Unusual infinity of prime numbers

A.N. Agadzhanov
 27 October 2001
2001
c A.N. Agadzhanov
E-mail: ashot@stochastica.org
URL: http://www.stochastica.org
 Contents

Introduction 4
Chapter 1. Assertions 5
Waring’s problem 9
Goldbach’s problem 10
Primes and Bernoulli numbers 11
Pseudoprime numbers 11
Fermat numbers 12
Twin primes 12
Pythagorean triples 12
Chapter 2. Miscellanea 13
Magic squares of prime numbers 13
Largest known primes 13
Bibliography 15

3
 INTRODUCTION 4

Introduction

“God made natural numbers.

All the rest is made by mankind.”
Leopold Kroneker

In the review more than 50 sufficient conditions, allowing to draw a conclusion

about infinite number of primes are given.
The analysis of primes among natural numbers is a classical problem of Num-
ber Theory. Euclid proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Later
Eratosthenes discovered a method (the so-called sieve of Eratosthenes) allowing to
select primes among natural numbers. In the XVIIIth century L. Euler gave a new
proof that there are infinitely many primes. The proof was based on the ideas of
mathematical analysis. In his proof Euler proceeded from the consideration of the
function that he introduced:
∞
X 1
E(s) = s
,
n=1
n
where s > 1. Now this function is called zeta-function. The specified series is
convergent if s > 1. Euler found identity playing an important role in Prime
Number Theory:
∞
X 1 Y 1
s
=  ,
n=1
n p 1− 1
ps
where the product is spread on all primes. If s tends to one, then the left side
of the last identity increases infinitely. It means that there are infinitely many
primes. Now we have various sufficient conditions allowing to draw a conclusion
about the infinity of prime numbers. These results have an important value for
both mathematics and applied areas.
From the bibliography we emphasize [1-8].
 CHAPTER 1

Assertions

Assertion 1. Each natural number n > 1 has at least one prime divisor.

√ 2. Each composite number n has at least one prime divisor not

Assertion
greater than n.
Assertion 3. There are infinitely many primes of the form 4k + 1.
Assertion 4. Each natural number of the form 4k + 1 has at least one prime
divisor of the same form.
Assertion 5. Each natural number of the form 6k + 5 has at least one prime
divisor of the same form.
Assertion 6. Numbers of the form 2k + 1 and 9k + 4 are relatively primes for
each natural k.
Assertion 7. If a and b are different natural numbers, then there exist in-
finitely many natural numbers k such that numbers a + k and b + k are relatively
primes.
Assertion 8. If a, b, c are different natural numbers, then there exist infinitely
many natural numbers k such that numbers a + k, b + k and c + k are relatively
primes.
Assertion 9. For each natural n each even integer 2k is the difference of two
natural numbers which are relatively prime to n.
Assertion 10. (N.G. Chudakov, Van der Corput, T. Estermann) Almost all
even natural numbers can be represented as the sum of two primes.
Assertion 11. Each odd natural number, which is the difference of two primes,
is always 2 less than odd primes.
Consequently, these numbers are 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, ... There are infinitely many such
numbers.
Assertion 12. (U.V. Linnik) Each sufficiently large natural number k can be
represented as the sum of a prime and two squares of integer numbers, i.e., as
k = p + m2 + n2 .
B.M. Bredihin, evolving Linnik’s method, proved that each sufficiently large number
N can be represented as N = p + f (k, l), where p is a prime,
f (k, l) = ak 2 + b · kl + cl2 is a primitive positive definite form, 0 < f (k, l) < N .
Assertion 13. For each even number k > 6 there exist primes p and q less
than k − 1 such that k − p and k − q are relatively primes.
5
 1. ASSERTIONS 6

Assertion 14. At least one of any three sequential natural numbers greater
than 7 has at least two different prime divisors.
Assertion 15. At least one of any 24 sequential natural numbers greater than
6 has at least three different prime divisors.
Assertion 16. For each natural number k there exist natural numbers n such
that a number 2n − 1(Mersenne number) has no less than k different divisors.
Assertion 17. Each natural number k > 11 is the sum of two or more different
primes.
Assertion 18. Each natural number k > 55 is the sum of different primes of
the form 4k + 3. Similar results take place for numbers of the form 4k + 1, 6k + 1,
and 6k + 5.
Assertion 19. (A. Rényi) There exists a constant c such that each sufficiently
large even natural number 2n is representable as 2n = p + k, where p is a prime,
and k is a product of no more than c prime multipliers. There are infinitely many
primes p such that p + 2 is a product of no more than three prime multipliers.
Assertion 20. There exists an infinitely ascending sequence of pairwise rela-
tively prime triangular numbers, i.e., numbers of the form: tn = n(n+1)
2 , (n = 1, 2, ...).
Assertion 21. There exists an infinitely ascending sequence of pairwise rela-
tively prime tetrahedral numbers, i.e., numbers of the form: tn = 16 n (n + 1) (n + 2),
(n = 1, 2, ...).
Assertion 22. (H.A. Heilbronn) There exists at least one prime between two
250
sequential members of the sequence 1250 , 2250 , 3250 , ..., k 250 , (k + 1) starting with
some number k = k0 .
N.G. Chudakov was successful in replacing the later sequence by closer one:
4
14 , 24 , 34 , ..., n4 , (n + 1) that has similar property. The English mathematician
A.E. Igham found a more precise result. He replaced fourth power by third power.
Assertion 23. There are infinitely many primes, which are not differences of
two cubes of natural numbers. In particular, there are infinitely many primes of the
form 6k + 1, which are not differences of two cubes of natural numbers.
Assertion 24. (Dirichlet Theorem) In each arithmetical progression ak + b,
(k = 0, 1, 2, ...), where a and b are natural relatively prime numbers, there are in-
finitely many primes.
Assertion 25. In each arithmetical progression ak + b, (k = 0, 1, 2, ...), where
a and b are natural numbers, there are infinitely many members, which are pairwise
relatively primes.
Assertion 26. There exist arithmetical progressions of arbitrary length, formed
from pairwise relatively prime natural numbers.
Assertion 27. If a and b are natural relatively prime numbers, then for each
natural number m there are infinitely many relatively prime to m members of an
arithmetical progression ak + b, (k = 0, 1, 2, ...).
 1. ASSERTIONS 7

Assertion 28. (D.R. Heath-Brown) There are infinitely many arithmetical

progressions, formed from four numbers, three of which are primes, and the fourth
is necessarily equal to a product of prime multipliers.
The longest known chain of sequentially placed in an arithmetical progression
primes contains 19 members: the difference of the progression is d = 4180566390,
the smallest member is 8297644387, the largest member is 83547839407 (the chain
was found by P. Pritchard in 1985). The longest known chain of sequential primes
in an arithmetical progression contains 6 members: its difference is d = 30, initial
member is a = 121174811 (L.J. Lander and T.R. Parkin, 1967).
Assertion 29. (U.V. Linnik) There exists a constant c0 such that for each rel-
atively primes k and a (1 ≤ a < k) the smallest prime, belonging to the progression
a, a + k, a + 2k, ... does not exceed k c0 .
Then J.R. Chen proved that c0 ≤ 17. Today it is known that c0 ≤ 14.
Assertion 30. (Van der Corput Theorem) Equation x + y + z = 1 has an
infinite set of solutions in prime numbers.
Assertion 31. Equation x2 + y 2 = z 2 + t2 has an infinite set of solutions in
prime numbers. For example, 72 + 192 = 112 + 172 .
2 2 2
Assertion 32. Equation (xy) + (yz) + (zx) = t2 has an infinite set of
solutions in natural relatively prime numbers.
Assertion 33. (K. Prachar) There are infinitely many numbers k such that
equation p0 − p = 2k has an infinite set of solutions in prime numbers, where p0 and
p are primes.
Assertion 34. For each natural number k there exist at least three primes,
each having k digits.
If k = 1, then there are four primes 2, 3, 5, 7; if k = 2, then there are 21 primes; if
k = 3, then there are already 143 primes. For k = 100 R.M. Robinson found three
primes: 81 · 2324 + 1, 63 · 2326 + 1, 35 · 2327 + 1. Last digit of a prime, having more
than one digit, can not be even. It also can not be equal to 0 or 5, i.e., for primes
greater than 10 last digits can be 1, 3, 7, 9.
Assertion 35. (Sierpinski Theorem) If there are two arbitrary sequences of
digits a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an and b1 , b2 , b3 , ..., bk , where bk is 1, 3, 7, 9, then there ex-
ists a sufficiently large prime, whose first n digits are the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an ,
and k last digits are b1 , b2 , b3 , ..., bk .
Assertion 36. For each natural k there exists primes, having more than k
zeros among their digits.
Assertion 37. (A. Schinzel) If a and b are positive numbers and a < b, then
there exist primes p and q such that a < pq < b. It is proven that there are infinitely
pn−1 +pn+1
many primes such that pn > 2 .
It is not known, if there are infinitely many natural numbers n, for which
pn = pn−1 +p
2
n+1
. Last equality is valid, for example, for n = 16, 37, 40, 47, 55, 56,
240, 373. P. Erdös and P. Turan proved that there are infinitely many natural
numbers n such that p2n > pn−1 ·pn+1 , and there are infinitely many natural numbers
 1. ASSERTIONS 8

n such that p2n < pn−1 ·pn+1 . It is proven also that pn+1 < pn−1 +pn (n = 3, 4, 5, ...).
Ishikawa stated that if k ≥ 1, n ≥ 1, then pk · pn > pk+n . C. Pomerance proved
that there are infinitely many numbers k such that p2k > pk−i · pk+i for each i < k.
J.B. Rosser proved that for each k > 1:
k · lg k + k · (lg (lg k) − 1) − 9k < pk < k · lg k + k · (lg (lg k) − 1) + 9k
And also for each k ≥ 1:
pk ≥ k · lg k
Let dk be the distance between primes pk+1 and pk , i.e., dk = pk+1 − pk . Equality
takes place lim dpkk = 0. The sequence dk is not monotone. For a sufficiently large
k→∞
k, depending on a given in advance ε > 0 :
1 1
 
pk+1 < pk + (pk ) 2 + 21 +ε

dk 1
E. Bombieri and H. Davenport showed that lim inf lg pk ≤ 2, but, on the other
k→∞
hand, the fact takes place: for each ε > 0:

dk log2 pk · log4 pk
lim sup > (eγ − ε) · lg pk · ,
k→∞ lg pk (log3 pk )2
1
+ ... + k1 − lg k ≈ 0, 577... is Euler’s constant; eγ ≈ 1, 78...;


where γ = lim 1 + 2
k→∞
logk pk = lg(lg(lg(...(lg pk )))) (Taking the logarithm k times).

Many mathematicians tried to find such relatively elementary function f (x), which
for each natural x (or at least for an infinite sequence of such x) would give prime
numbers. With the help of such function it is possible to compute as many primes
as one wants, if it is possible to compute f (x) for each x. Euler found relatively
long sequences of primes using quadratic functions. Thus, for example, x2 + x + 17
for x = 0, 1, ..., 15, and x2 − x + 41 for x = 0, 1, ..., 40 give only prime values.
The following polynomials have the same property: 2x2 + 29 for x = 0, 1, ..., 28;
x2 + x + 41 for x = 0, 1, ..., 39, and x2 − 79x + 1601 for x = 0, 1, ..., 79. However,
the following theorem takes place:
Assertion 38. (Goldbach Theorem) Each polynomial with integer coefficients
gives composite values for some natural arguments.
On the other hand, it is valid:
 
πΓ(x)
sin x
Assertion 39. Integer-valued zeros of the analytic function 1 − π are
sin( x )
primes. (Γ (x) is the Euler’s gamma function.)
Assertion 40. (U.V. Matiyasevich) There exists the polynomial in 21 variables
with integer coefficients, which has the following property: the set of its positive
values at integer arguments coincides with prime number set.
Several functions taking only primes values at natural arguments are known now.
 n
Assertion 41. (W.H. Mills) There exists a real number α for which α3 is
always a prime for each natural n.
 x
Assertion 42. (I. Niven) For each c > 83 there exists α such that αc is
always a prime for each natural x.
 WARING’S PROBLEM 9

Assertion 43. (E.M. Wright) There exists a real number α such that the
numbers [2α ], [2α1 ], [2α2 ], ... are primes, where α1 = 2α , α2 = 2α1 ,...
Assertion 44. (W. Sierpinski) There exists a real number α with the help of
which it is possible to compute n-th prime number:
h n
i n−1
h n−1
i
pn = α · 102 − 102 · α · 102

Since the second half of the XIXth century Number Theory starts to develop in
many respects due to achievements in Function Theory (in particular, in Complex
Function Theory).
6
Assertion 45. (N.L. Chebyshev) For each sufficiently large x and δ > 5 there
always exists a prime lying between x and δ · x.
Assertion 46. For each ε > 0, and for each x > x0 , where x0 is a sufficiently
large number, there exists at least one prime lying between x and (1 + ε) · x.
Now a considerably stronger result is known:
Assertion 47. There exists 0 < θ < 1 such that if x is a sufficiently large
number, then there exists at least one prime between x and x + xθ .
Many mathematicians were engaged in the determination of a possible smaller value
48
θ. For example, N.G. Chudakov and A.E. Ingham found the value 77 + ε for θ, and
38
later even 61 + ε

Waring’s problem
The classical problem of Edward Waring (1734 - 1798) is connected with the
possibility of the representation of natural numbers as the sum of n-th powers. In
1770 Waring stated (without proof) that each natural number is representable as
the sum of 4 squares, no more than 9 cubes, 19 fourth powers, and so on.
Waring’s problem is formulated as follows:
Does for each exponent n ≥ 2 there exist natural number k (n) such that each natural
number N can be represented as:
(1) N = xn1 + xn2 + ... + xnk(n) ,
where x1 , ..., xk(n) take values 0, 1, 2, ...
It is important to note that k (n) does not depend on N . D. Hilbert solved Waring’s
problem for the first time in 1909. However, Hilbert’s estimate for k (n) was suf-
ficiently crude. Afterwards, simpler proofs of Waring’s hypothesis were given, and
the estimate of k (n) were defined essentially more accurately. Note that for each n
one can consider the least value k, for which a natural number N is representable in
the form (1). This least value is usually denoted by g (n). For example, g (2) = 4,
g (3) = 9. In general case

3n
 
n
g (n) ≥ 2 + n − 2
2
But if the following inequality takes place for a natural number n, different from 4
and 5:
 GOLDBACH’S PROBLEM 10

3n
   n
3
3n − 2n · ≤ 2n
− ,
2n 2n
then

3n
 
n
(2) g (n) = 2 + n − 2
2
In 1957 K. Mahler proved that there exists n0 such that (2) is valid for each n ≥ n0 .
The case n = 3 was examined by A. Wieferich in 1909, the case n = 6 - by Indian
mathematician S. Pillai in 1940. Respective results were obtained for n ≥ 7 by
L.E. Dickson and I. Niven. J. Liouville first proved the existence of g (4) in 1859.
In 1986 a group of mathematicians and programmers with the help of computers
found that g (4) = 19. Regarding g (5) it is known that 37 ≤ g (5) ≤ 40 (J.R. Chen).
The results concerning the generalization of Waring’s problem can be found in [6].
It is important for us that the number of summands in (1) increases if n increases.
A corollary of this fact is:
Assertion 48. From the positive solution of Waring’s problem it follows that
there are infinitely many primes. And to each value n there corresponds an infinite
subset of the set of primes.

Goldbach’s problem
In 1742 the Petersburg academician C. Goldbach stated the following hypothe-
sis in the letter to L. Euler : ”Each natural number greater than 2 is the sum of no
more than three primes”. In 1923 the English mathematicians G.H. Hardy (1877-
1947) and J.E. Littlewood (1885-1977) showed the possibility of representation of
sufficiently large odd number as the sum of three primes. However, they proceeded
from the result which has not been proved till now. In 1930 L.G. Shnirelman
(1905-1938) proved the following:
Assertion 49. Each natural number greater than one is the sum of no more
than C primes.
But Shnirelman showed the sufficiently large value for the summand number
C = 800000. Later on, it was decreased to 67 (G. Ricci), and then an inequality
was obtained C ≤ 20 (Shapiro, Varga). In 1937 I.M. Vinogradov proved Gold-
bach’s hypothesis for each sufficiently large odd n such that log (log n) > 60368
(the boundary was decreased later).
Assertion 50. From I.M. Vinogradov’s theorem about representability of suf-
ficiently large odd numbers it follows that there are infinitely many primes.
In 1957 I.M. Vinogradov proved the theorem:
Theorem 1. Any sufficiently large even number can be represented in the form
of two summands, each having no more than three prime multipliers.
Assertion 51. From I.M. Vinogradov’s theorem about representability of suf-
ficiently large even numbers it follows that there are infinitely many primes.
 PSEUDOPRIME NUMBERS 11

I.M. Vinogradov not only proved the representability of sufficiently large odd num-
bers N in the form of the sum of three primes, but also gave an asymptotic formula
for number J (N ) of such representations. He proved that:
! 
N2 Y

1 Y 1
J (N ) ≈ 1 + 1 − ,
2 log3 N p 3
(p − 1) p|n p2 − 3p + 3

where first product is spread on all primes, and the second is spread on prime
divisors of N .

Primes and Bernoulli numbers

Let us recall that Bernoulli numbers are defined from the decomposition
∞
t X Bn n
t
= t , |t| < 2π
e − 1 n=0 n!

Bernoulli numbers with odd indices greater than one are equal to zero. Bernoulli
numbers with even indices are connected with sums of even negative powers of
natural numbers by the following remarkable equalities:

k
(−1) · (2k)!
1 + 2−2k + 3−2k + 4−2k + ...


B2k = 2k−1 2k
2 ·π
Definition 1. Let us say a prime l to be regular or Kummerian if numer-
ators (m − 1) of Bernoulli numbers (l = 2m + 1) B2 , B4 , ..., Bl−3 = B2(m−1) are
not divisible by l. Primes, that are not regular, are said to be irregular. Each
prime less than 37 is Kummerian, and 37 is not Kummerian, as the numerator of
B32 = − 7709321041217
510 is divisible by 37.
Assertion 52. (J.L. Jensen) There are infinitely many irregular primes.

Pseudoprime numbers
Definition 2. A composite number n satisfying the comparison 2n ≡ 2 (modn)
.
(i.e., (2n − 2) .. n) is said to be a pseudoprime or Paley number.
Each prime satisfies the comparison. Thus, if 2n 6≡ 2 (modn), then n is a composite
number. It is proven that there are infinitely many pseudoprime numbers.
Assertion 53. (P. Erdös) For each k ≥ 2 there are infinitely many pseudo-
prime numbers, having k different divisors.
Assertion 54. (M. Chipolla) There exist pseudoprime numbers with an arbi-
trary large number of prime divisors.
 PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES 12

Fermat numbers
n
Definition 3. Numbers of the form Fn = 22 + 1 (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) are said to
be Fermat numbers.
From the Polya’s theorem about relative primality of Fermat numbers it follows:
Assertion 55. There are infinitely many prime divisors of Fermat numbers.

Twin primes
Definition 4. If p and p + 2 are primes, then they are said to be twins.
Assertion 56. There are infinitely many pairs of sequential primes, which are
not pairs of twin primes.
Assertion 57. (V. Brun) For each k ≥ 1 there exist k sequential primes,
which are not twins.
The sum of the series:
       
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B= + + + + + +...+ + +... = 1, 902160239321
3 5 5 7 11 13 p p+2
is said to be Brun’s constant.

The examples of the largest known twin primes are [8]:

843753 · 222222 ± 1 (6696 digits, found in 1997 by Rivera and Gallot);

40883037 · 223456 ± 1 (7069 digits, found in 1998 by Lifchitz and Gallot);
835335 · 239014 ± 1 (11751 digits, found in 1998 by Ballinger and Gallot);
361700055 · 239020 ± 1 (11755 digits, found in 1999 by Lifchitz).

Pythagorean triples
The famous Pythagorean theorem a2 +b2 = c2 , where a, b are legs of a right tri-
angle, and c is its hypotenuse, expresses Diophantine equation of the second order.
Let us recall that a triple of natural numbers a, b, c is said to be Pythagorean if it
satisfies equation a2 + b2 = c2 . If two numbers of such triple have common divisor,
then the third number is divisible by that divisor too. Therefore only primitive
Pythagorean triples, i.e., triples of relatively prime numbers can be examined. It
is known that for each primitive Pythagorean triple a, b, c one can find relatively
prime natural numbers p and q of different evenness (p > q) such that:

x = 2pq, y = p2 − q 2 , z = p2 + q 2 .
Inverse proposition is also valid: with the same restrictions on p and q numbers
a, b, c, obtained by the above cited formulas, form a primitive Pythagorean triple.
Assertion 58. There are infinitely many Pythagorean triples.
 CHAPTER 2

Miscellanea

Magic squares of prime numbers

H.Et. Dudeney constructed a magic square with the constant 111:

67 1 43
13 37 61
31 73 7

Another example of a magic square composed of primes:

71 167 29
47 89 131
149 11 107

For such square the constant is equal to 267.

Yet in 1913 J. Mansy showed that the least magic square composed from sequential
odd numbers must have dimension 12 x 12. This square is composed of the first
144 primes:

1 823 821 809 811 797 19 29 313 31 23 37

89 83 211 79 641 631 619 709 617 53 43 739
97 227 103 107 193 557 719 727 607 139 757 281
223 653 499 197 109 113 563 479 173 761 587 157
367 379 521 383 241 467 257 263 269 167 601 599
349 359 353 647 389 331 317 311 409 307 293 449
503 523 233 337 547 397 421 17 401 271 431 433
229 491 373 487 461 251 443 463 137 439 457 283
509 199 73 541 347 191 181 569 577 571 163 593
661 101 643 239 691 701 127 131 179 613 277 151
659 673 677 683 71 67 61 47 59 743 733 41
827 3 7 5 13 11 787 769 773 419 149 751

Largest known primes

Finally, we will give the examples of primes found during last years with the help
of computers. The largest numbers of Sophie Germain type, i.e., such primes p, for
which 2p + 1 are also primes [8]:

2375063906985 · 219380 − 1 (5847 digits, found in 1999 by Jarai and Indlekofer);

72021 · 223680 − 1 (7119 digits, found in 1998 by Gallot).
13
 LARGEST KNOWN PRIMES 14

Factorial primes:
6917! − 1 (23560 digits, found in 1998 by Caldwell and Gallot).

The largest Mersenne number:

26972593 − 1 (2098960 digits, found in 1999 by Hajratwala).

How many other enigmas does the natural series hide?

 Bibliography

[1] A.A. Bukhshtab, Number Theory. M: ”Prosveshenie”, 1966.

[2] Sh.Kh. Mikhelovich, Number Theory. M: ”Vysshaya shkola ”, 1962.
[3] P. Ribenboim, The book of prime number records. Springer-Verlag, New-York, Berlin,
Heidelber, 1988.
[4] M. Gardner, Mathematical Recreations (in Russian). M: 1995.
[5] W. Sierpinski, What do we know and what we do not know about prime numbers. M: 1963.
[6] A.A. Zenkin, Cognitive computer graphics. M: 1991.
[7] M.M. Postnikov, Introduction to Algebraic Number Theory. M: 1982.
[8] The Prime Pages (prime number research,
records and resources), http://www.utm.edu/research/primes/.

15