GENDER ROLE CONFLICT AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING: AN EXPLORATION IN MEN ENROLLED TO ATTEND AN INITIATORY WEEKEND

by Christopher Kenneth Burke

Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2000

I would like to dedicate this work to the following people: To Robert Manning, for his patience, his diligence and modeling for me how to act with integrity and dignity; To Deborah Blumenthal for her wisdom, perspective and friendship. You were a source of solace, comfort and trustworthy advice when the path became dark; To Ken Maton, my advisor, for his quiet yet unfaltering support of me in navigating the vagaries of research; And finally to William Joseph Burke Jr. and Helen Dorothy Burke, my parents, who though deceased, provided the physical and spiritual means necessary for this work to be done. May it be a testimony to the efforts, sacrifices and successes of your life, and may the completion of this scholarly work bring you joy and satisfaction in the life beyond.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter DEDICATION......................................................................................... I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................ Page i 1

A. Mens Sex Role Identity...................................................................... 5 B. Sex Role Strain Paradigm................................................................... C. Measuring Sex Role Strain................................................................. D. Research on GRCS and its Relation to Psychological Well-Being... 1. Undergraduate Samples......................................................... 2. Summary of Studies Done with College Students................. 3. Samples Including Older Men............................................... 4. Summary of Samples Including Older Men.......................... E. Research Relating GRC and Psychological Help Seeking............... F. Summary of the Research Findings.................................................. G. Hypothesis and Focus of the Present Study..................................... 10 13 15 15 18 19 21 22 23 24

II. METHOD.................................................................................................... 25 A. Research Context.............................................................................. B. Research Participants....................................................................... C. Procedure......................................................................................... 1. Survey.................................................................................. D. Measures......................................................................................... 1. Gender Role Conflict Scale................................................. 25 26 29 29 30 30

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2. Depression and Anxiety............................................................. 3. Self-esteem................................................................................. 4. Demographic and Background Information............................... E. Statistical Analysis.......................................................................... III. RESULTS................................................................................................ A. Preliminary Analyses...................................................................... B. Primary Analyses........................................................................... 1. Relationship between GRC and Psychological Well-Being..... 2. Relationship between GRC, Age and therapy Experience...... IV. DISCUSSION........................................................................................ A. GRC and Well-Being................................................................... B. Age and GRC............................................................................... C. GRC and Therapy Experience..................................................... D. The Relationship Between RE and RABM................................. E. Limitations and Future Directions............................................... REFERENCES............................................................................................ APPENDIX 1. PRE-WEEKEND RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE.......

33 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 41 48 48 54 56 57 58 62 68

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LIST OF TABLES Table Page

TABLE 1: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS...................................................................... 29 TABLE 2: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR PRIMARY STUDY VARIABLES.... 39 TABLE 3: CORRELATION TABLE OF WELL-BEING MEASURES, GRC SUBSCALES, AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES......................................... 40 TABLE 4: MANOVA RESULTS FOR THERAPY EXPERIENCE........................... 41 TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR THE THREE GRC SUBSCALES PREDICTING WELL-BEING.............................. 43 TABLE 6: SUMMARY OF STEP WISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND THERAPY EXPERIENCE ON GRC....................... TABLE 7: INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST COMPARING GRC SCORES.... 46 50

1 Introduction In the last twenty five years, many authors have pointed out the dysfunctional aspects of masculine behavior, with some even going so far as to call this phenomenon a crisis (Harrison, 1978; Levant & Kopecky, 1995; Kimmel, 1987). Looking at indicators of poor socialization and quality of life, the statistics show the male sex to be more prone to violence, untimely death, incarceration, cancer, alcohol and drug addiction, poor eating habits, heart disease, suicide, abandonment of parental responsibilities and poor school performance (The Trouble with Men, 1996). The pattern of how women and men relate and what roles each gender plays in the family, the work place and in relationships is changing rapidly. This changing face of masculinity appears to present real challenges for men and provides an opportunity for psychologists to find ways to help men to adapt to these changing roles while validating and honoring the positive aspects of masculine behavior. Gender, the roles of gender and the strain these roles can cause are not new concepts in psychology (Kimmel, 1987). Throughout history, changing environments, economic conditions and cultural values have affected how gender roles are played out. This century has seen its share of changing conditions in the above categories, and as a result there has been a shift in gender roles and the benefits and costs these roles have to the people who adhere to them. Spurred on by the advent and arrival of feminist thought, there has been a new emphasis on studying men as gendered beings in an attempt to conceptualize and understand the mechanisms driving male behavior and beliefs. Before current theories are presented, a historical perspective of gender and sex role

2 conceptualizations is presented to clarify the environment in which the current theories developed. However first, in order to clarify the differing language used to describe men and women, and the societal roles they play as gender studies evolved throughout the twentieth century, is a list of these terms, what they attempt to describe, and their chronistic relevance. This will hopefully clarify for the reader what the words may mean and help to explain their usage despite their obsolescence in describing the current understanding of gender. Sex. The term sex, in the study of males and females, refers to aspects of certain behaviors and cognitions they both embody that are biologically pre-determined. This would refer to such things as height, weight and reproductive capability. The term sex was in the past used in talking about almost all differences between males and females before the advent of the 1970's era of feminist thought . Gender. Gender refers to the differences between males and females that are a product of environment and are socially constructed. Before feminism, most differences between men and women were considered more innate, and thus less influenced by social construction. Many of the characteristics that previously were described as sex-related, with the advent of feminism are now considered gender-related. Unger (1979) describes the difference between the terms sex and gender quite well: The term gender is introduced for those characteristics and traits socio-culturally considered appropriate to males and females. The rationale for this addition to the psychological vocabulary is that the term sex implies biological mechanisms. Differences between females and males that are merely descriptive are frequently

3 assumed to have biological origins. The present terminology (the use of the word sex to describe differences between women and men) facilitates biologically deterministic models of sex differences which make it less likely that environmental sources of such differences will be explored ... Differential use of the term sex indicates different paradigms for the examination of sex differences, and psychological terminology should reflect this distinction (p. 1085). The usage of the terms sex and gender within this field is often a marker for when the term was coined. Prior to the advent of the 1970's era of feminist thought, the term sex was often used, and after the advent of 1970's feminist thought, the term gender was used. In reference to this paper and its discussion of the historical roots of gender role theory, the use of the original terms will be maintained despite the fact that other terms and concepts today may be used to describe similar constructs. This is done in order to keep an accurate historical record of the development of gender role theory. Sex Role Identity. This term is defined as a set of behaviors, traits and interests that are appropriate for either males or females to embody that will allow them to reinforce their supposed pre-existing biological predispositions. This notion implies there are certain sets of behaviors and attitudes that are most appropriate for both men and women, and others which are appropriate only for men or women (Pleck,1981). Sex Typing. This is defined as the process by which sex role identities are defined. There are different systems and theories of sex typing that have been used to attempt and define appropriate sex role identities that have changed, as new findings emerged. Sex typing, like sex role identity, is no longer considered appropriate for use in gender studies,

4 and the use of this word appears in this paper to describe the historical underpinnings of more current theories (Pleck,1981). Gender Identity. Gender Identity is what Pleck (1981) calls the multi-leveled conception of sex typing and sex role identity which holds that there are multiple levels of gender identity within the same individual. This conception was largely influenced by the psychoanalytic viewpoint which was in vogue in the 1940's and 1950's, as the concept of multiple levels fits in nicely with the idea of the conscious and unconscious. As an example of this multi-leveled conception, one may see a man who is a lumberjack, which he considers a strong male gender identity. This would be the more conscious way that this man defines himself, and one that is more societally supported. However this lumberjack may also like to arrange flowers and enjoys poetry, behaviors that are considered feminine and which the culture admonishes him for undertaking. Thus, this naturally occurring part of the man is repressed, and in part remains unconscious. This term has been used to explain aspects of what Pleck (1981) defines as the sex role identity theory which is summarized in subsequent sections of this study. Gender Role Strain. The term gender role strain refers to the socially constructed norms, cognitions and behaviors considered appropriate for men or women, and which are problematic. An important distinction between gender role strain and sex identity is that sex identity was believed to be biologically determined as well as adaptive for men and women and gender role strain is believed to be the result of societal influence as well as being problematic (Pleck,1981).

5 Mens Sex-Role Identity The study of gender in American psychology has largely been dominated by what Pleck (1981) calls the Male Sex Role Identity (MSRI) paradigm. This paradigm states that healthy behavior is based upon individuals obtaining the proper traits, attitudes and interests that reinforce their natural biological predispositions. The first explicit step in outlining the theory of sex roles was undertaken in the book Sex and Personality by Miles and Terman (1936). In their formulation, men and women are well-adjusted to the extent that they conform to norms or behaviors that are deemed typical of that sex. Many attributes that were considered dysfunctional for men in the early part of this century (e.g., hypermasculinity, homosexuality, effeminacy) they proposed could in part be explained by failure to be correctly socialized into proper gender identities. They introduced the term masculinity-femininity (MF) which described the place that the person had on the hypothetical continuum between male and female traits. Based on the historical development of the MSRI paradigm, Pleck (1981) has termed this view of gender the simple conception, or the unitary-bipolar (p. 17) conception of defining sex roles, in that sex roles could be explained by a single bipolar continuum between male and female traits. Terman and Miles theories were popular at the time, in part due to the instrument that they developed to measure this construct (The Terman-Miles Attitude-Interest Test, 1936). Other tests measuring the same construct sprung up concurrently. This simple conception of sex typing was also largely incorporated into many of the omnibus personality tests (MMPI, Strong Vocational Interest Blank, Guilfords Temperament Survey). Despite wide acceptance of the ideas of Terman and Miles in psychology circles

6 of that time, there was some objection to the idea that certain gender-related styles of personality are inherent in good psychological functioning. For instance, Margaret Mead (1935) showed in her analysis of primitive societies that ways of being masculine could be vastly different in different cultures and thus did not hold up to universal ideals. Despite this information, the structure set in place by Miles and Terman continued to dominate scholarly work into the nature of gender and the male role identity paradigm. This perspective maintained dominance in changing forms until late in this century. The simple identity concept proposed by Miles and Terman (1936), despite its wide acceptance, became viewed as too general in its explanation of specific behaviors and phenomena. This led to what Pleck (1981) calls the multi-leveled conception of sex typing and sex role identity which holds that there are multiple levels of gender identity within the same individual. This conception was largely influenced by the psychoanalytic viewpoint which was more in vogue in the 1940's and 1950's, as the concept of multiple levels fits in nicely with the idea of the conscious and unconscious. Miller and Swanson (1960), in an important contribution to this conception, theorized that people deal with their unconscious opposite sex identity by developing a traditionally appropriate gender role on the more superficial, or conscious, level. For example, the theory proposes that a man who has a strong feminine aspect subconsciously will adapt and compensate for it in his conscious life with overtly masculine behavior (and thus explain some aspects of dysfunctional male behavior). Despite the seeming elegance and explanatory qualities of the psychoanalytic understanding of sex typing, theorists began to think that the phenomenon of gender

7 formation may be influenced by factors other than repression and compensation advocated by those of the multi-leveled school. As the inadequacies of this conception became more clearly apparent, new ideas were developed to further clarify the concept of sex role identity. The third phase of the MSRI paradigm development was the androgynous, or the dual-unipolar conception (Pleck, 1981). This concept is a natural outcome of the multi-leveled conception, in that the dimensions of masculinity and femininity are seen as existing within the same individual. They are not necessarily seen as conflicting, but are viewed as orthogonal and complimentary aspects of the individual. In other words, in previous paradigms, if one exhibited high levels of masculine behavior, then one would not be considered high on femininity. The androgynous conceptualization posits that it is possible to exhibit high (or low) levels of both masculine and feminine behavior, as assessed, for instance, by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), (Bem, 1974), and Spence, Helmreich and Strapps (1974) Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Despite the advances that this conceptualization made in understanding how gender is defined, there remained some glaring defects in how this theory explained certain male behavior. One of these areas was male dysfunction. According to Cook (1987) in her review of the androgyny literature, one of the strongest findings to come out of the research on androgyny is that masculinity is positively correlated with healthy psychological outcome variables to a greater extent than is androgyny or femininity. This finding presented two main problems. First, androgyny was theorized to be reflective of better mental health than of either masculinity or femininity alone, which this finding disconfirmed. Secondly, this supposed superiority of masculinity over androgyny and

8 femininity did not fit well with the increasingly accepted tenets of feminism (which had convincingly argued that the male role had created an imbalance of power and created a subservient role for women), with the statistics cited in the beginning of this paper, nor with the observations of therapists that there was something massively dysfunctional about traditionally masculine behavior. The clear advantage of masculine traits over androgynous or feminine traits that androgyny measures and models seemed to show could not explain the increased levels of violence, alcoholism, misogyny and death rate among men. This disparity left many researchers looking for a model that explained these facets of male behavior (Cook, 1987; Pleck, 1981). Pleck (1981) compares the development of sex role identity to the concept of scientific revolutions as outlined by Kuhn (1962). All the changes that had taken place since Terman and Miles (1936) first proposed the Sex role identity paradigm were aiding in the preparation for a more radical paradigm shift much as Kuhn (1962) outlines the process. The theories discussed above - the unitary bipolar, the multi-leveled, and the androgynous - slightly altered and built upon the theories they replaced in order to adjust for new findings and new understandings. The concept of androgyny, for example, helped to explain that masculine and feminine behaviors and beliefs are not directly influenced by each other. However, it did not explain dysfunctional male behavior. Despite each theorys improvements and greater explanatory abilities, it only brought more sharply into focus the pitfalls of the sex role identity paradigm and paved the way for new ideas on the understanding of gender. Related to the coming decline of the identity paradigm, is the rise of the ideas of

9 feminism. In the latter part of this century, feminist theorists and researchers have challenged the ways that gender has traditionally been studied. One of the most salient features of the feminist viewpoint is that both male and female behavior and the differences that exist between them are not a naturally dichotomous grouping based upon predisposed genetic leanings, but more so a societal invention that favors men (Pleck, 1981). These theorists have made valid claims that society accomplishes this construction of gender first through educating and training children into the roles society has predetermined, secondly through maintaining and supporting social arrangements that are symbiotic with the roles into which children are socialized, and thirdly through the shaping of language and conceptual structures that influence our understanding of the gender roles we are expected to play (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1990). Some of these theories include the concept of alpha and beta prejudice which describes the overstatement of certain differences and the understatement of more pertinent differences between men and women, the labeling of relatedness as a feminine characteristic when it the only way to gain a voice in a patriarchal society (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1990), and the concept of asymmetrical parenting (Chodrow, 1978). All these (and other) theories helped researchers to widen the area of possibility when thinking of the construction of gender, and as a result, helped to create a revolutionary new paradigm to explain male gender.

Sex Role Strain Paradigm

10 As Carrigan, Connell, and Lee (1987) point out, the concept of sex role strain, which since the early 1980's has received increasing attention, was strongly influenced by social constructionism, a concept that emerged as important in Womens Studies during the 1970's. The emphasis in feminism on freeing people from gender-based restrictions and roles conflicted with the sex role identity paradigm in that the identity paradigm implied a certain implicit model of behavior specific to each gender. This conflict planted the seed of discontent that eventually brought about a new way of understanding gender. Social constructionism saw men and the male role as socially constructed, related to the society and its expectations, and malleable. One of the most important contributions to the deconstruction of the Identity paradigm, in part bringing to bear a Kuhnian shift, was Joseph Plecks The Myth of Masculinity (1981). The research and theory used to support the guiding constructs of the male sex role identity paradigm were carefully analyzed, and were shown to be incapable of explaining mens behavior and motivations. As an alternative, the male sex role strain paradigm is proposed (this term was later changed to gender role strain to be more consistent with social constructionist theory). Garnets and Pleck (1979) had earlier described sex role strain as the discrepancies between individuals characteristics and individuals standards or ideals for themselves deriving from larger social sex role norms. (p. 274). This concept has been further refined by Pleck (1995) in his update of the sex role strain paradigm (renamed gender role strain in his 1995 paper) as consisting of the following three concepts: Gender role discrepancy, or the differences between the ideal male and what most men actually are; gender role trauma, or the costs men incur in trying

11 to fulfill those roles; and gender role dysfunction, or the negative societal and personal consequences of the male role norm. In Plecks words: Implicit in these propositions are three broader ideas about how cultural standards for masculinity, as implemented in gender socialization, have potentially negative effects on individual males. The first idea is that a significant proportion of males exhibit long-term failure to fulfill male role expectations. The resulting disjuncture between these expectations and these males characteristics leads to low self-esteem and other negative psychological consequences. This dynamic is gender role discrepancy or incongruity. Second, even if male role expectations are successfully fulfilled, the socialization process leading to this fulfillment is traumatic, or the fulfillment itself is traumatic, with long-term negative side effects. This is the gender role trauma argument. And the third theoretical notion is that the successful fulfillment of male role expectations can have negative consequences because many of the characteristics viewed as desirable or acceptable in men (e. g., low level of family participation) have inherent negative side effects, either for males themselves or for others. This is the gender role dysfunction argument (p. 12). With this new paradigm, instead of thinking that failure to properly adapt to societys gender role identity resulted in problems for men, Pleck proposes that it is the existence of these roles themselves and the impossible demands that they put on men that is causing a large portion of what is thought of as male dysfunction (e.g., increased alcoholism and

12 violent behavior), and explains the negative (and invalid) connotations associated with behavior previously believed to be dysfunctional (e.g., effeminate behavior or homosexuality). The new concept that Pleck (1981) proposes states in clearly defined language ten propositions of the sex role strain paradigm: (1) that gender roles are operationally defined by gender role stereotypes (widely held ideas of what the gender is actually like) and norms (widely held ideas of a gender ideal); (2) that these gender roles are contradictory and inconsistent; (3) that the majority of men do not live up to them; (4) that violation of gender roles leads to social condemnation; (5) that violation of gender roles leads to negative psychological consequences; (6) that actual or imagined violation of these norms or inability to meet them leads individuals to overcompensate for them in other areas; (7) that violation of these norms has more severe consequences for men than for women; (8) that certain characteristics of gender roles are psychologically dysfunctional (aggression, reduced intimacy, etc); (9) that each gender experiences gender role strain as a result of their work and family roles; and (10) that historical changes cause gender role strain. Concurrent with Pleck in regards to time and theory, ONeil (1981a, 1981b, 1982) developed the theory of gender role conflict. Before Plecks (1981) work came out, ONeil and his research team were in essential agreement with Plecks theory of gender role strain. However, more so than Pleck initially, they were driven to operationalize a more precise definition of the discrepancies between ones real and ideal self concept. In reviewing the study of gender, they found that there was a dearth of literature on male gender roles and came to the conclusion that there was not a well established set of

13 guidelines as to what male (or female for that matter) gender role strain might look like. In addition, they noticed a large schism between the theoretical literature on male dysfunction and the empirical evidence for that construct. Therefore, based on the theoretical writings and their own clinical experience, they developed what was called the Masculine Mystique and Value System which is defined as a complex set of values and beliefs that define optimal masculinity (ONeil et al. , 1995; p. 171). It was proposed that the Masculine Mystique and Value System produced a fear

of femininity in mens lives which in turn produced six forms of what they termed gender role conflict in men: 1) Restrictive emotionality; 2) Socialized control, power and competition; 3) Homophobia; 4) Restrictive sexual and affectionate behavior; 5) Obsession with achievement and success; and 6) Health care problems (ONeil et al. , 1995). Measuring Sex-Role Strain The release of The Myth of Masculinity in 1981 gave what ONeil et al. (1995) called conceptual clarity to their work, and their work began to focus on the outcome of gender role strain when a person adheres to gender roles or violates them. (p. 170). They realized that measuring gender role conflict is difficult because gender roles and the strain that they create is unique to each individual and culture as well as being multifaceted. Nevertheless, based upon this initial work and with the encouragement and help of a few colleagues, ONeil and his research team began the construction of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) in an attempt to measure this construct. ONeil et al. (1986) published a study that reviews a confirmatory analysis of the

14 GRCS I and II that was the result of their efforts to create a measure to operationalize their construct. The GRCS-I was designed to assess mens personal gender role attitudes, behaviors and conflicts, and the GRCS-II was designed to assess mens gender role conflicts in specific gender-role conflict situations.(p. 335). Unfortunately, the reliabilities and internal consistency values for two GRCS-II scales were low. The authors felt that this measure required further research, and consequently the GRCS-II has been unavailable for use. However exploratory factor analysis showed the GRCS-I to have 4 factors, resulting from the combination of two of the scales derived from the Masculine Mystique and Value System and the elimination of one (health care problems). In addition, their study showed all four subscales to have good reliability. The scales consist of Success, Power and Competition (SPC), consisting of worries about personal achievement, being oriented towards obtaining authority or striving against others to gain something, Restrictive Emotionality (RE), or having difficulty and fears about expressing ones feelings, Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABM), or having limited ways of expressing emotions and feelings, and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR), referring to difficulty balancing work-school and family relations. There has been a considerable amount of research done on the GRCS-I which has added to the reliability and validity data of the measure. The research that has been conducted that is relevant to the overall reliability and validity of the GRCS-I, as well as the studies that are relevant to the current research, are reviewed below. Research on GRCS and its relation to psychological well-being Eight studies were located looking at the relationship between masculine gender role

15 conflict and psychological well being. The studies that used college undergraduates for participants will be reviewed first, to be followed by studies looking at older samples of men, and finally studies that looked at the variables of age and help-seeking attitudes. Undergraduate Samples. Davis (1987) conducted a study of sex role strain that consisted of giving 304 male and 203 female college undergraduates from an introductory psychology class a battery of measures intended to detect sex role strain and psychological well-being. As predicted, results showed that the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) was correlated positively with anxiety and negatively with self-esteem. Analysis of the individual scales of the GRCS revealed the same findings. The notable exception was the Success, Power and Competition (SPC) subscale which was correlated significantly and positively with anxiety, but showed no relation to self-esteem. Despite the correlational design and a limited subject pool, Davis concluded that the results provided some support for the idea that gender role stress may contribute to negative psychological well-being. Good and Wood (1995) conducted a study that re-analyzed data from a previous study (Good and Mintz, 1991). They looked at the relations between gender role conflict (GRC), Attitudes Towards Men Scale (Downs & Engleson, 1982), depression, and demographic information in 397 male college students enrolled in an introductory Psychology class. In the earlier study (Good and Mintz, 1991), they found that all four subscales of the GRCS measure correlated positively and significantly with depression, as measured by the CES-D (Radloff, 1977). The re-analysis used latent variable modeling which allowed them to look at the relation between psychological help-seeking attitudes in men, GRCS scores and depression. Their results indicated a link between depression,

16 GRC and help seeking behavior, suggesting that different aspects of GRC may be differentially related to well being and help-seeking. While showing a link between depression and GRC, the authors also warned against an oversimplification of MGRC constructs and their relation to varying criteria. Sharpe and Heppner (1991) also found a significant correlation between GRCS and various measures of psychological well-being, with a sample of 190 male college undergraduates. They found that all of the subscales of the GRCS correlated to some degree with the psychological well-being measures. In particular, depression scores as measured by the BDI correlated positively and significantly with two of the subscales of the GRCS (RE and CBWFR), anxiety positively and significantly with three of the subscales (RE, RABM, CBWFR) and self-esteem (as measured by the Coopersmith SelfEsteem Inventory) significantly and negatively with three GRCS subscales (RE, RABM, CBWFR). In addition, they conducted a canonical analysis to identify independent relationships between (a) the GRCS and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich and Stapp, 1974), and (b) five psychological well-being scales that were a part of their study. Two clinically significant canonical variates were found; one which linked psychological well-being with an androgynous measure of masculinity (PAQ;), and a second which linked androgynous measures of femininity and relationally oriented forms of well-being (e. g., intimacy). The results of this study suggest that the GRCS and the PAQ measure different aspects of gender, and that the GRCS is a better indicator of the negative effects of the male gender role. In addition they concluded that the link between gender role conflict and psychological well being is not only influenced

17 positively by the androgynous measures of masculinity, but also by androgynous measures of femininity associated with relatedness. The researchers called for additional research to more fully explore the link between the concepts of gender and their relation to well being. Good et al. (1996) attempted to further test the association of GRC with psychological health in a sample of 130 male college students who requested counseling at their university counseling centers. They were given the GRCS and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R, Derogatis, 1983) which contains subscales for depression and anxiety as well as seven other subscales that are not commonly used in studies linking GRC and psychological health. Despite using a fairly restrictive alpha level (.001) to prevent Type I error, a significant correlation was found between the overall GRCS score and depression, as well as between depression and the RE and CBWFR subscales. In addition, the authors ran nine multiple regression analyses to explore any further contributions that GRC may have towards psychological dysfunction. Once again with a strict alpha level (.0056) to prevent Type I error, they found five of the nine subscales were predicted by GRC, including depression. The two subscales found to be involved in the prediction of depression were RE and CBWFR. Anxiety was not predicted by, nor correlated with GRC,. This latter finding is inconsistent with past studies, and the authors suggest that it may be explained by the high alpha levels. Blazina and Watkins (1996) conducted a study to examine the connection between GRC, psychological well-being, substance usage and attitudes towards help seeking in 148 college men. Their results showed a significant correlation of the GRCS subscales RE and

18 CBWFR with the depression and anxiety measures as well as assorted measurements of anger and attitudes towards help seeking. In addition, pairwise multiple regression analyses were conducted to look at the relation between the GRCS subscales and psychological help-seeking attitudes. The authors found that the GRCS subscales were significant in predicting help-seeking attitudes, with SPC and RE being the most significant predictors. They also conducted a canonical analysis. However, since the results did not directly provide evidence related to the relation between GRC and psychological well-being, the results are not reported here. Summary of studies done with college students. The results of the studies reviewed strongly suggest that there is a link between GRC and psychological well-being in collegeaged men. All four of the studies that examined the link of GRC to depression showed a significant relationship. Three of the four studies that assessed the connection of anxiety to GRC found a significant relationship, and the authors of the one study that did not find a relation suggest that it was due to a restrictive alpha level to prevent Type I error. The relationship of self-esteem to GRC is limited but positive. Only two studies examined the link in college-aged men. However, both found significant results, suggesting a connection. Although more research has been encouraged for this population (ONeil et al., 1995), the existing studies suggest that in college aged men, those who report higher levels of GRC tend to experience lower levels of psychological well-being. Samples including older men. In a follow-up of the Sharpe and Heppner (1991) study, Sharpe, Heppner and Dixon (1995) included a broader sample of men ranging in age from 25 to 85 (Median age = 50) who volunteered and were recruited from local

19 service organizations (e.g., the Kiwanis club) and from large corporations in a large metropolitan area in the south. In this study, correlations were slightly higher in magnitude than those found in their previous study (RE and self-esteem, r=-.25 vs. -.20); and RE and depressive symptoms, r=.26 vs. .19), but the correlates were not statistically significant due to a smaller sample size. The authors found only a weak link between GRCS scores and psychological well-being, which differs from the findings in their earlier study. They suggest this may be due to the different sample characteristics of age, size and life situation. They also conducted a canonical analysis which revealed canonical variates that were similar to the variates found in their 1990 study. They concluded that there is a factor beyond the androgynous explanation of gender that explains relations to psychological health and stated that the results from this study reiterate that the relationship between instrumentality (the name given to masculine characteristics on the PAQ) and psychological health is insufficient, and that expressiveness (the name given to the feminine scale on the PAQ) and gender role conflict variables (e. g., RE and RABM) account for a substantial amount of the variance. (p. 13; sections in italics added to explain subscale terms for the PAQ). Despite their conclusion that gender role conflict may account for a portion of variance, they did not find significant correlations between GRC and psychological well-being in this sample, and this possible association merits further investigation. Cournoyer and Mahalik (1995) conducted a study that looked at the levels of GRCS and measures of psychological well-being (Beck Depression Inventory, State Trait Anxiety Index, Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Miller Social Intimacy scale)

20 in both college aged and middle aged men. A multivariate analysis was conducted to examine the potential differences in scores on the GRCS in the two samples, revealing that the older subjects experienced less concern about SPC and more concern about CBWFR. In addition, a canonical analysis was run to look at the relationship between the age group, the GRCS subscales, and the psychological well-being variables. It revealed two significant roots. The first canonical variate accounted for 65% of the variance, and indicated that restrictive emotionality (RE) was positively related to anxiety and depression and inversely related to self-esteem and social intimacy. The second root was indicated by moderate negative loadings on SPC, CBWFR, depression, anxiety and social intimacy; moderate positive loading on age; and weak positive loadings on RE and selfesteem. This variate suggests that those who scored lower on SPC and CBWFR were more likely to be middle-aged, to be less anxious and depressed, and to have greater selfesteem. On the other hand, these men also may undergo some conflict with emotional expression and have less intimacy in close relationships. The second root accounted for 31% of the explained variance. These results present a mixed picture of the relations of the subscales of GRCS, psychological well-being variables and age. On the one hand, the initial comparison of the older and younger men revealed that older men were more concerned with CBWFR, yet in the second canonical root, increased age was associated with less CBWFR. Despite this contradiction, Cournoyer and Mahalik (1995) explained the interrelations in the second factor in the following manner: ...while middle aged men benefit in terms of depression, anxiety and self-esteem by

21 being less invested in success, power and competition and by resolving conflicts between work and family responsibilities, they also hold on to some conflict concerning emotional expression (e.g., having difficulty telling others they care about them, disclosing and discussing vulnerabilities) and this costs them in terms of intimacy. (p.17). The overall picture that this study gives is that restrictive emotionality is negatively correlated with psychological health in both young and middle aged men, with the difference being that younger men more concerned with SPC and older men with CBWFR. One additional study examined the relation between GRC and age, although it did not examine the link to well-being. Stillson et al. (1991) found no relation between age and levels of GRC in a culturally diverse, largely unemployed (42%) and educationally varied sample of men. Summary of samples including older men. The results of these studies show an unclear relation in older men between GRC and psychological well-being. In the first study reviewed (Sharpe et al., 1995), a lower magnitude was found in older men. In the Cournoyer and Mahalik (1996) study, the authors include age as a variable, but did not look directly for interactions, so it is difficult to draw strong conclusions from this study about the link between GRC and well-being for older samples in particular. The results here, as well as the conclusions of other authors (ONeil et al., 1995), suggest that more research needs to be done to more fully understand how age relates to gender role conflict, and how it affects the relation between GRC and psychological well-being.

22 Research relating GRC and psychological help-seeking Openness to psychological health-seeking is likely to allow those who might be in need of psychological services to actually seek them out, and thus improve their overall mental health. Many of the underlying causes of the dysfunctional behaviors of which men suffer to a greater extent listed in the beginning of this paper (suicide, violence, alcoholism, etc.) can be more properly assuaged through other means, one of which is psychological assistance or the use of therapeutic settings. Thus, it is of interest to the author to examine any links that may exist between GRC and psychological healthseeking. Three studies examined the link between attitudes toward help seeking and gender role conflict. Robertson and Fitzgerald (1992) found a link between SPC, RE and negative views towards help seeking as well as finding that men who score highly on GRC tend to prefer non-traditional forms of therapy (groups and classes) over more common therapeutic methods. In addition, they found that men who scored more highly on GRC preferred more cognitively based therapeutic methods over ones that focus on affect. Good et al. (1989), found a relationship between RE and RABM and negative help seeking attitudes using multiple regression and canonical analysis. And finally, Good and Wood (1996) found that SPC, RE and RABM accounted for approximately 25% of the variance in help-seeking behaviors. ONeil et al (1995) summarized in their review of the GRCS that there is strong evidence for the relationship between mens gender role conflict and negative attitudes toward help seeking. (p. 190). However, there is no literature that explores whether

23 therapeutic experiences lead to a reduction of GRC. It merely explores the attitudes towards it before therapy has been performed. Thus, the question remains if therapy experience is correlated with lower levels of gender role stress. Summary of the research findings In the studies that are reviewed above, the findings generally suggest a connection between GRC and psychological well-being. To a varying degree, every well-being variable showed a connection to GRC. Depression showed the strongest link, anxiety was connected in the majority of studies reviewed, and self-esteem, though not as thoroughly examined, still showed a positive relationship. However, the connection of GRC to psychological well-being is more tenuous when age is considered. All of the studies reviewed concerning GRC in non-college aged men found a diminished link between GRC and psychological well-being as well as finding differing subscale score levels of GRC in the men studied. Second, only convenience samples of men were studied and the results are not readily generalizable. Sharpe et al. (1995) only sampled successful white, happily married men who had better than average salaries and education levels. Affluence and SES may affect how GRC interacts with psychological variables. Cournoyer and Mahalik (1995), sampled only Caucasian, married, fully employed men with at least one child who were living in the childs home, and had earned at least a college degree. Once again, this sample is atypical of the demographically average man in this country, having lower levels of divorce, unemployment, and higher levels of education (which suggests a higher SES background). It would not be unreasonable to assume that the variables of employment status, marital

24 status, income level, and education level exhibited in the above samples could significantly affect how GRC is manifested across a mans lifespan. Issues of sampling aside, the results of the studies with older men suggest that further research is needed to investigate the link in non-college aged men between psychological well-being variables and GRC. Secondly, although the research tends to support the connection of negative attitudes towards help-seeking and GRC, it is unknown if previous therapy experience is linked to lower levels of GRC. Thus, the purpose of the current research is to examine the linkage between GRC and well-being in a non-collegiate sample, as well as to further the available knowledge in this area. Secondly, this study will explore the possible connection between previous therapy experience and GRC in a noncollegiate sample of men. Hypotheses and focus of the present study The present study was undertaken to attempt to more clearly understand the relationship between GRC and psychological well-being (as measured by depression, anxiety and self-esteem) in a non-college aged sample . The sample is different from those used in previous studies in regards to age, demographic characteristics, and previous therapy experience. It is hypothesized that the following results will be found: 1) The subscales of the GRCS will be positively correlated with depression and anxiety and negatively correlated with self-esteem. 2) The older men in this sample will have different patterns of GRC than the younger men within this study and the college student samples used in past studies. Comparisons

25 will be made as an age correlation within the study, and secondarily by comparing the correlation levels of this study to the results of previous studies that have examined a similar link. In particular, it is predicted that older men will have less concern with Success, Power and Competition. 3) Men who have previous therapy experience will have lower levels of GRC.

Method Research Context All participants for this study were prospective members of a local chapter of the ManKind Project (MKP), an international mens organization that declares in their mission statement to be An order of men called to reclaim the sacred masculine for our time through initiation, training, and action in the world. The MKP is specifically focused on deep, personal work with men, including working through and healing internal wounds related to their experience of masculinity and childhood, overcoming barriers to trust and intimacy with other men, and developing a vital and constructive mission in life. Involvement in the organization is centered around an intensive weekend training known as the New Warrior Training Adventure (NWTA), followed by self help groups that assist the members with the above mentioned areas in regular, ongoing, small group settings. The current research effort is being conducted with one of the regional centers of the MKP, ManKind Project of Greater Washington (MKP-GW). A collaborative research effort is currently underway between MKP-GW and a research team at the University of Maryland Baltimore County composed of three men

26 who have attended the NWTA (one of whom is the author), two women, and one nonMKP man. The ongoing study is a longitudinal evaluation of the men done prior to and at various times after the NWTA. It asks the participants to complete a survey before the NWTA, immediately after, and 6 months and 18 months after the NWTA. The participants in this study are men who are participating in the larger research project. The information in this study, however, will only use the data collected in the survey completed before participation in the NWTA. Thus, the data collected has not been affected by involvement in the MKP. Research Participants The participants in this sample are 90 men who have agreed to attend one of the seven NWTAs that took place between June 1997 and March 1999. Table one contains the demographic statistics that describe the pool of participants. The data shows these men to largely be middle aged, with a mean age of 43.92 years, a standard deviation of 10.66 and a range of ages from 19 to 72. The ages had the following breakdown: Eight percent of the men were below the age of 30; forty eight percent of the men were between the ages of 30 and 44; thirty two percent of the men were between the ages of 45 and 59; and seven percent were 60 or above. The largest sector of men are married (38%), though many are single (32%) or divorced (18%), and under a third of those men have children Table 1 Sample Demographics N Marital Status Married 38 42.2 43.2 Percent Valid Percent

27 Single Divorced Missing Ethnicity Caucasian African American Hispanic Other Missing Religion Christian/Catholic Jewish None or Other Children in Home Yes No 29 61 32.2 67.8 32.2 67.8 40 11 39 44.4 12.2 43.3 44.4 12.2 43.3 76 2 2 4 6 84.4 2.2 2.2 4.4 6.7 90.5 2.4 2.4 4.8 -32 18 2 35.6 20.0 2.2 36.4 20.5 --

Table 1 continued. N Sexual Orientation Heterosexual 63 70.0 76.8 Percent Valid Percent

28 Gay or Bisexual Missing Age Under 30 Btwn 30 and 44 btwn 45 and 59 60 and over Missing Occupation* Low skill (1-3) Middle mgmnt (4-6) Upper mngmnt (7-9) Missing Education* H.S. or lower (1-3) some college (4-6) B.S./ grad deg (7-9) Missing 4 15 70 1 4.4 16.7 77.8 1.1 4.5 16.9 78.7 2 16 68 4 2.2 17.8 75.6 4.4 2.3 18.6 79.1 7 44 30 8 1 7.8 48.9 33.3 8.9 1.1 7.9 49.4 33.7 9.0 19 8 21.1 8.9 23.2 --

*Defined using Hollingshead SES scale

29 Table 1 Continued. Continuous Demographic Variables N Age Education* 89 89 Mean 43.92 7.48 7.08 St. Dev. 10.66 1.69 1.71 Min. 19 2 1 Max. 72 9 9 Range 53 7 8

Occupation* 89

*Hollingshead SES measure used to quantify these variables. living in the home. The racial background of the men is predominantly Caucasian, with only very few of the men from other racio-ethnic groups. Education level of these men is high, as the Hollingshead SES measure shows the majority of the men participating as having at least a bachelors degree, with a large number having some form of professional or graduate degree. The occupation levels of these men is as correspondingly high as the education level, with most of the men having jobs requiring advanced education or that had them in positions of higher level management. Sexual orientation was largely heterosexual, with a nonetheless noticeably large amount (21.1%) of men who reported being gay or bisexual. Forty percent of the men reported being Christian, eleven percent Jewish, and a large number of men reported having no religious preference or a nontraditional religious preference.

Procedure Survey. The author contacted the Administrative director of MKP-GW five weeks

before every NWTA and made arrangements for the men enrolled in the weekend training

30 to obtain a research packet. The packet included a cover letter from the head of MKPGW endorsing the research, a cover letter from the research team explaining briefly the nature of the study, the survey, a return envelope, an IRB form and a separate return envelope in order to keep the IRB forms separate from the questionnaire to maintain anonymity (see appendix). The June 97 NWTA participants were given the questionnaire packet in a group preinterview intended to prepare the men for the intense nature of the weekend (as well as giving a brief description of the research project) conducted approximately 2 weeks before the NWTA. Approximately 50% of the men enrolled attended the pre-interview. For the August 97 and November 97 NWTA, the research packet was sent as a part of a mailing from MKP-GW before every training that includes waivers, general information, and a questionnaire (a separate measure used in the NWTA process). The attendees of the March 98 NWTA were sent the research packet separately and a short time after the packet sent out by MKP-GW. The attendees of the May, August, November 1998 and March 1999 NWTA trainings received the research packet enclosed in the MKP-GW packet routinely sent out. Measures The Gender Role Conflict Scale I (GRCS). The GRCS (ONeil, 1981) is a 37 item self-report instrument designed to assess personal dimensions of gender role patterns. Concurrent with Pleck (1981) in regards to time and theory, ONeil (1981a, 1981b, 1982) developed the theory of gender role conflict. However, more so than Pleck initially, ONeil and his colleagues were driven to operationalize a more precise definition of the

31 discrepancies between ones real and ideal self concept. Therefore, based on extant theoretical writings and their own clinical experience, they developed what was called the Masculine Mystique and Value System, which they defined as a complex set of values and beliefs that define optimal masculinity (ONeil et al. , 1995; p. 171). It was

proposed that the Masculine Mystique and Value System produced a fear of femininity in mens lives, which in turn produced six forms of what they termed gender role conflict in men (ONeil et al. , 1995). Based upon this initial work, and with the encouragement and help of colleagues, ONeil and his research team began the construction of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) in an attempt to measure this construct. ONeil et al. (1986) published a confirmatory analysis of the GRCS I and II, the result of their efforts to create a measure to operationalize their construct. The GRCS-I was designed to assess mens personal gender role attitudes, behaviors and conflicts, and the GRCS-II was designed to assess mens gender role conflicts in specific gender-role conflict situations.(p. 335). Unfortunately, the reliabilities and internal consistency values for two GRCS-II scales were low. The authors felt that this measure required further research, and consequently the GRCS-II has been unavailable for use. However, exploratory factor analysis showed the GRCS-I to have 4 factors, resulting from the combination of two of the scales derived from the Masculine Mystique and Value System and the elimination of one (health care problems). In addition, their study showed all four subscales to have good reliability. A pattern of gender role conflict has been defined as a set of values, attitudes, or behaviors learned during socialization that causes negative psychological effects on a

32 person or on other people (Stillson, ONeil & Owen, 1991, p.460). On this measure, participants respond on a 6 point likert scale (6=Strongly agree, 1= strongly disagree) to statements that concern their personal gender-role attitudes, behaviors, and conflicts with higher scores reflecting higher gender role conflict. The validity of the scale has been supported by convergence with other similar scales of masculinity as well as other measures of masculine oriented conflict and stress. The measure has also been shown to be free from socially desirable responses (Good et al., 1995). The initial common factor analysis with oblique rotation yielded four factors that accounted for 36% of the variance (ONeil et al. 1986), labeled Success Power and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, Restrictive Affectionate Behavior between Men, and Conflict between Work and Family Relations. Success, Power and Competition (SPC, 13 items) is described by ONeil et al. (1995) as having three components. Success is termed as having persistent worries about personal achievement, wealth, competence, failure, upward mobility and career success ( p. 175). Power is described as being oriented towards Obtaining authority, dominance, influence or ascendency over others (p.175). Competition is defined as Striving against others to gain something or the comparison of oneself with others to establish ones superiority in a given situation (p.175). Sample items include: Moving up the career ladder is important to me, and I often feel that I need to be in charge of those around me, and I like to feel superior to other people. Reliabilities from all known studies that have investigated the scales revealed a range of alpha scores for the SPC scale from .83 to .89, with an average of .86 (ONeil et al., 1995).

33 Restrictive Emotionality (RE, 10 items) is defined as Having difficulty and fears about expressing ones feelings and difficulty finding words to express basic emotions.(p. 175). Sample items include, I have difficulty telling others I care about them and I do not like to show my emotions to other people. ONeil et al (1995) report alpha levels ranging from .81 to .91, with an average of .84 for this subscale. Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABM, 8 items) encompasses Having limited ways of expressing emotions and feelings with other men as well as difficulty touching other men (p. 175). Sample questions include Affection with other men makes me tense and Hugging other men is difficult for me. ONeil et al. report a range of alpha scores on this subscale from .82 to .88, with an average of .84. Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR, 6 items) refers to a mans difficulty balancing work-school and family relations and having a lack of leisure time. Due to the fact that it was the weakest factor psychometrically (Good et al. 1995 recommend that this scale not be used until further research can be done to determine the construct validity) and due to time constraints (we did not want the entire questionnaire to take longer than 30 minutes), Conflict between Work and Family Relations was omitted. Depression and Anxiety. Depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed by the depression and anxiety subscales of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), a shortened form of the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90-R). Participants rated how distressed they were by seven symptoms of depression (e.g., having thoughts of ending your life, feeling lonely, feeling blue) and six symptoms of anxiety (e.g., nervousness or shakiness inside, feeling tense or keyed up) during the past week. The items are rated on a 5 point scale ranging

34 from 0 to 4, with 0 representing not at all and 4 representing extremely. This measure is widely used, and studies subsequent to the work done by the authors has shown the test and these subscales to have strong reliability and validity (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983; Boulet. & Boss, 1991) Self-esteem. Self-esteem was assessed with the Rosenburg self-esteem scale. The scale contains 5 positively worded and 5 negatively worded items used to measure selfesteem. This scale is also in wide use and has good reliability and validity (Wells & Marwell, 1976). Demographic and background information. Demographic and background information collected included age, marital status, if there are children living at home, religion, education, occupation, previous self help group involvement (church, 12- step, therapy groups), involvement in psychotherapy, sexual orientation and how the individual found out about MKP. Statistical Analysis The preliminary statistical analyses includes the means and standard deviations of all the measures and their subscales. In addition, correlations were computed between the GRCS, the measures of well-being and the demographic variables. Demographic variables found to be significantly correlated to the criterion variables were treated as covariates. Initially, in testing the first hypothesis, the well being measures were entered simultaneously to test for their association to GRC. However, when the analyses were run, it was found that the well being measures as a group significantly contributed to the

35 variance in GRC scores, but none of the scales had a significant individual contribution. Thus, in order to explore for the effects of the well being measures on GRC scores, stepwise multiple regressions were used as the primary way of exploring the link between well being and GRC scores. In each regression, the covariates determined from the preliminary analyses were entered first. Levels of therapy experience were entered in the next step. In the final step, the subscales of the GRCS were entered in a stepwise manner. Analyses for the second and third hypotheses involved first entering the covariates determined from correlation analysis, and then entering well-being in a stepwise manner, and then levels of therapy experience last for each of the GRC subscales. In addition, a second set of regressions was run to test the second and third hypotheses that first included the covariates, and reversing the order for the last two steps in the primary analyses (therapy experience second, and finally the well-being measures entered in a stepwise manner). Once again, as in the testing of the first hypothesis, the GRC scores were entered in a stepwise manner after simultaneous multiple regression showed that GRC as a whole contributed to variance in well being measures, but that none of the individual subscales made a significant contribution.

Results Preliminary Analyses The means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values for the three GRC subscales, the well-being measures and the level of therapy experience are reported in Table 2. In general, the participants were experiencing a moderate level of GRC

36 (M = 3.39, possible range 1- 6), as well as moderate levels of depression (M = 2.36, possible range 1 - 5), self-esteem (M = 3.71, possible range 1 - 5), and anxiety (M = 2.26, possible range 1 -5). The correlations between the GRC subscales, the well-being subscales, and the demographic variables are presented in Table 3. Moderately high intercorrelations were found among the subscales of the GRCS, ranging from .44 to .77. The correlation between the two subscales that are emotionally oriented (RE and RABM) was the highest (.77), with the correlations between SPC and these two subscales not as strong (.44 and .47 respectively). The correlations among the well-being measures showed moderately high intercorrelations, similar in magnitude and direction with that reported in the empirical literature and in studies validating these measures (Boulet & Boss, 1991). Age, education, and occupation showed a moderate level of intercorrelation as well, the highest between education and occupation (.84). There were four significant correlations between the criterion variables and the demographic variables: age with RABM, occupation with RABM, occupation with anxiety, and age with RE. In addition, MANOVA analyses revealed a significant difference in both well-being scores and GRC scores across levels of therapy experience. The above variables were included in the analyses as covariates. Primary Analyses Relationship between Gender Role Conflict and Psychological Well-Being. The regression results provided full support for the hypothesis that the subscales of the GRCS would predict depression, anxiety and self-esteem in non-college aged men (see Table 5).

37 Three multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine whether levels of GRC are predictive of well-being after controlling for the background variables which correlated significantly with the well-being measures. The two regressions run to explore the relationship between GRC and depression and GRC and self-esteem covaried out therapy experience in the first step. In the regression run to explore the relationship between anxiety and GRC, occupation was entered first, followed by therapy experience. For all of these analyses, the GRC subscales were entered in a stepwise fashion in order to control for multicollinearity so that only the variable(s) that explained a significant amount of remaining variance would be entered. As mentioned in the statistical analysis section, the GRC scores were originally entered simultaneously. The results of those regressions showed that the GRC subscales as a whole contributed to variance in well being scores, but none of the individual scales made a significant contribution. In order to examine if any of the particular subscales were more important in explaining variance in well-being, it was decided to enter the GRC scores in a stepwise manner. For depression, therapy experience explained a significant 13.1 percent of the variance. Independent of therapy experience, RE explained an additional 15.2 percent of the variance. For self esteem, therapy experience explained a significant 7.5 percent of the variance. Independent of therapy experience, RABM explained an additional 15.3 percent of the variance. For anxiety, occupation explained a significant 8.0 percent of the variance, and the

38 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Primary Study Variables N SPC RE RABM Depression Anxiety Self-Esteem 90 90 90 90 90 90 Mean 3.65 3.43 3.06 2.36 2.26 3.71 St. Dev. .88 1.25 1.15 .89 .86 .79 Min. 1.15 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.75 Max 5.77 5.70 5.88 5.00 4.50 5.00

Participants Experiences with Therapy N Currently in Therapy Not Currently in Therapy but Have Been in Past Never Have Had Therapy 39 38 13 Percent 43.3 42.2 14.4 Percent Valid 43.3 42.2 14.4

SPC = Success Power and Competition subscale of the GRCS RE = Restrictive Emotionality subscale of the GRCS RABM = Restrictive Emotionality between Men subscale of the GRCS

39 Table 3 Correlation table of Well-Being Measures, GRC Subscales, and Demographic Variables (one tailed). Variable 1. 2. Depression Anxiety .28** .000 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Self-esteem SPC RE RABM Age Education Occupation .014 .000 .000 .260 .297 -.01 .481 -.06 .288 .004 .07 .266 .03 .386 - .16 .076 -.18* .043 -.31** -.45** -.46** .11 .001 .000 .000 .154 .44** .47** -.07 .000 .000 .251 1 -2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .01 .476 -.057 9 -.10 .170 -

.64** -.71** .35** .49** .48** -.02 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .437 -.42** .23* .36** .36** -.07

.77** -.23* -.11 .000 .015 .159 -.20* .031 .02 .442

.41** .45** .000 .000 .84** .000 --

* p< .05. ** p< .01 1. The actual significance level is displayed beneath the correlation levels. The correlation values are also marked with asterisks to indicate significance levels.

40 Table 4 MANOVA Results for Therapy Experience Means and Univariate F-tests (2,87) D. F. Comparing Levels of Well-Being across Levels of Therapy Experience No Therapy Experience DEPR ANX SE 1.93 1.92 4.14 Past Therapy Experience 2.13 2.09 3.78 Currently In Therapy 2.72 2.55 3.51 F 6.57 4.23 3.52 F sig. .002 .018 .034

Note: MANOVA multivariate F (6,172)=2.52, p<.05. Pillais test used. Means and Univariate F-tests (2,87) D. F. Comparing Levels of Gender Role Conflict across Levels of Therapy Experience No Therapy Experience SPC RE RABM 3.29 2.92 2.37 Past Therapy Experience 3.54 3.16 2.76 Currently In Therapy 3.87 3.87 3.58 F 2.73 4.81 8.90 F sig. .071 .010 .000

Note: MANOVA multivariate F (6,172)=2.76, p<.01. Pillais test used. SPC = Success Power and Competition subscale of the GRCS RE = Restrictive Emotionality subscale of the GRCS RABM = Restrictive Emotionality between Men subscale of the GRCS

41 two variables were inversely related. Independent of occupation, therapy experience explained 6.0 percent of the variance, which approached statistical significance. Independent of therapy experience and occupation, RE explained an additional 6.5 percent of the variance. Relationship between Gender Role Conflict, Age, and Therapy Experience. The regression results provided partial support for the hypothesis that age would be related to GRC, and it was found that therapy experience was related to GRC, though the direction was not as predicted (see Table 6). For all three regressions, age was entered first. The two regressions run to explore the relationship between GRC and depression and GRC and self-esteem covaried out therapy experience in the second step. In the regression run to explore the relationships with anxiety, occupation was entered second, followed by therapy experience. For all of these analyses, the well-being measures were entered last in a step- wise manner to further explore the possible relations that well-being may have in predicting GRC. Initially, the predictor variables were run simultaneously. However, these regressions showed the final step explaining a significant amount of variance without any of the variables within the step showing significance. Thus, the these hypotheses were tested with the well-being measures entered in a step wise fashion in order to control for suspected multicollinearity so that only the variable(s) that explained a significant amount of remaining variance would be used. For SPC, age predicted a non-significant 0.5 percent of the variance. After controlling for age, therapy experience explained 5.7 percent of the variance and

42 Table 5 Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for the Three GRC Subscales Predicting Well-Being (N=89) Variable Depression Step 1: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 2a : Gender Role Conflict RE Step R2 Change Final equation F (3,86)=11.35***, R2=.415 Self-Esteem Step 1: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 2a : Gender Role Conflict RABM Step R2 Change Final equation F (3,86)=8.48***, R2=.303 -.430*** .153*** -.430*** .075* -.400** -.233 -.175 -.160 .411*** .152*** .411*** .440*** .115 .131*** .283* .075 Beta At Entry Final Beta

43 Table 5 Continued Variable Beta At Entry Final Beta

Anxiety Step 1: Occupation Occupation Step R2 Change Step 2: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 3a : Gender Role Conflict RE Step R2 Change Final equation F (4,81)=5.23***, R2=.425 a - SPC, RE, RABM were entered in this step in a step wise fashion. SPC = Success Power and Competition subscale of the GRCS RE = Restrictive Emotionality subscale of the GRCS RABM = Restrictive Emotionality between Men subscale of the GRCS b - p<.07 *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001 .065** .269** .269** .060b .312* .094 .221 .071 .080** -.282*** -.213*

44 approached statistical significance. After controlling for age and therapy experience, depression levels significantly explained an additional 8 percent of the variance, with higher depression scores associated with higher SPC scores. For RE, age explained a significant 6.1 percent of the variance, with age having an inverse relationship to RE. Occupation did not significantly contribute to the variance after controlling for age. Therapy experience explained a significant 8.3 percent of the variance after controlling for age and occupation. After controlling for age, occupation and therapy experience, depression levels significantly explained an additional 16 percent of the variance, with higher depression scores associated with higher RE scores. For RABM, age explained a significant 5.2 percent of the variance, with age having an inverse relationship to RABM. After controlling for age, occupation did not significantly contribute to levels of RABM. Therapy experience significantly contributed 15.7 percent of the variance in RABM scores after controlling for age and occupation. After controlling for age, occupation and therapy experience, depression levels significantly explained an additional 12 percent of the variance, with higher depression scores associated with higher RE scores. Independent samples t-tests were run to compare the GRCS scores of the present sample to other samples with varying age characteristics. In summary, the comparison of the present samples GRCS scores with different samples with different ages revealed that the younger men in the other samples had higher SPC and RABM scores than did the present sample. In addition, in the majority of studies, no difference was found in RE scores, and the two significant differences found conflicted in their direction, suggesting that there was no meaningful difference between the present

45 Table 6 Summary of Step Wise Regression Analysis for the Effects of Age and Therapy Experience on GRC (N=89) Variable Beta At Entry Final Beta

Success, Power and Competition Step 1: Age Age Step R2 Change Step 2: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 3a : Well-Being Depression Step R2 Change Final equation F (4,84)=3.48**, R2=.209 Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men Step 1: Age Age Step R2 Change .052* -.228* -.217* .080** .305** .305** .338* .162 .057, p=.082 .196 .119 -.072 .005, ns. -.075

46 Table 6 Continued Variable Step 2: Occupation Occupation Step R2 Change Step 3: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 4a : Well-Being Depression Step R2 Change Final equation F (5,80)=8.26***, R2=.671 Restrictive Emotionality Step 1: Age Age Step R2 Change Step 2: Occupation Occupation Step R2 Change -.057 .003, ns. -.014 .061* -.246* -.237* .378*** .122*** .378*** .568*** .274 .157*** .397** .227 -.105 .009, ns. -.014 Beta At Entry Final Beta

47 Table 6 Continued Variable Step 3: Therapy Experience Currently in Therapy Therapy In Past Step R2 Change Step 4a : Well-Being Depression Step R2 Change Final equation F (5,80)=7.07***, R2=.577 .432*** .160*** .432*** .083* .390** .151 .194 .097 Beta At Entry Final Beta

a Well-Being measures were entered in a step wise fashion. *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

48 sample and the younger samples RE scores.

Discussion GRC and Well-Being. As predicted, and consistent with past research, higher levels of GRC were related to lower levels of well-being. Of the GRC subscales, RE and RABM showed the strongest link to well-being and among the well-being variables, depression showed the strongest link to GRC. The correlations between well being and GRC in the present study are noticeably higher than in all previous studies, both those that looked at college aged men and the limited number of studies that looked at older men. These findings strongly support the hypothesis that GRC is related to psychological well being. In addition, these findings were found in a population outside of the more heavily studied college aged population. This finding is consistent with the theory of Gender Role Strain proposed by Pleck (1981) and of Gender Role Conflict proposed by ONeil (1982). According to these theories, the traditional roles into which men are socialized (and which the GRCS is hypothesized to measure) serve to influence well-being negatively. The cross-sectional design of this study does not permit an explicit test of causality; however the results are consistent with, and do not contradict, this hypothesis. Another possible explanation of these findings however, is that GRC is actually an integral aspect of well-being. It is quite conceivable that a freedom from the tyranny of always having to win and be the Alpha Wolf, having adequate ability and openness

49 Table 7 Sample Present Study SPC RE RABM Independent Samples t-Test Comparing GRC Scores (two tailed). Mean/SD 3.65/.91 3.43/1.22 3.06/1.16 Age/Sample size 43.92/90 t-score

SAMPLES OF YOUNGER MEN Sharpe & Heppner (1991) SPC RE RABM Blazina &Watkins (1996) SPC RE RABM Good & Wood (1995) SPC RE RABM Fischer & Good (1997) SPC RE RABM 4.06/.87 3.25/1.05 4.02/1.13 4.24/.81 3.36/.98 4.28/1.08 19.7/208 4.14** -1.23 7.17** 4.24/.81 3.36/.98 4.28/1.08 19.3/397 7.07** -.39 10.68** 4.01/.96 3.17/.98 4.00/1.07 23.25/148 5.48** -.54 5.15** College aged/190 3.30** -1.94* 7.08**

50 Table 7 Continued. Independent Samples T-Test Comparing GRC Scores (two tailed). Sample Good & Mintz (1990) SPC RE RABM Good et al. (1997) SPC RE RABM Cournoyer & Mahalik (1995) SPC RE RABM 3.85/1.00 3.12/.99 3.58/.92 3.94/.93 3.59/1.12 3.83/1.34 19.81/88 1.48 -1.81 3.10** 4.27/.82 3.78/1.06 3.76/.99 23.22/130 2.50** 1.33 4.63** Mean/SD Age 19.3/401 6.25** 2.90** 5.29** t-score

SAMPLES OF OLDER MEN Cournoyer & Mahalik (1995) SPC RE RABM 3.45/.81 3.26/.81 3.40/1.03 40.96/89 -1.78 -0.34 0.88

51 Table 7 Continued. Independent Samples T-Test Comparing GRC Scores (two tailed). Sample Stillson et al. (1991) SPC RE RABM * - p<.05 **- p<.01 3.60/.91 3.09/1.12 3.59/1.30 Mean/SD Age 30.33/134 -.55 -2.19* 3.11** t-score

to experience and express emotion, and being expressive enough to give and receive honest and affirmative feedback from other men (all characteristic of low GRC) is an indicator, rather than being a prognosticator, of good psychological health. Another alternative explanation, causally opposite to the first, would be that wellbeing influences GRC. For instance, within this framework, some significant life event construed as stressful and negative occurs, and as a result, the mans well-being declines. As a result of his increased depression, anxiety and decreased self esteem, the man would then be hypothesized to regress to the more defensive traditional male gender role. For example, suppose a man has recently gone through a divorce. The failure of his marriage may influence him to feel that he is a failure in life (decreasing his self esteem and increasing his depression), and as a result, he may try to compensate by trying to succeed in his work or in his hobbies, thus over-investing himself in the constructs of SPC. As a result of the divorce, he may also experience a wave of fear and sadness greater than he has ever experienced before in his life. The overwhelming nature of a divorce and the

52 accompanying emotional distress may challenge his previously adequate coping skills, and it is conceivable that a man in this situation may now restrict emotional displays and expression that would have previously been displayed in order to maintain a sense of control that is consistent with his self-image. With the lack of empirical evidence for directional causality in the present study, this explanation is as plausible as the theory that GRC influences well-being. Although all correlations were statistically significant, RE and RABM, but not SPC were found to be more related to well being in the multivariate regressions, a finding which is unique to this study. One possible explanation is that the men who sign up to attend the NWTA are more prone to experience conflict concerning RE and RABM, compared to previous studies. For example, for this sample of highly educated, professionally employed and middle-aged men, a higher level of SPC may be less dysfunctional than for men from more average SES levels and who are younger. Being concerned with success may be less counterproductive to mental health when one actually achieves success. And, as Jung (1976) proposed, the lack of emotional related skills in middle aged men may be strongly linked to well-being in a way less true for younger men who can compensate by striving to achieve. In an essay on the stages of life, comparing ones lifetime to the course of the sun during the day, Jung (1976) states: There is an interesting report in the ethnological literature about an Indian warrior chief to whom in the middle of life the Great Spirit appeared in a dream. The spirit announced to him that from then on he must sit among the woman and children, wear womans clothes, and eat the food of

53 women. He obeyed the dream without suffering a loss of prestige. This vision is a true expression of the psychic revolution of lifes noon, of the beginning of lifes decline. Mans values, and even his body, do tend to change into their opposites...The worst of it all is that intelligent and cultivated people live their lives without even knowing the possibility of such transformations... thoroughly unprepared we take the step into the afternoon of life; worse still, we take this step with the false assumption that our truths and ideals will serve us as hitherto. But we cannot love the afternoon of life according to the programme of lifes morning; for what was great in morning will be little at evening, and what in the what in the morning was true will at evening have become a lie.... Instead of doing likewise [embracing the ephemeral nature of life], many old people prefer to be hypochondriacs, niggards, pedants, applauders of the past or else eternal adolescentsall lamentable substitutes for the illumination of the self, but inevitable consequences of the delusion that the second half of life must be governed by the principles of the first. (pp. 15-16). In conclusion, it is worthy of note that the only well being variable that explained some of the variance in GRC scores was Depression. This could potentially be due to the fact that the well-being measures shared a large amount of variance and only the one with the strongest association (depression) entered into the regression equation. Future research should address this finding to see if only depression is predictive of GRC scores.. Age and GRC. The analysis exploring if SPC scores would decrease with

54 increasing age, a prediction of this study, a finding of previous research and an idea consistent with the theories of Jung described above, was not supported. However, it is interesting to note that when the present samples scores on SPC are compared with the scores of college aged men from earlier studies, younger men in other studies tended to experience higher levels of SPC than did the relatively older men in this sample (see table 7). These cross-sample findings in contrast to the lack of findings within sample are consistent with previous research and blend nicely with the theories of Jung mentioned above. A modest statistically significant relation was found between age and both RE and RABM in the current study, with RE and RABM declining with higher age. In addition, the cross studies t-test comparisons revealed that samples of college aged men in other studies generally experienced higher levels of RABM than did the present, older sample. The relation of RE and RABM to age is a new finding, and is different from the findings of previous research. Cournoyer and Mahalik (1995) found the only subscale on which older men scored differently than younger men was SPC (and the Conflict Between Work and Family Relations subscale which was not included in the present study). A possible explanation for why SPC does not decrease as age increases within the sample population may relate to the unique nature of the men who attend the NWTA. First of all, the cost of the training, which can be up to six hundred and fifty dollars, may very well dissuade more typically demographic younger men from attending the training, as on the aggregate, younger men are not as wealthy as older men. In addition, the appeal of what the training may offer may not be as appealing to a younger man who would

55 understandably be interested in putting aside inner exploration in order to concentrate on achieving success as to an older man who has already done so and is looking for more. Given that this training may not be as appealing to younger men, it is quite possible that the younger men who do sign up to attend are of a kind that are not as prone to SPC. For instance, anecdotal evidence shows that some of the younger men who attend these weekends are sons of men who have previously attended the weekend. The younger men who do attend may be strongly influenced by a father or relative who has partaken in this kind of work, an influence that may include raising a child with less traditional views, more progressive attitudes about gender, and providing an environment where psychological introspection is encouraged. In addition, the mere choice to attend a challenging weekend training with primarily older men could very well indicate that these younger men are a self-selecting sample who are less affected by SPC (and more psychologically aware and driven by a need for increased awareness than many others their age). Finally, the sample in the present study differs from the sample in the one previous study which found a relationship between SPC and age. Cournoyer and Mahaliks (1995) older sample of men were all employed, at least college educated, married and had children living in the home. In the present study, not all of the men were employed (for instance, some of the men were in between careers, and some had recently retired), only thirty percent of the men were married and even less had children living in their homes. In addition, a significantly larger portion of the men from the present study declared they were homosexual or bisexual (21.1 percent) than did the married men with children from the study done by Cournoyer and Mahalik (1995) . Thus, due to the different

56 demographic characteristics of the present population, the relation of older men to SPC may be different in the current sample. GRC and Therapy experience. A significant link was found between the participants level of therapy experience and GRC. However, the direction of the relationship was opposite to that predicted. Men who are currently in therapy had greater levels of RE and RABM than did men who have never had therapy (SPC approached statistical significance). Men who have had therapy in the past had higher levels of GRC than men who have never had therapy, but the results were not statistically significant. This study hypothesized, in line with Jungs views, that the therapeutic experience would help facilitate an exploration of the underlying schemas that contribute to GRC in men (especially for those who are approaching or are experiencing middle age). The results, however, suggest a much different picture. There are many potential explanations for this outcome. It could be that the men in therapy in fact are not suffering from GRC more than the other men, but that the therapeutic setting is simply making them more acutely aware of GRC, in a way that others not in therapy can more easily ignore. This would explain the highest levels in those currently in therapy, the next highest in those who have done therapy in the past, and the lowest levels in those who have never done therapy (ignorance being bliss). Alternatively, the men who are currently in therapy may be experiencing an abnormally high level of acute stress. That is, men may get involved in therapy because they have high levels of acute life turmoil, including high levels of GRC.

57 It is also possible that therapy ultimately does in fact address and ameliorate the effects of GRC, but that the improvement in GRC has not yet been detected in the participants scores. This view fits nicely with the findings of a non-significant rise in GRC scores in those men who have previously attended therapy when compared to those currently in therapy. However, this theory is difficult to evaluate without the benefit of longitudinal data directly indicating whether therapy does indeed reduce GRC scores over time. Another possible explanation for the difference of levels of GRC in the different therapy conditions is that the men who have lower levels of GRC have also been adequately and more appropriately socialized, thus giving them greater psychological wellbeing and less reason to seek therapy. The relationship between RE and RABM. The results of this study showed two of the GRC subscales, RE and RABM to be very highly correlated with each other. They also were correlated with the well-being measures comparably, and did together, and not independently, explain variance in well-being. Thus it is possible that RE and RABM are so strongly connected as to represent the same construct. Previous research has not shown as strong a connection between the RE and RABM subscales as in the present study. Given that the results of studies that validated the GRCS have found good construct validity for each of the subscales (ONeil et al., 1995), the strength of the present relationship is surprising. However, even though the strength of the interrelationship between RE and RABM was not as strong in other studies as in the current study, other research has

58 found RE and RABM to be strongly related (approximately .60 or below found in past studies versus .77 found in the present study; Good and Wood, 1995; Sharpe et al., 1995). Good and Wood (1995) indeed proposed that GRC is best divided into two segments: Restriction-related GRC (which is made up of RE and RABM) and Achievement-related GRC (SPC from this study). Also, Sharpe et al. (1995) concluded from a canonical analysis that two constructs are required to understand psychological well-being in men Agentic well-being (strongly influenced by instrumentality and self-esteem), and Expressive/Emotive well-being (which is representative of the RE and RABM subscales). Overall, the results of these two previous studies, taken into consideration with the present findings, lend credence to the idea that RE and RABM may represent the same underlying construct in non-collegiate aged men. Limitations and Future Directions. Several limitations of this study are worth noting. The current study adds to our understanding of GRC in men greater than college age. The present study examines a more diverse population of middle aged men than has previously been studied, containing men with different levels of marital status, age and sexual orientation. However, the results, due to the unique nature of the population, are not easily generalizable to the overall population of non-college aged men. For one, this is a self-selecting sample of men who are volunteering to partake in an intense and deeply involved psychological experience. The men studied thus would seem to have greater insight or need for insight, or a greater desire for personal work than a general sample of men. And, as mentioned before, the same differing demographic characteristics which add to the value of this study diminish the ability to generalize results to other populations.

59 This study also used a passive design. No variables were manipulated and causality cannot be determined from the results. Also, the cross sectional data collection methodology makes it difficult to understand how time and aging affect the expression of GRC . The age effects (or lack thereof), thus could be due to cohort effects; i.e. the developmental social environment in which the men from different ages were raised will differ, thus making it difficult to base conclusions on age per se. The study is also limited by the fact that the data were self report, and could be subject to all of the biases associated with that form of assessment. It would help to attempt to gather additional information from the participants friends, co-workers and partners. Finally, there are potential third variables that were not addressed in the research design that may influence the expression of GRC, e.g., social support levels, developmental history and exposure to violence. There are many directions that future work concerning GRC could take based on the findings of this study. For one, a longitudinal design that collects data from different time points would aid in assessing how GRC changes in a mans lifetime. Future research may want to further explore the influence that well-being has on GRC as well as GRCs effect on well-being. A study that explores how GRC patterns are affected by therapy by tracking the men across the time of their therapeutic relationship may help to elucidate the results that showed higher GRC levels for men who are currently in therapy versus men who have never had therapy. In addition, GRC could also be compared to other wellbeing measures to examine their potential interrelations. An interesting finding of this study addressed the relation of age to GRC. Though

60 many interesting and contraindicated conclusions were found, the design of the present study does not allow more careful analysis of the findings, and future research would help to clarify the relationship between age and GRC. Future studies would also be well served to look into the potential interrelation between RE and RABM to ascertain see if the current studys findings of interrelationship are replicated. This study also found differing levels of well being associated with the different GRC subscales. Future studies may wish to examine the link between SES and GRC to see if economic well-being influences the presentation of GRC. Future research should also address the finding that the only wellbeing variable in multivariate analysis that predicts GRC when all variables are available for entrance is depression, in order to see if it is replicated. In addition, a review of the literature did not reveal any studies of homosexual men. Given the large percentage of men from the present study who are homosexual or bisexual combined with the higher correlation levels between GRC and well being, future research may want to explore the patterns of GRC and its connection to well being in a homosexual population. Despite the limitations, this study found strong links between psychological wellbeing variables and GRC, which adds new understanding to how GRC manifests itself in non-college aged men. In addition, interesting findings concerning how men with therapy experience manifest GRC were found. It is hoped that this study has helped to clarify the existing body of literature in the important area of GRC, and opened doors for future research on GRC and its interactions with age and therapy experience.

61 References Blazina, C., & Watkins, C. E. (1996). Masculine gender role conflict: Effects on college mens psychological well-being, chemical substance usage, and attitudes toward help-seeking. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43 (4), 461-465. Boulet, J., & Boss, M. W. (1991). Reliability and validity of the brief symptom inventory. Psychological Assessment, 3 (3), 433-437. Carrigan, T., Connell, B, & Lee, J. (1987). Toward a new sociology of masculinity. In H. Brod (Ed.), The making of masculinities: The new mens studies. Winchester, MA: Allen & Unwin. Chodrow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cook, E. P. (1987). Psychological Androgyny: A review of the research. The Counseling Psychologist, 15 (3), 471-513. Cournoyer, R. J., &Mahalik, J. R. (1995). Cross-sectional study of gender role conflict examining college-aged and middle-aged men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42 (1), 11-19. Davis, F. (1987). Antecedents and consequents of gender role conflict: An empirical test of sex-role strain analysis (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/11, 3443. Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The brief symptom inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 596-605.

62 Downs, A. C., & Engleson, S. A. (1982). The Attitudes towards Men Scale: An analysis of the role and status of men and masculinity. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1 2, 45 (Ms. No. 2503). The trouble with men. (1996, September 28). The Economist, pp. 19-20. Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1997). Men and psychotherapy: An investigation of alexithymia, intimacy, and masculine gender roles. Psychotherapy, 34 (2), 160-170. Good, G. E., Dell, D. M., & Mintz, L. B. (1989). Male role and gender role conflict: Relations to help-seeking in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 295300. Good, G. E., & Mintz, L. B. (1990). Gender role conflict and depression in college men: Evidence for compounded risk. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69 (Sept./ Oct.), 17-21. Good, G. E., Robertson, J. M.., Fitzgerald, L. F., Stevens, M., & Bartels, K. M. (1996). The relation between Masculine Role conflict and psychological distress in male university counseling center clients. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 44-49. Good, G. E., Robertson, J. M.., ONeil, J. M., Fitzgerald, L. F., Stevens, M., DeBord, K. A., Bartels, K. M., & Braverman, D. G. (1995). Male gender role conflict: Psychometric issues and relations to psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42 (1), 3-10. Good, G. E., & Wood, P. K. (1995). Male gender role conflict, depression and help seeking: Do college men face double jeopardy? Journal of Counseling and Development, 74 (Sept. / Oct.), 70-75.

63 Hare-Mustin, R. T., & Marecek, J. (1990). On making a difference. In R. T. HareMustin & J. Marecek (Eds.), Making a difference: Psychology and the construction of gender. New Haven: Yale University Press. Harrison, J. (1978). Warning: The male sex role may be hazardous to your health. Journal of Social Issues, 34, (1), 65-86. Jung, Carl, G. (1976). The stages of life. In J. Campbell (Ed.), The portable Jung. N.Y.: The Viking Press. Kimmel, M.. S. (1987). Rethinking masculinity: New directions in research. In M. S. Kimmel (Ed.), Changing men: New directions in research on men and masculinity. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Kimmel, M.. S. (1987). The contemporary crisis of masculinity in historical perspective. In H. Brod (Ed.), The making of masculinities: The new mens studies. Winchester, MA: Allen & Unwin. Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Levant, R. F., & Kopecky, G.(1995). Masculinity reconstructed: Changing the rules of manhood: At work, in relationships and in family life. New York: Penguin. Mead, M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: Morrow. Licht, Paul R. (1995).Multiple regression and correlation. In L. G. Grimm & P. R. Yarnold, (Eds.,) Reading and understanding multivariate statistics. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association Press.

64 Mankowski, E., Maton, K. I., Burke, C. K., Hoover, S. (In Press). Participation and retention in a mutual mens support organization. In E. Barton (Ed.), Mythopoetic perspectives of mens work: An anthology for therapists and others. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ONeil, J. M.. (1981a). Male sex-role conflict, sexism, and masculinity: Implications for men, women, and the counseling psychologist. The Counseling Psychologist, 9, 61-80. ONeil, J. M.. (1981b). Patterns of gender role conflict and strain: Sexism and fear of femininity in mens lives. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 60, 203-210. ONeil, J. M.. (1982). Gender role conflict and strain in mens lives: Implications for psychiatrists, psychologists, and other human service providers. In K. Solomon & N. B. Levy (Eds.), Men in transition: Changing male roles, theory, and therapy. New York: Plenum. ONeil, J. M.., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on mens gender role conflict: New paradigms for empirical research. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.) A New Psychology of Men. New York: Basic Books. ONeil, J. M., Helms, B. J., Gable, R. K., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1986). Gender-role conflict scale: College mens fear of femininity. Sex Roles, 14 (5/6), 335350. Pleck, J. H., (1981). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

65 Pleck, J. H. (1987). The theory of male sex-role identity: Its rise and fall, 1936 to the present. In H. Brod (Ed.), The making of masculinities: The new mens studies. Winchester, MA: Allen & Unwin. Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.) A New Psychology of Men. New York: Basic Books. Radloff, I. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1 (3), 385-401. Robertson, J. M., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1992). Overcoming the masculine mystique: Preferences for alternative forms of assistance among men who avoid counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 240-246. Stillson, R. W., ONeil, J. M., & Owen, S. V. (1991). Predictors of adult mens gender-role conflict: Race, class, unemployment, age, instrumentality-expressiveness, and personal strain. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38 (4), 458-464. Sharpe, M.. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38 (3), 323-330. Sharpe, M.. J., Heppner, P. P., & Dixon, W. A. (1995). Gender role conflict, instrumentality, expressiveness, and well-being in adult men. Sex Roles, 33 (1 / 2), 1-18. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1974). The personal attributes questionnaire: A measure of sex role stereotypes and masculinity-femininity. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology. 4:43. Terman, L., & Miles, C. (1936). Sex and personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

66 Unger, R.K. (1979). Toward a redefinition of sex and gender. American Psychologist, 34 (11), 1085-1094. Wells, L. E., & Marwell, G. (1976). Self esteem: Its conceptualization and measurement. Berkeley, CA: Sage Publications. Yager, G. G., & Baker, S. (1979, September). Thoughts on androgyny for the counseling psychologist. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.

67 Appendix PRE-WEEKEND RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire asks you about several areas of your life. On average it has taken the previous men 30 minutes to complete, although some have spent up to an hour on it. We recommend that you use these parameters to estimate the length of time that it may take you to complete it. If it helps you in planning to complete this, it does not have to be answered in one sitting. We encourage you to answer the questions as honestly as possible. We value your privacy and our intention is to maintain strict anonymity throughout the research. However, we do need a way of identifying the same person who will fill out several questionnaires at different points in time. In order that we may be able to do this, we are asking you to give us information which will allow us to identify future questionnaires you complete, but will not allow us to identify you by name. Please fill out the following three questions. First car that you owned (Include color) Your mother's maiden name Last 4 digits of your Social Security Number

Date of questionnaire Completion: __/__/__

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND EFFORT!

68
Background Information People have different stereotypes about who takes part in men's groups like New Warrior. To help us provide more accurate information about New Warrior participants, please fill out the information below. 1.Age 3.Ethnicity 2.Marital Status 4.Religious Preference

5.Number of children living in your home 6.Last level of education completed 7.Current Occupation/Job Description 8.Sexual Orientation 9.Ever Served in the Military?

Please indicate your current and past involvement in the following. Currently Ever Length of Involved Involved involvement In: In: 10. 12 step self-help groups Yes No Yes No No No No No No Yes No

11. Other types of self-help Yes No Yes groups, except men's groups 12. Other mens groups Yes No Yes Yes

13. Church groups or religious Yes No organizations

14. Therapy with a therapist Yes No Yes who has done the NW training 15. Therapy with a therapist Yes No Yes not connected with NWW 16. Did you receive a scholarship for the weekend?

17. How did you find out about the NWW training weekend: a. Existing warrior b. Media (Books, TV, etc) c. Therapist d. Other Yes Yes Yes No No No

69
Below are listed a number of goals people might have for their life. For each goal listed, first indicate how important a personal goal this is for you, using the first set of numbers listed. Then, for each goal listed, indicate how satisfied you are about your current level of achievement of the goal, using the second set of numbers listed. In both cases, please use the following scale. 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 Somewhat 4 Pretty 5 Very

How How satisfied important are you with is the goal your level of to you? achievement of the goal? 1. Being successful in my line of work 2. Having a happy family life 3. Having a high quality relationship with a spouse/partner 4. Having lots of money 5. Having strong friendships 6. Having strong friendships with other men 7. Assuming leadership roles 8. Developing leadership qualities 9. Working to correct social, racial, or economic inequalities 10. Having leisure time to enjoy my own interests 11. Serving as a model for other men 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

12. Helping other men develop and grow 1 13. Being effective and "present" as a father (if applicable) 14. Having a deep spiritual life 15. Having good physical health 16. 1 1 1

1 Any other important life goal we did not ask about? Please write in)

70
Below are listed 31 statements. Please circle the number in the right hand column that indicates how much you agree or disagree with each statement. 1 Strongly Disagree 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly Agree 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

1. Moving up the career ladder is important to me. 2. I have difficulty telling others I care about them. 3. Verbally expressing my love to another man is difficult for me. 4. Making money is part of my idea of being a successful man. 1 5. Strong emotions are difficult for me to understand. 6. Affection with other men makes me tense. 7. I sometimes define my personal value by my career success. 8. Expressing feelings makes me feel open to attack by other people. 9. Expressing my emotions to other men is risky. 10. I evaluate other peoples value by their level of achievement and success. 11. Talking (about my feelings) during sexual relations is difficult for me. 12. Men who touch other men make me uncomfortable. 13. I worry about failing and how it affects my doing well as a man. 14. I have difficulty expressing my emotional needs to my partner. 15. Hugging other men is difficult for me.

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6

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1 Strongly Disagree 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly Agree 5 5 6 6

16. Doing well all the time is important to me. 17. I have difficulty expressing my tender feelings. 18. I am sometimes hesitant to show my affection to men because of how others might perceive me. 19. I often feel that I need to be in charge of those around me.

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20. Telling others of my strong feelings is not part of my sexual behavior. 1 21. Being very personal with other men makes me feel uncomfortable. 22. Competing with others is the best way to succeed. 1 1

23. I often have trouble finding words that describe how I am feeling. 1 24. Men who are overly friendly to me, make me wonder about their sexual preference. 1 25. Winning is a measure of my value and personal worth. 26. I do not like to show my emotion to other people. 27. I strive to be more successful than others. 28. Telling my partner my feelings about him/her during sex is difficult for me. 29. I am often concerned about how others evaluate my performance at work or school. 30. Being smarter or physically stronger than other men is important to me. 31. I like to feel superior to other people. 1 1 1

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This read that PAST is a each best WEEK list of problems and complaints that people sometimes have. Please one carefully. After you have done so, please circle the number describes HOW MUCH DISCOMFORT THAT PROBLEM HAS CAUSED YOU DURING THE INCLUDING TODAY. HOW MUCH WERE YOU DISTRESSED BY 1 Not at all Extremely 1. Nervousness or shakiness inside 2. Thoughts of ending your life 3. Suddenly scared for no reason 4. Feeling lonely 5. Feeling blue 6. Feeling no interest in things 7. Feeling fearful 8. Your feelings being easily hurt 9. Feeling hopeless about the future 10. Feeling tense or keyed up 11. Spells of terror or panic 12. Feeling so restless you couldn't sit still 13. Feelings of worthlessness 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 A little 3 Moderately 4 Pretty Much 5

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For the next set of items, indicate in the past week, how often you: 0 Never 1 Once 2 Twice 3 Three or more times 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1. Spent an hour with a child? 2. Spent an hour with a spouse/partner? 3. Spent an hour with a female friend? 4. Spent an hour with a male friend? 5. Had someone closely listen to your problem/concern? 6. Been drunk/drank too much? 7. Been high? 8. Had sex or masturbated? 9. Hurt someone else physically? 10. Listened closely to someone else's problem/concern?

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The next set of items focus on how you spend your time: 1.In general, how many hours a week do you spend at work? _________ Do you feel this is: too much about right not enough?

2.In general, how many hours a week do you spend with your children?______ (if applicable) Do you feel this is: too much about right not enough?

3.In general, how many hours a week do you spend with your primary partner? _______ (if applicable) Do you feel this is: too much about right not enough?

4.In general, how many hours a week do you spend on hobbies or fun activities?________ Do you feel this is: too much about right not enough?

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Please use the scale below, and honestly indicate how accurately each item does, or does not, describe you. Just circle the number that best describes how accurate the statement is as a description of how you see yourself. 1 Not at all accurate 2 3 somewhat accurate 4 5 completely accurate 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal with others. 2. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 3. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 6. I take a positive attitude toward myself. 7. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 8. I certainly feel useless at times. 9. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 10. At times, I think I am no good at all. 11. There is really no way I can solve some of the problems I have. 12. Sometimes I feel that I am being pushed around in life. 13. I have little control over the things that happen to me. 14. I can do just about anything I really set my mind to do. 15. I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life. 16. What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me. 17. There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life.

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18. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 19. The conditions of my life are excellent. 20. I am satisfied with my life. 21. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 22. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 23. I have discovered clear-cut goals and a satisfying life purpose. 24. I do not divide life into sacred and secular; I believe all of life is infused with sacredness. 25. Contact with the transcendent, spiritual dimension has given me a sense of personal power and confidence. 26. Contact with the transcendent, spiritual dimension has enhanced my emotional health. 27. Involvement in ritual has contributed to my personal growth and development. 28. Involvement in ritual has enhanced my emotional health. 29. I carry around a lot of negative feelings (anger, mistrust, fear) towards women. 30. I carry around a lot of negative feelings (anger, mistrust, fear) towards men. 31. I carry around a lot of shame, especially involving sexuality and other aspects of my masculinity. 32. I carry around a lot of pain and unhealed wounds from my childhood. 33. I am assertive and clear with others about what I want or need. 34. I am a man of power, a man among men. 35. My mission in life is clear.

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The following three questions ask about people in your environment who provide you with help or support. Each question has two parts. For the first part, list all the people you know, excluding yourself, whom you can count on for help or support in the manner described. Give the persons initials (under INIT.), their gender (under GEND.), and their relationship to you (under RELAT.) (see example). Do not list more than one person next to each of the letters beneath the question. In place of a specific individual, if there is a group of people (a church group, a support group, etc.) you feel is particularly important, more so than any individual within it, you may list the group in place of naming all the individual members. For the second part, circle how satisfied you are with the overall support you have. If you have no support for a question, check the words "No one," but still rate your level of satisfaction. Do not list more than nine persons per question. EXAMPLE: Who can you really count on to be dependable when you need help? No One INIT. GEND. 1) 2) 3) How satisfied? 1 2 very fairly dissatisfied dissatisfied 3 a little dissatisfied 4 5 a little satisfied 6 fairly satisfied very satisfied RELAT. INIT. GEND. 4) 5) 6) RELAT. INIT. GEND. RELAT 7) 8) 9)

QUESTIONS 1. Who can you count on to listen openly and uncritically to your innermost feelings? No One INIT. GEND. 1) 2) 3) How satisfied? 1 2 very fairly dissatisfied dissatisfied 3 a little dissatisfied 4 5 a little satisfied 6 fairly satisfied very satisfied RELAT. INIT. GEND. 4) 5) 6) RELAT. INIT. GEND. RELAT 7) 8) 9)

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2. Whose lives do you feel that you are an important part of? No One INIT. GEND. 1) 2) 3) How satisfied? 1 2 very fairly dissatisfied dissatisfied 3 a little dissatisfied 4 5 a little satisfied 6 fairly satisfied very satisfied RELAT. INIT. GEND. 4) 5) 6) RELAT. INIT. GEND. RELAT 7) 8) 9)

3. Who accepts you totally, including your best and worst points? No One INIT. GEND. 1) 2) 3) How satisfied? 1 2 very fairly dissatisfied dissatisfied 3 a little dissatisfied 4 5 a little satisfied 6 fairly satisfied very satisfied RELAT. INIT. GEND. 4) 5) 6) RELAT. INIT. GEND. RELAT 7) 8) 9)

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Please use the scale below, and honestly indicate how accurately each item does, or does not, describe you or your attitudes. Just circle the number that best describes how accurate the statement is as a description of how you see yourself. 1 Not at all accurate 2 3 somewhat accurate 4 5 completely accurate 1 2 3 4 5

1. There should be more women leaders in important jobs in public life, such as politics. 2. The women's movement has made society a better place for women. 3. I feel that many times women flirt with men just to tease them or hurt them. 4. There is a just as much a need for a men's movement as for a women's movement. 5. I am learning how to live from my deepest core being or truth. 6. Many of the problems men experience are the result of what men do to each other. 7. A man is never justified in hitting a woman. 8. I share my feelings easier with women than with other men. 9. A man's personal growth requires tapping an 5 inner, untamed part of himself. 10. I feel uncomfortable around gay men. 11. If a woman has a job outside the home, her husband should share the housework, such as washing dishes, cleaning, and cooking. 12. The women's movement has made society a better place for men. 13. Generally it is safer not to trust women. 14. Helping men reclaim their personal power and control over their lives should be just as important a goal for our society as helping women do so. 15. I am learning to accept total responsibility for all aspects of my life.

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16. Many of the problems men experience are the result of what women do to men. 17. It is okay for men at times to be sexually aggressive, even when a women does not seem interested. 18. I spend most of my recreational/free time with women. 19. Men's personal growth requires tapping a unique source of untamed and wild energy. 20. There is something wrong about homosexuality. 21. I dislike it when men treat women as sex objects. 22. Sometimes women bother me by just being around. 23. I am learning to be accountable for my own feelings, judgements, opinions, and actions. 24. Many problems men experience are the result of what society expects from and does to men. 25. A number of men suffer unfairly due to women's false charges of rape and sexual harassment. 26. Men often develop intimacy in distinctly male ways, including through comradeship and "shoulder to shoulder" activities (in contrast to direct sharing of feelings). 27. I am learning to live in the world with an an open heart. 28. Many of the problems men experience are the result of men not facing up to and working through their inner problems. 29. An important challenge for men today is to transform natural aggressive energy into a creative and positive force for the world. Please continue to the next page

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Thank you for your time and effort. REMINDER: We will be asking you to fill out this same questionnaire again, after the weekend training. This will allow us to see what kind of impact the New Warrior Training Adventure has on men. If you have any questions or comments about this project, please contact us. We are happy to answer any questions you may have about our work. (410 455-2567; maton@umbc2.umbc.edu) We look forward to working with you in the future.