoveLC-coated components
of the engine consistently
outperformed conventional
DLC coatings.
As a leading international
automotive supplier in this
eld, Systec aims to further
expand its range of applications
for NoveLC coatings to the
benet of the end customers
in automotive and other
applications. ETi
Following years of research and
development, Systecs engineers
succeeded in producing a new
generation of DLC coatings
The table above shows the impressive properties of NoveLC family of diamond-like carbon coatings for automotive applications
Case study: dsM
63
Author: Ralf Ponicki, global marketing manager, Akulon products DSM
A new breakthrough innovation is delivering key weight,
noise and system cost benefts in oil sump applications
Material matters
The main decision
criteria for the
selection of Akulon
PA6 are weight,
NVH, and system
cost reduction
opportunities
nThe main trends in the
automotive industry include
system cost optimization and
productivity gains, as well as
long-term sustainability and
reduced environmental impact.
Each is driven either by legal
regulations reduced CO
2

emissions and fuel consumption
or by proft considerations
within the automotive business
chain. Engineering plastics can
play a pivotal role, as these
materials are designed to deliver
the required performance while
meeting the overall industry
trends for lighter and greener
solutions that are also more
cost-effective.
In the past, a key development
has been the drive to introduce
engineering plastics for
the production of oil sump
dsM, Mann+Hummel and Ford have
formed a joint feasibility study that
aims to further the development of
powertrain parts and subsystems
subsystems. These parts can be
exposed to top temperatures of
160C and need to operate over
long periods at 110C to 140C.
At these temperature levels,
Akulon PA6 offers the ideal
combination of mechanical
stiffness, impact resistance, and
also chemical resistance.
Cylinder head covers have
been designed and produced in
Akulon PA6 for a long time now,
and the requirements for oil
sumps in terms of temperature
and media resistance are similar,
because both operate in more or
less the same environment.
However, impact resistance
has always been an issue for
oil sumps because parts had to
be able to withstand several
mechanical tests, such as the
stone impact test.
It is for this reason that DSM
Engineering Plastics decided to
combine its material knowledge
with the extensive application
knowledge of leading
automotive components
suppliers to develop feasibility
studies, tests, and suitable
applications in Akulon PA6.
The main decision criteria for
the selection of Akulon PA6 are
weight, NVH, and system cost
reduction opportunities in
combination with design
freedom versus metal, as well
as better heat aging resistance
and better welding strength
compared with PA66.
The development of new
applications such as these
requires extensive CAE support
as well as highly detailed
calculations and analyses.
64
Case study: dsM
First results indicate that the
noise level with PA6 oil sumps
is comparable to that of sumps
from silent steel, when the
design is optimized for plastics.
With improved designs it could
be possible to contain more oil
with the PA6 solution than is
possible in todays metal sumps.
Moreover, various other
additional functions and
features may be integrated in
the Akulon PA6 modules.
Akulon PA6 resins have been
selected by various OEMs and
suppliers for a range of
applications and feasibility
studies for oil sumps and oil
pans. Various engine and
road tests are ongoing.
Additional productivity gains
are possible by using DSMs
Akulon Ultrafow PA6. This
high-fow material enables
up to 30% lower cycle times
in injection molding in
combination with an excellent
surface appearance. Akulon
Ultrafow K-FHG7 and K-FHG6
deliver a major improvements in
such areas as fow ability, and this
comes without losing strength.
Moreover, Ultrafows better
processing characteristics enable
the realization of more complex
geometries, which leads to
reduced cycle times.
These developments will
undoubtedly lead to new engine
designs, in which the potential of
plastics is more fully realized,
eventually leading to more parts
integration and smaller engines.
In the future we may have engines
that consist of a metal core, with
tops, bottoms, and peripherals all
made out of plastics, leading to
weight reductions of up to several
kilograms per engine.
In general, weight reduction
is in line with DSM Engineering
Plastics drive for green
materials and solutions. In
applications such as these,
further benefts may be derived
from the recent introduction of
EcoPaXX, a bio-based, high-
performance engineering plastic
for high-tech applications,
which has been shown to be
100% carbon neutral from
cradle to gate. ETi the spiral fow test: standard akulon Pa6 GF compared to the akulon ultrafow
akulon Pa6 resins have been selected by various car
makers and suppliers for a range of engine applications
Applying engineering and
materials knowledge, DSM
Engineering Plastics frst
undertook complex feasibility
studies (stress, NVH issues, and
stone impact).
By not just measuring the
performance of the oil pan, but
also including the aluminum
bedding, which carries loads
from the transmission system, a
feasibility study was completed
on the realization of a complete
replacement in plastic of the oil
pan and the aluminum bedding.
This study was then validated
in the DSM, Mann+Hummel,
and Ford test laboratories.
Subsequently all partners
worked to create a real part test,
which helped them gain further
experience in design, prototype
tooling, and assembly.
The frst prototype parts
in Akulon PA6 are based on
multipart designs, where the
parts are welded together via
vibration welding techniques.
Weight reduction is in line with
DSM Engineering Plastics drive
for green materials and solutions
We all know that car emissions are not good for the environment. In the
near future, automotive manufacturers are measured by CO
2
emissions and
there will be additional costs if they do not comply with emission legislation.
SKF can now present a complete portfolio of products and services that
range from single bearings and seals to complete powertrain solutions that
help reduce grams CO
2
. As an example, for a fnal drive application we can
reduce CO
2
emissions by up to 4 grams, compared to existing solutions. We
also offer software which can calculate savings using our products and
solutions in todays and future powertrain concepts.
All in all, these SKF solutions can translate into more than 10 grams CO
2
less per km.
The Power of Knowledge Engineering
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University focUs: imperial college
66
UNIVERSITY FOCUS: IMPERIAL COLLEGE
67
Racing
green
A student engineering team at Londons Imperial
College is accumulating extensive experience in the
design and development of alternative fuel race cars
Imperial Racing Green is
a agship undergraduate
teaching project in which
students design, build, and
race zero-emission motorsport
vehicles. In 2008 it involved
103 students and 33
academics from eight
departments.
The project began in 2006
as a loose coalition of
undergraduate and
postgraduate students and a
few staff at Imperial College
in response to an invitation
from Formula Zero
a company set up to
popularize hydrogen fuel
cell technologies through
motorsport asking
universities from around the
world to compete in a new
zero-emissions international
race series involving hydrogen
fuel cell-powered go-karts.
By the summer of 2007
the team had managed to
secure seed funding from the
EnVision project at Imperial
College to build a prototype
vehicle, IRG01, and pay some
students to build the vehicle
over the summer. The vehicle
was powered by a 1.2kW
Ballard Nexa fuel cell system
combined with a large (48V,
800A, 1.5kWh) lithium
polymer battery system
provided by REAP systems
and using Kokam cells.
Permanent magnet Lemco
LEM200 motors were used to
power each rear wheel, and
the bus voltage was kept to a
maximum of 48V with a DC/
DC converter regulating the
fuel cell to operate in constant
power mode effectively a
range extender.
Building a prototype vehicle
was an immensely valuable
experience and very useful
when designing and building
the Formula Zero competition
vehicle, IRG02. This was
particularly true considering
the unknown aspects of much
of the technology, and it
enabled us to identify early
what would be the most
challenging aspects. The
biggest problem was the DC/
DC converter, as the device
used on IRG01 was designed
as a wall-mounted stationary
device, which meant it was
Authors: Dr Gregory Offer, Raj Shah, Benjamin Smith, Billy Wu,
and Alexander Schey
Partners
Trade only days 14 & 15 January 2010
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For more information on how to make the most of your visit, or to register online, visit:
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If youre interested in exhibiting, contact us today:
Email: expo@tonytobias.com or autosport.international@haymarket.com
Tel: +44(0)20 8267 8300
14 15 January 2010
NEC Birmingham, UK
VISITOR REGISTRATION IS NOW OPEN FOR
University focUs: imperial college
which is activated by the control
system; and a relief valve, which
will purge the hydrogen in the
case of over pressurization.
There is also an additional
manual valve in the system to
purge the system of hydrogen
when needed.
The fuel cell has its own
balance of plant system (air
flters, humidifers, cooling
system). The electricity
produced in the fuel cell is
passed through the step-down
DC/DC converter, which
converts the fuel cell output
voltage of 76V to the kart
operating voltage of 48V. The
DC/DC output is passed
through LC flters to smooth the
signal, and is then stored in the
two parallel supercapacitor
banks until the 48V limit of the
capacitors is reached. As the
supercapacitor voltage reaches
46V, the fuel cell begins to ramp
down until the voltage reaches
48V, after which it goes into
standby mode. As the throttle
pedal is pushed down,
electricity fows from the
supercapacitors to the electric
motors via the motor controllers.
Power is transmitted to the
rear wheels via a chain and
sprocket arrangement. The rear
axle is split, which means that
independent control of the
speed or torque of each rear
wheel is possible to optimize the
vehicle dynamics. Currently a
simple active steering program
is used, which works by
taking the steering angle and
multiplying the power input
to the outer motor by a gain
proportional to the angle. As a
result, the outer wheel will spin
faster than the inner wheel,
hence the kart can corner more
quickly. Another advantage of
using DC brushed motors is the
ease with which regenerative
braking can be implemented.
formula-style race car to
compete in various static and
dynamic events. This has
historically been a competition
exclusively for ICE-powered
cars, but in 2008 a new
alternative fuels category Class
1A was introduced for the UK
event. This built on the freedom
in powertrain design permitted
by the Formula Hybrid
competition in the USA, itself
a spin-off FSAE-based series
inaugurated in 2007.
Starting in October 2007,
Racing Green embarked on a
two-year plan to create a vehicle
to enter the competition as a
design in 2008 and as a
complete car in 2009. The
design concept for the car,
IRG03, was based around
a battery-fuel cell hybrid
powertrain system.
The fnal powertrain system
involved the creation of a
bespoke battery pack designed
in-house with help from ABSL,
consisting of 432 Kokam
lithium-polymer cells providing
7.5kWh at a voltage of c.300V
in a custom support structure.
Battery management is provided
by REAP Systems modular BMS
that monitors individual cells
and communicates with the
vehicle control system via CAN.
In series with the pack, and
acting as a range extender, is a
4kW air-cooled Pearl hydrogen
fuel cell, which is stepped up
from c.75V to the battery
voltage via a DC/DC converter.
irg02 getting ready to
compete at formula Zero
the frst-generation fuel cell system for
the irg05 (above). the irg02 formula
Zero vehicle sits in the garage, waiting
for further engineering tweaks (below)
The kart was
fundamentally a fuel
cell supercapacitor
hybrid with the
supercapacitors
acting as temporary
energy storage
for the power from
the fuel cell
Regenerative braking allows
kinetic energy to be recovered
by the motors while the kart is
decelerating. This recovered
kinetic energy is then stored in
the supercapacitors ready for
the next acceleration event.
Having built a successful
entrant for the Formula Zero
competition in 2008 and 2009,
Racing Green turned its
attention to another challenge.
The well-known Formula
Student UK (FS) competition,
which started life as the
Formula SAE (FSAE) event in
the USA and has since spread
around the world, challenges
universities to produce a small
69
always unreliable. We knew
looking for the right DC/DC
converter for IRG02 should be
top of the list.
The main powertrain
components for IRG02
consisted of a Hydrogenics
HyPM 8.5kW fuel cell power
module (FCPM), a step-down
DC/DC converter, two Maxwell
165F 48V supercapacitor banks,
two motor controllers and two
DC brushed motors. The kart
can fundamentally be described
as a fuel cell supercapacitor
hybrid, so the supercapacitors
act as a temporary energy
storage medium for power
from the fuel cell.
Hydrogen is stored on board
the kart in a pressurized
cylinder, and is transported
through a hydrogen feed system
to the fuel cell. The feed system
contains a pressure regulator to
step down the cylinder pressure
to the required operating
pressure of the fuel cell. In order
to protect the FC from over-
pressurization, three valves are
in place after the regulator: a
manual shut-off valve, which
can be closed in the case of an
emergency; a solenoid valve,
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Power from the battery is
supplied via analog motor
controllers to a Perm 120W
11kW permanent magnet
synchronous motor for each
wheel. The team incorporated
the mounting of the motors via
water-cooled plates, which form
a structural part of the chassis.
All the vehicle systems are
controlled through a National
Instrument CompactRio PAC,
programmed through the use of
LabVIEW software. The control
system allows individual control
of the motors, either through
open-loop current control
mode, or in closed-loop velocity
control mode, taking throttle
pedal position and steering
position as the driver input,
thereby enabling the use of an
electronic differential.
Drive to each of the four
wheels is transmitted via a
motor face-mounted Neugart
epicyclic reduction gearbox,
through conventional CV joints
and half shafts to the hubs.
Taking advantage of the motor
position, inboard mechanical
brakes are mounted directly
on the motor shaft, decreasing
unsprung mass and reducing
the braking torque required.
The other mechanical systems
are conventional, including
unequal-length carbon fber
wishbones, with suspension
provided via coil-over dampers
activated through a pushrod and
rocker arrangement.
Ultimately the complexity
of the vehicle was its
downfall, with time
running out to prove the
vehicle adequately before
the race. Although there
was the disappointment of
being unable to compete in the
dynamic events of the 2009 FS
UK competition, the team was
rewarded with the award for the
most innovative/effective design.
The team has also worked
hard over the summer to get the
car running as a testbed for
future development, and a
number of very important of
lessons from the IRG03 exercise
have been learned. A battery-
heavy hybrid with FC range
extender is not the best solution
for a track vehicle. The small
range required in the 30-
minute endurance event of the
competition does not merit the
extra complexity that the fuel
cell brings, despite having a
system volumetric energy
density (including FC, hydrogen
cylinders, and control system)
of about 20% that of the battery
pack, and a gravimetric energy
density of about 50%. This
confguration is suitable for a
road vehicle, but there are two
better solutions for a track car:
either fully electric, or a fuel cell
supercapacitor hybrid.
The former will be used for
IRG03s successor, IRG04,
which will enter Formula
Student in 2010/11. IRG04
will use a reconfgured IRG03
battery pack to integrate further
safety control systems, and will
act as the sole power source on
the car. The vehicle concept
emphasizes simplicity, and will
strive to minimize the number
and complexity of the cars
The design concept
for the IRG03, in
keeping with the
Racing Green ethos,
was based around
a battery-fuel cell
hybrid powertrain
Early development of the IRG03, with the team focusing on chassis optimization
IRG03 at Formula
Student, summer 2009
systems in order to focus on
producing a reliable vehicle that
concentrates on maximizing
performance as a race car. It will
also produce a good mechanical
base from which to evolve
future vehicles and return to the
proven fuel cell supercapacitor
hybrid powertrain confguration
used in IRG02. This allows the
fuel cell to run at its optimum
effciency point continuously,
while the supercapacitors allow
the rapid power delivery to
provide the rapid acceleration
required for racing, and robust
acceptance of regenerative
braking energy.
IRG05, with a further
developed powertrain, will be
the ffth vehicle to be produced
by the Imperial Racing Green
project. It will feature two 8kW
fuel cell stacks provided by
Johnson Matthey and Nedstack,
which will be hybridized with a
large supercapacitor bank. The
balance of plant (BoP) for the
fuel cell system is currently
being designed and built by the
undergraduate students, and is
broken down into three main
areas: the air systems, hydrogen
systems, and cooling systems.
The completed system will
provide roughly 12kW of net
power. Over the last academic
year a team of nine students
designed and built the frst-
generation prototype in-house
unIvERSIty FocuS: ImpERIal collEGE
71
fuel cell system in eight months,
and tested it successfully with
an end-of-life stack.
The current air system
features an Eaton M24 Roots-
type turbocharger, which is
powered by a 48V LEM-200-
127 Lynch electric DC motor
capable of up to 11kW. This
is controlled with the use of
a 4QD 300 motor controller
for an operating speed of
approximately 7,000rpm. The
complex inlet manifold for the
compressor was designed in the
university and then outsourced
to be laser sintered.
For the air side humidication,
a Perma Pure FC-400-10 unit
was used. This recycles the
humid cathode exhaust gas
at an operating temperature
of around 65C. The hydrogen
system has been designed with a
recirculation loop to improve
hydrogen fuel economy with a
Thomas diaphragm pump. A
custom-made water separator
unit has also been designed and
manufactured with the dual
purpose of heat exchange and
anode side humidication.
After FEA validation, this was
constructed from polycarbonate
and plastic, welded in order to
ensure the unit could handle the
operating pressures. A solenoid
value controlled by a duty cycle
PWM provides a means to purge
inert gases that cross over the
cell membranes from the
cathode side of the stack, to
improve cell performance.
The cooling system uses a
24V DC Ametek fan mounted
on a Honda Civic V radiator
with a Jabsco centrifugal high-
pressure cyclone pump. The
pump is controlled with a
SyRen 25A regenerative motor
controller on a deionized water
loop to maintain an operating
temperature of 65C.
The control of the BoP
components is achieved with a
CompactRio (cRio) control unit
using a LabVIEW-based
program. The full fuel cell
system has so far been
successfully tested up to 3kW.
Some early problems were
encountered with the startup
of the stack and getting the
coolant uid up to the
operating temperature. Future
development work includes
replacing the compressor with
a low-pressure air blower to
reduce parasitic losses, reducing
the weight of the rest of the
system so as to make it more
race focused, and looking at
whether a heat pump could
be used for FC cooling, and the
optimization of end plates.
In a spin-off project from
Racing Green, a team of 10
students have volunteered to
design, build and race a plug-in
EV supercar capable of
navigating the Pan-American
Highway. From the most
southerly city on the planet,
Ushuaia in Argentina, all the
way to Prudhoe Bay on Alaskas
northern coast, Racing Green
Endurance will be traveling the
worlds longest road, aiming to
challenge the public perception
of EVs as slow, unattractive, and
of limited range.
Radical Sportscars is
sponsoring the project by
providing a Radical SR8. This
provides an impressive
foundation for the team to
design a new electric powertrain
optimized to minimize losses
and maximize endurance.
EVO Electric has sponsored
two of its AF140 motors that
will be custom-wound to
operate within their optimum
efciency band at cruising
speed, thus eliminating the need
for a gearbox and giving the car
a top speed of 124mph. With
650Nm and 70kW from each
motor, and despite the car being
optimized for long-range
cruising, it can still achieve an
impressive 0-60mph acceleration
time of 6.5 seconds. If the car
was set up for racing, however,
that could be reduced to under
four seconds.
In order to control the motors
and achieve the most from using
two motors on a split rear axle,
the car will incorporate two
motor drives from Rinehart
Motion Systems. These compact
drives can handle up to 100kW
each, giving us plenty of power
to achieve our top speed and
acceleration. The drives will
communicate with the central
control unit a National
Instruments CompactRio and
this will keep the car stable
under wet road conditions by
using a torque control electronic
differential. The drives will also
receive messages from the
CANbus in the car, and will
The vehicle will
feature two 8kW fuel
cell stacks, which
will be hybridized
with a large
supercapacitor
reduce power under high-
temperature conditions to
protect the vehicle from misuse.
In addition, the CompactRio
can monitor the safety circuits
in the car in order to disable
motor use in an emergency.
The car runs on a modular
pack built from Thunder Skys
lithium-iron phosphate cells.
With each cell delivering 100Ah
of capacity, and with 169 cells
on the vehicle, the battery pack
stores an impressive 55.8kWh
of energy even more than that
of the current world leader, the
Tesla. With all the cells in the
pack strung in series to
minimize I2R losses and to
match the motor voltages,
the car requires a battery
management system (BMS)
in order to keep all the cells
balanced and safe.
RGE has teamed up with
Frazer-Nash to build a BMS
for the car. It will monitor
theoretical range, pre-charge
circuits, safety contactors,
temperature, and state of charge
of the whole pack while
communicating with the vehicle
to optimize energy use for the
various environments and drive
cycles the car will undergo.
Losses are further minimized
by removing the need for a
mechanical diff; two motors on
a split rear axle are used instead.
On a US FTP Highway cycle,
the vehicle should achieve
13kWh/100km from battery to
wheel, giving it a range of nearly
248 miles. ETI The IRG03 Formula Student car under construction in Racing Greens workshop
UNIVERSITY FOCUS: IMPERIAL COLLEGE
72
Racing Greens engineering team work on the Racing Green Endurance Radical SR0
(above and below left). Meanwhile, nal modications are made to IRG03 (below right)
Putting the smarter heat to smarter use
www.efd-induction.com
Many of the worlds finest carmakers
have a few things in common.
Heres why EFD Induction is one of them.
A proven track record. Technical excellence. And the
ability to come up with cost-cutting answers. These
are just some of the things automakers and their sup-
pliers insist upon. Which is why, when it comes to
hardening auto components, many of them turn to
EFD Induction.
We design, make and maintain high-uptime induc-
tion hardening systems. In fact, were the worlds no. 1
induction hardening company with plants and labs
in the US, Europe and Asia. So wherever you are,
theres a good chance were in the neighbourhood.
Weve been in the induction heating business for
more than 50 years, developing systems to harden
valves, camshafts, crankshafts, balancing shafts,
connection rods, starter rings and gudgeon pins.
To learn more about EFD Inductionand how we
can help improve your business just contact us. Af-
ter all, many of the worlds fnest carmakers already
have.
Engine
im
provem
ent
with displacement sensors
MICRO-EPSILON
94496 Ortenburg / Germany
Tel. +49 85 42 1680 info@micro-epsilon.com
More Precision.
Displacement sensors for vehicle
and test cell use
- Non-contact and wear free
- Pressure resistant & temperature stable
- For harsh environments,
such as oil, fuel, emissions
- Improvement of motor, gear and power train
- Subminiature-sensors e.g. for integration
in the cylinder
injection needle
movement
valve stroke
top dead
centre of
the piston
piston
secondary
movement
tooth belt
tension
turbocharger
speed sensor
cylinder head
breathing
bearing gap
lubricating gap
axial movement
of crankshaft
www.micro-epsilon.com
Authors: Kristin Czubkowski and Jessica Jones, University of Wisconsin-Madison
A Masters degree in engineering is now within easier reach
of internal combustion engine engineers around the world, due
to an online program from the University of Wisconsin-Madison
Virtual education
nBack in 2003, Rick Geisheker,
a design engineer for Briggs &
Stratton in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, didnt mind driving
to the University of Wisconsin-
Madison once or twice each year
to attend seminars on the engine
industry. But when Kevin Hoag,
a director of continuing
engineering education programs
for the College of Engineering,
told him about a new opportunity
to earn a Masters degree in
engineering through his
personal computer, he knew the
university was onto something.
For a mid-career engineer
who wants to brush up his skill
set, you have a choice of many,
many seminars in our feld,
says Geisheker. Rather than
take an untold number of these
courses, here was a chance to
get a degree in a program that
would have a lot of structure
to it, that would cover not only
the basics of engine design, but
where engines are headed.
Four years later, Geisheker
became one of 10 graduates of
the frst class of UW-Madisons
Master of Engineering in Engine
Systems (MEES) program. The
exclusive program has since
graduated 37 students, with
an impressive 90% graduation
rate. Currently 45 students are
enrolled in the program, which
maintains small cohorts for an
optimal learning environment.
According to Hoag, who was
on the curriculum committee
and is now an instructor for the
MEES program, the idea grew
out of a lunch meeting with
UW-Madison faculty and
Although most students
specialize in these two areas,
Hoag says the holistic nature of
the program, as well as the
evolving engine industry,
enables students with entirely
different sets of skills to be part
of the program. For example,
one MEES graduate was a
software specialist in engine
controls. Improving electronic
controls and increasing
sustainability, Hoag says, are
major areas of advancement for
the engine industry and the
MEES program incorporates
these into its curriculum.
Another important part of the
program, Hoag says, is UW-
Madisons Engine Research
Center (ERC), the largest
research program of its kind in
the country. If youre going to
industry professionals. The
programs curriculum developed,
he says, as companies realized
that most of their workers
naturally specialized in one of
two areas of engine research:
mechanical development or
thermal science.
Every company said the
same thing: that they can see
their engineers kind of falling
into one of those areas, he
remembers. Well then, the next
question that comes in is, [if]
youve got a new engine
program where you want a chief
engineer to lead designing a
new engine from a clean sheet
of paper, who do you want to
lead that program and what
kind of expertise do you want?
Well, you want somebody who
has both of those backgrounds.
The MEES program has already
proved to be a great success, with
many students around the world
gaining engineering qualifcations
CaSE STudy: univErSiTy of WiSConSin-MadiSon
74
time thats convenient to all.
We were probably in closer
communication about the
coursework than students
who are living on campus,
states Geisheker.
Hoag says students often
end up discussing real-life
applications for their course
work, which can range from
smaller lawn-and-garden
engines to larger engines for
boats that require a ladder to
reach. Rolf Reitz, former
director of the Engine Research
Center and a professor in the
MEES program, says the real-
world experience provides an
opportunity for online learning.
Although students were able
to draw from their work
experience in class discussions,
designing lessons on the highly
technical material for those who
had not been in school for many
years was a hurdle.
We had to revise the material
quite a bit, and at the same time
try not to water it down at all
because these are technical
courses, he says. So that was
quite a challenge, and I think
we improve it as we go along.
Still, Pferdehirt says, the
increasingly global nature of the
engine industry means that the
MEES programs web-based
communication is much more
of an asset than many people
realize. Being able to work at a
distance is a need that they have
that we can actually help them
with. Students on the program
graduate not only with the
technical knowledge that theyre
looking for, but with an ability
to work in a highly collaborative
manner with people who are
distributed all across the world,
because thats how we work in
the classroom.
Hoag says the program is
becoming more international,
with MEES students and
graduates hailing from the UK,
Dominica and India. The
worlds becoming a smaller
place, and the boundaries of
Wisconsin can be seen as
going worldwide.
In April 2009, MEES was
recognized by the United States
Distance Learning Association
with the 21
st
Century Best
Practices in Distance Learning
award for its student-friendly
method and processes.
The award was presented to
Dr Sandra Ashford, MEES
program director, for advancing
the knowledge base in the
internal combustion engine
feld, taking innovative
approaches to distance delivery,
demonstrating a capacity to
rapidly adjust to the evolving
nature of the distance learning
feld, and effectively addressing
the needs of a varied group
of students.
Ashford notes that all of
these requirements are at the
foundation of the MEES
program. The vision of the
MEES program is to provide the
highest quality of graduate
engineering education to
working professionals, and
move the internal combustion
engine industry forward. ETi
offer a whole Masters degree
program focused on a particular
industry, you need the faculty to
teach it, Hoag explains. The
ERC gave us a base of faculty
and expertise that wed need in
order to do a Masters degree.
Theres certainly no other
university in the US, and not
many internationally, that could
provide that level of expertise.
Wayne Pferdehirt, director
of distance degree programs for
the College of Engineering, adds
that the web-based format of the
program really shatters peoples
perception of what online
learning is. They think of online
learning as sitting in front of a
computer and watching some
video, and in fact thats what a
lot of programs are but it
doesnt have to be that way, and
MEES is not, he says.
Geisheker also praises the
programs methods. Due to its
online nature, he says, nothing
in his personal or professional
life kept him from class during
his time in the program.
I have an adopted daughter
from China, and I was able to
travel to China with my wife to
get our daughter while I was
doing coursework, he says.
Likewise, my business takes
me to Japan about twice per
year, and I never missed any
classwork because anywhere
you can connect to the internet,
you can be in the classroom.
Students can communicate
three ways while taking a
course. They can discuss what
theyre learning in an online
discussion forum, schedule
conference calls to collaborate
on projects, or participate in a
weekly web conference that
brings students together at a
Rick Geisheker is a 2007 graduate of
UW-Madisons Master of Engineering
in Engine Systems (MEES) program
My business takes
me to Japan about
twice per year, but I
never missed any
classwork because
anywhere you can
connect to the
internet, you can be
in the classroom
MEES students gain knowledge through the research done at UW-Madisons
Engine Research Center. Shown here are analysis of a diesel spray jet and gas jet
CaSE StUdy: UnivERSity of WiSConSin-MadiSon
75
Author: Mathieu Petiteaux, Soge Filter Division
How innovative lter designs are helping
car makers to reduce critical emissions
Filtration systems
Emissions reduction is the
latest challenge facing the
automotive industry. In 2008,
the emissions average of
European-produced cars was
rated at 150g/km. The new
regulations state that emissions
must be at the 120g/km level for
all vehicles manufactured in
2015, and 95g/km in 2020.
Soge Filter Division is a
leading developer and
manufacturer of ltration
systems for passenger car and
light commercial vehicles, and
the company is supporting
vehicle manufacturers by the
development of innovative
technologies and products that
help reduce vehicle weight and
losses incurred by friction.
Soge is also
helping OEMs
with the
adaptation of its
products to the
growing use of
alternative fuels.
Engine oil ltration
systems are deeply
impacted by engine
downsizing and the
biofuels market,
which at present
mainly consists of
alcohol and biodiesel. OEMs
now require lighter systems that
are able to resist high oil
temperatures of up to 150C.
These systems need to work
under conditions of high oil
ow (up to 75 liters/min) with
Above: A schematic view of the Diesel3tech lter element
The origin of specic fuel
consumption and CO
2

emissions of new direct-
injection gasoline engines and
diesel vehicles equipped with
particulate lters is the oil mist
and particulates contained in
crankcase gases (blow-by)
burned by the engines. The
creation of deposits on the inlet
valves increases surge losses
over the vehicles life. Vehicle
fuel consumption is also
adversely affected by an increase
in pressure caused by mineral
ash deposits derived from the
engine oil, despite the use of
diesel particulate lters (DPFs).
Auto manufacturers use
blow-by separators with 80%
minimum efciency under all
engine-speed conditions to
prevent these phenomena.
However, Soge has attained
High efciency blow-by system
Soge is also helping OEMs with
the adaptation of its products to
the growing use of alternative fuels
minimum power loss, as well as
providing a 50,000km change
interval to optimize the cost of
ownership. Solutions have been
found through the development
of a new range of plastic
ltration modules associated
with synthetic lter media-
based lter elements. The rst
Soge mass production system
will go into production in mid-
2010 and will be followed by
two other such systems later in
the year. The design advantages
and process exibility of
technical plastics result in
an average weight saving of
0.5kg per engine and have a
measurable impact on vehicle
CO
2
. The use of a new synthetic
lter medium, associated with
an optimized pleating process,
permits a saving of up to 25%
of the ow restriction.
CASE STUDY: SOGEFI FILTER DIVISION
76
this level of performance using
pleated multilayers integrated
into light plastic modules, as
well as crankcase pressure
regulation valves.
The common diesel fuel lter
position on passenger cars
and light duty vehicles tends
to be either on the engine
compartment, xed on the
chassis, or directly on the
engine. To reach severe crash
test resistance requirements,
steel or aluminum casting lter
shelters are used with negative
weight impact on vehicles.
Technical solutions exist to
install light plastic diesel fuel
lters outside the crash areas,
saving up to 0.7kg of weight
without any negative impacts
on safety, maintenance, or
performance. A tank-mounted
plastic rechargeable lter has
been developed by Soge for
PSA Peugeot Citron vehicles,
which has been added to the
French car makers new 3-liter
V6 HDI engine.
An innovative thin at lter
concept has also been developed
for small vehicles with positive
CO
2
quotation feedback from
OEMs. Complementary
investigations and reliability
testing has now been
completed, and its ready for
an expected product launch
Engine start, especially in
cold conditions, is a key
Diesel3Tech has been validated
and will start in mass
production after being applied
to the 2010 Ford super duty
diesel vehicles, powered by the
new 6.7-liter V8 common rail
Panther engine.
Lifecycle analysis shows that
the application of all the
solutions proposed by Soge
could achieve a saving of 2g/km
of CO
2
on vehicles produced in
Europe in 2015, corresponding
to 7% of the targeted reduction.
Soge produces green
products (based on lifecycle
analysis software) that offer
decreases in weight and are built
with low waste rechargeable
modules, all giving permanent
improvements. In addition to
this, its ISO 14000-certied
production plants are situated in
close proximity to automotive
manufacturers. ETi A light-metallic diesel fuel lter with central stick
To optimize power,
a new central stick
heater design has
been developed and
patented by Soge.
This systems rst
mass application
is in the all-new
Renault Laguna
moment when it comes to
analyzing electrical power
management on diesel vehicles.
More and more power is
required and engineers are
dening maximum peak current
values for each component in
order to better control the
alternator and battery size and
weight. The electrical fuel
heating system has been
integrated into the diesel fuel
lter to help prevent wax
clogging. To optimize power, a
new central stick heater design
has been developed and
patented by Soge. This systems
rst mass application is in the
all-new Renault Laguna. With
a 25% electrical power
saving compared to previous
generation lter designs, this
powertrain product surpassed
all Renaults expectations.
Another option for OEMs to
decrease emissions output and
enhance fuel economy is to
further develop alternative fuels
based on renewable resources.
Rape seed and soy fatty acid
methyl ester (FAME)-based
biodiesel are now incorporated
into commercial diesel fuels
that are used throughout
Europe and the USA.
For these fuels, specic
materials and technologies are
needed for aging compatibility
and fuel injection equipment
that gives optimum protection
and reliability. Based on four
years of R&D laboratory and
eld test validations, Soge
is guaranteeing all its diesel
fuel lters for European B30
compatibility. For US B20 fuel,
a new technology called
A tank-xed plastic diesel fuel lter (left) and a plastic oil ltration module (right)
Above: A oil ltration cartridge
with synthetic lter medium
CASE STUDY: SOGEFI FILTER DIVISION
77
CASE STUDY: F-DIESEL
78
A leading Chinese supplier offers the global automotive industry high-speed,
high-power diesel engine research and development
The turbocharger is a high-
tech product that must meet
stringent requirements that only
manufacturers with high R&D
capability can achieve. F-Diesel
is one of the few turbocharging
manufacturers that subjects its
turbos to several OE qualication
tests. These turbo qualication
tests ensure F-Diesel produces
a safe and reliable turbo for
OE applications.
F-Diesel Power, which is
located in China, owns an R&D
center where the company is
engaged in high-speed, high-
power diesel engine research
and development. The F-Diesel
R&D center offers state-of-the-
art engineering services as well
as test and instrumentation
products throughout China.
The company employs a staff
Quality powertrain
development in China
Author: Yuehong Yuan, F-DIesel
durability, thermal cycle
analysis, thrust bearing capacity,
on-engine durability, and
compressor and turbine
housing containment. Other
processes that take place
include shaft motion,
compressor fatigue,
heat soak-back, turbo
vibration, compressor and
turbine seal, compressor
and turbine blade
frequencies, rotor inertia,
and shaft critical speed.
In order to keep pace with
international advanced
manufacturing, F-Diesel has
imported equipment such as
advanced CNC lathes, grinding
machines, milling machines and
CNC machines. The center
also boasts vertical pneumatic
autobalancers, turbocharger
dynamic balancers, 3D
measuring equipment, high-
accuracy roundness measuring
equipment and contour
projectors. Such technology
ensures that F-Diesel can
provide customers with world-
class products.
F-Diesel has a quality control
principle, which is embedded
in the entire manufacturing
process along with the
previously mentioned advanced
equipment. F-Diesels highly
trained engineers ensure
optimal development and
production in terms of quality
and quantity. With the
production concept of TQC, all
production processing is strictly
controlled according to the
TS16949 standards, and
F-Diesels engineers make use of
TS16949 tools, all of which
helps to achieve the best quality.
F-Diesel engineers have
mastered numerous state-of-the-
art powertrain technologies,
including the application of
ternary-ow analyzed
pneumatic computing in the
design of compressor wheel and
turbine wheel, which optimizes
the blade prole and its
manufacturing artwork. The
company also has extensive
know-how in the application of
mixed-ow turbine technology,
which increases total
turbocharger efciency by 3%.
In addition to all this, F-
Diesel can offer the industry
vast experience in the
application of PMSAP
computing in the design of
turbine wheel, with over-speed
blade breaking experiment,
measurement of the blade self-
oscillation frequency, and
measurement of the vibration
characteristic of the rotor system
all of which has greatly
improved product reliability.
F-Diesel engineers have also
mastered technologies such as
adjustable nozzle, sequential
turbocharging, two-stage
turbocharging, ball bearing,
titanium fusion casting of high-
speed centrifugal impeller,
titanium-aluminum alloy of
turbine wheel, and ceramics
turbine wheels. ETi
of over 1,300 highly skilled
R&D specialists who provide a
broad range of design, analysis,
prototyping, development,
and testing processes as well
as engine integration and
calibration capabilities.
The F-Diesel R&D center has
become a nationally recognized
leader in the design and
development of IC engines
and turbo systems, and a major
supplier of advanced testing
and instrumentation products
and services to some of Chinas
largest powertrain OEMs.
The most stringent research
and testing methods are
undertaken by F-Diesel
engineers at the development
center, including such processes
as compressor and turbine
performance, gas stand cyclic
A high-precision
turbocharging test station
F-Diesels variable nozzle turbocharger
The only online masters degree program designed
specifcally for working internal combustion engine
engineers around the globe.
Connects you with top IC engine experts in research
and industry
Puts you on the inside of an international network
of IC engine professionals
Allows you to interact in group projects with other
IC engine engineers
Gives you the fexibility to participate in courses from
anywhere in the world, while you work full time
Provides you with extensive experience comparable
to years working in the industry
The University of WisconsinMadison is a premier institution
for IC engine development and research, featuring the
world-renowned Engine Research Center and Powertrain
Control Research Laboratory.
For more
information, visit
mees.engr.wisc.edu/eti
or call us at
00-1-800-783-6526
Be a part of this exclusive programlearn more today!
mees.engr.wisc.edu/eti 00-1-800-783-6526
Master of Engineering in Engine Systems
Index to Advertisers
A&D Technology Inc ..................................................... IBC
Arkema ........................................................................... 57
Autosport International ................................................... 68
AVL List ............................................................................ 3
Bosch ............................................................................. 11
Bowman Power .............................................................. 58
Contitech AG .................................................................. 25
DSM ................................................................................ 17
EFD Induction AS ........................................................... 44
Engine Expo 2010 .......................................................... 33
Engine Technology International
Online Reader Enquiry Service ............................... 4, 73
FEV ................................................................................IFC
Filtrauto - Soge Filter Division ...................................... 62
From Concept To Car .................................................... 62
FUJIKURA DIESEL CO LTD ........................................... 65
Gomecsys BV ................................................................. 21
Micro-Epsilon Messtechnik GmbH ................................ 73
NAGEL ............................................................................ 39
Posalux ............................................................................. 4
ProCat Testing ............................................................OBC
SKF ................................................................................. 65
Solvay Advanced Polymers ............................................ 61
Sonceboz ....................................................................... 44
Specialty Coating Systems ............................................ 58
Systec GmbH ................................................................. 47
The Scuderi Group ........................................................... 5
Turbo Energy .................................................................. 47
University of Wisconsin Madison ................................... 79
www.EngineTechnologyInternational.com .................... 70
News and exclusives | Supplier directory | Recruitment |
Industry opinions | Image gallery | Read the latest issue online
123
BIG END
HYBRIDS FOR THE MASSES
80
BIG END
Honda boldly claimed to have developed the worlds rst
affordable hybrid vehicle, but the companys all-new Insight
model left us feeling rather unimpressed. From a European
perspective, the average fuel economy gure of 64mpg can
easily be matched by a small, four-pot diesel thatll be cheaper
to buy. But we here at ETI have a global outlook, so for markets
such as Japan and North America, the new Insight makes sense
and it can even be considered by Europeans as long as it does
not hit the autobahns and motorways too often. What doesnt
make sense, however, is the poor ride and the surprisingly cheap
feel to the interior, which are aws not usually attributed to the
Japanese OEM. Honda is desperately trying to keep pace with
Toyota in terms of hybrid development, so there are no great
complaints about the IMA setup that sees the electric motor
develop 14bhp and 78.5Nm of torque, which combines with a
nippy 1.3-liter petrol engine thats good for 87bhp and 121Nm of
torque. The nickel-metal hydride battery has been placed under
the trunk to help improve the Insights center of gravity. Honda
engineers worked hard to reduce the size and weight of the IMA
system and up to 95% of the unit is new. Insights E-Motor is
only 35.7mm thick (the Civic Hybrids motor is 61.5mm thick).
Despite the technical leap forward that the Insight represents
and the fact that its US$2,000 cheaper than the Prius theres
little doubt in our minds as to which is the better hybrid product.
TO E OR NOT TO E
BMW is adamant that the Mini E is a tech-demonstrator project
that will one day lead to an all-electric BMW Group vehicle.
However, having been among the rst to drive the prototype, we
here at ETI are not so sure. Firstly, BMW has conrmed
production of the two-seater Mini Coupe, due in 2012. Why is
this so important? Well, having sampled Mini E which has only
two seats due to the very large Li-ion pack on the rear for us
theres no doubt that the Mini E is more than just an
experimental project. Faster than a Cooper S, BMWs latest all-
electric creation is impressive. Producing 150kW and 220Nm of
torque, the electric motor seamlessly powers the Mini E from
standstill to 62mph in 8.5 seconds before reaching a capped top
speed of 95mph. One of the greatest problems is range, but
BMWs head of alternative drives, Alexander Thorwith, insists
that Mini E is good for 155 miles after the full charge time of 4.5
hours. Part of the reason why Mini E has one of the greatest
ranges is due to the 35kWh battery thats made up of 5,088 cells
grouped into 48 modules so no problems there. But the
benets realized by the batteries are somewhat nullied when
you look at the unit itself: it takes up the best part of the rear of
the Mini and weighs 260kg. Its the pack that remains the
biggest challenge, admits Thorwith, who attempts to rule out a
production version of the Mini E by adding, We need to bring to
market a four-seater electric car and were looking at such a
BMW Group product by 2015. Watch this space
BIG END
In creating the new Prius, it would seem that Toyota developed a
car rst and a hybrid product second, which is why this third-
generation offering from the industry leader in hybrid technology
gets the thumbs up from us. As with Hondas IMA, over 90% of
Toyotas Hybrid Synergy Drive System has been redesigned,
helping to create a smaller and more compact system that
produces much more power than the outgoing Prius. A high-
performance, permanent magnet, synchronous 60kW motor
works in perfect tandem with a 1.8-liter Atkinson cycle petrol unit
that replaced the 1.5-liter engine in the outgoing Prius. The result
is an increase in power of 27%, and torque is up by 23%. Like
the E-Motor, the 42kW generator is an AC-synchronous type,
and the 202V battery uses proven NiMH technology to enable
the new Prius to run in EV mode. CO
2
emissions are down 14%,
to a class-leading 89g/km, and we got more than 60mpg on our
test. All round, an impressive package.
TAKE THREE
Like: Makes perfect sense in markets where there are no diesels
Dislike: Exposed on motorways
Like: Probably the best hybrid product so far
Dislike: Some diesels are still more economical
Like: Zero emissions and very good performance
Dislike: Battery pack takes up the space of the rear seats
Test us.
We are A&D Technology. A leading supplier of integrated powertrain test cells and high-tech development tools for a
wide range of applications, from conventional engines and transmissions to alternative fuels and hybrid technology.
With a complete suite of products, an experienced team, and best-in-class partners, we provide innovative solutions
that reduce test time, increase test coverage, and utilize new methods and tools to effectively manage todays and
tomorrows complex and evolving test requirements.
www.aanddtech.com
Automated Mapping Combustion Analysis Data Acquisition & Control Dynamometers Real-Time Simulation & Control Lab Management NVH Torque Measurement
Testing limits.

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