STABILITY OF CASTELLATED BEAM WEBS

Sevak Demirdjian
March 1999

Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics

McGill University Montreal, Canada

A thesis submitted to the faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

Degree of Master of Engineering

O Sevak Demirdjian

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ABSTRACT

A study on the web-buckiing behavior of castellated beams is descnbed in this thesis.

Both elastic and plastic methods of anaiysis are utilized to predict the faiiure modes of these beams. Interaction diagrams predicting formation of plastic mechanisrns. yietding of the

horizontal weld length and etastic bucfling anaiysis using the finite element method are
correlated with a number of experimentai test results fiom previous studies given in the literature. Test-to-predicted ratios for a total of 42 test beams ranging from 45" to 60" openings are computed with the plastic and elastic methods of anaiysis, and a mean of 1.086 and coefficient of variation of 0.195 are obtained. A parameter study covenng a wide range of
60" castellated bearn geomevies is perfonned to derive elastic buckling coefficients under

pure shear and bending forces. An elastic buckling interaction diagram is then defined.
which along with the diagrarns utilized in the plastic analysis, can be used to predict the

elastic buckling and plastic failure loads under any given moment-to-shear ratio. To incorporate the effect of plasticity associated with buckling, expressions are derived to improve the previous theoretical models used, by cornbining both elastic and plastic results. This results in an irnprovement in the coefficient of variation of the test-topredicted ratios for the 60' beams considered from 0.170 to 0.137.

RI~SUM
Dans la cadre de la prsente thse. une tude sur le voilement de l'me des poutres aioures a t effectue. Les modes de rupture de ces poutres et les charges correspondantes sont evalus par des anaiyses de plasticit et d'lasticit.
Les charges estimes par les diagrammes d'interaction pour la formation d'un mcanisme

de rupture. pour la rupture du joint de soudure horizontai par coulement. et pour le voilement de l'me prdit par analyse par lment finis. sont compares aux rsultats des plusieurs tudes antrieures. Les rapports entre les rsultats exprimentaux pour 42 poutres avec 45' 60' d'ouvertures et les prdictions par les mthodes d'analyse de plasticit et d'lasticit ont t obtenus, et une moyenne de 1.086 et un coefficient de variation de 0.195 ont t obtenues. Une tude paramtrique sur les coefficients de voilement lastique de l'me a
t effectue pour des charges en cisaillement pur et en flexion. pour un grand nombre de

poutres ajoures avec des ouvertures de 60'. Un diagramme d'interaction pour le voilement lastique de l'me a t dvelopp. Ce diagramme est utilis en combinaison avec les diagrammes pour la formation d'un mcanisme de rupture pour estimer la force de cisaillement par rapport au moment de flexion. correspondant la formation d'un mcanisme de rupture et au voilement lastique de l'me . L'effet de la plasticit lors du voilement de l ' h e est ensuite inclus dans les expressions thoriques. Cette addition rduit l'cart-type de 0.170 0.137 sur les prdictions thoriques pour les poutres ajoures avec des ouvertures de 60'.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. R.G. Redwood for his constant
guidance. encouragement and help throughout the course of this project.

Sprcial thanks are due to Prof. G. McClure for al1 her help throughout the course ot'this
project. and to al1 her guidance and advising throughout my graduate level studies.

The support of Fonds des Chercheurs et l'aide la recherche (FCAR) is greatly

acknowledged.

1 uould like to thank my parents Krikor and Alice, and my brother H m 9 for their intnite

support and encouragement for al1 these years. Finally 1 would like to acknowledge my uncle Joseph Bedrossian. for his valuable knowledge and help for man- yerirs.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ......................................-....--................................................... i
RSUM ................................................................................................
..
iii

A C WOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................

...

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ iv

. LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................ vil.

LIST OF TABLES ...................................

.......................................... ix

NOTATIONS .................................-...........................................................x

CHAPTER ONE :Introduction ................................................................. 1

1 . 1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1

1.2 Failure Modes of Castellated Beams ............................................. 5

1 .2.1 Vierendeel or Shear Mechanism ......................................... 5
1.2-2 Flexural Mechanism............................................................ 6
1 2 . 3 Lateral Torsionid Buckling ................................................ -7

1 2 . 4 Rupture of Welded Joints.................................................... 9

1.2.5 Web Post Buckling ........................................................... 10

1.2.6 Web Post Buckling Due To Compression ........................ 13
1.3 Research Program .......................................................................

14

1.3.1 Objective and Scope of Work ........................................... 14 1.3.2 Outline of the Thesis ......................................................... 15

CHAPTER TWO : Methods of Analysis...............................................

16

2.1 Genera! ......................................................................................... 16

2.2 Plastic Analysis ............................................................................ 16

2.3 Mid-Post Yielding ....................................................................... 1 9

2.4 Buckling Analysis ..................................................................
.

2.5 Finite Element Analysis ...............................................................

21

2.5.1 General ............................................................................. 2 4

2 -5 -2 Input File Preparation ....................................................... 27
2.5 -3 Model Geometry .............................................................. -28 2.5.4 Constraints ........................................................................ 28

2.5.5 Loads ........................................... ..................................... 29 . 2.5.6 Buckling Analysis ................................... ......................... 32

2.6 Summary ......................................................................................

34

CHAPTER THREE :Literature Review................................................. 35

3- l General .........................................................................................

35

3.2 Literature Review......................................................................... 3 5

3.2.1 Redwood and Demirdjian ( 1 998)...................................... 36

3.2.2 Zaarour ( 1 996) .................................................................. 36

3.2.3 Gaiambos, Husain, and Speirs (1975)............................... 37
3.2.4 Husain and Speirs ( 1 973) .................................................. 38

3 2 5 Husain and Speirs (1971) .................................................. 39 ..

3 .2.6 B a d e and Texier ( 1968)................................................... 39

3.2-7 Halleux ( 1967) ................................................................. -40

3.2.9 Sherboume ( i 966) .......................................................... 4 1

3.2. I O Toprac and Cooke (1959) ...............................................42 3.2.1 I Altifillisch. Toprac and Cooke (1957) ............................ 43

CHAPTER FOUR :Reconciliation o f Andysis With Test Results ........52

4.1 General ........................................................................................ -52

4.2 Comparative Data ........................................................................ 5 2

1.3 Cornparisons ................................................................................

3.4 Discussion .....................................................................................

23

--

57

CHAPTER FIVE :Generalized Analysis and Design Considerations....62

5.1 General ........... ..........

-62

5.2 Loading on General Models ......................................................... -63

5 .3 Elastic Buckling interaction Diagram ........................................... 67

5 -4 Parameter Smdy ............................................................................ 73

5.5 Previous Parameter Study ............................................................ -73

5 -6 Shear Buckling Coefficients ......................................................... 76

5.7 Flexural Buckling Coefficients .................................................... -78

5 -8 Effect of Inelasticity on Ultimate Strength ...................................79 C HAPTER SIX :Conclusion .................................................................. -84

REFEWNCES......................................................................................... 87 APPENDIX A :Finite Element Input File

AP PENDIX B :Detailed Test-To-Theory Results

APPENDIX C : Elastic and Plastic Theoretical Computations

LIST OF FIGURES

ixurmwm
Figure 1.1 Castellated Beams ..................................................................... 1
3 Figure 1.2 Zig-Zag Cutting Dimensions of Rolled Beams ......................... .-

Figure 1-3 Castellated Beam Section Properties.................... .....................4 .

Figure 1.4 Castellated Beam Section Properties with Plates at Mid-Depth 4

Figure 1.5 ParalleIogram Mechanism ........................ . ....

......................... 6

Figure 1.6 Lateral Torsional Buckling ......................................................... 8

Figue 1-7 Weld Joint Rupture ..................................................................... 9

Figure 1 -8 Web Post Buckling ....................................

. ..........1 . .

cHAmmnw
Figure 2.1 Interaction Diagram .................................................................. 18 Figure 2.2 Free-Body Diagram ................................................................ - 2 0
3 Figure 2.3 Predicted Web-Post Buckling Moments .................................. ' -3

Figure 2.4 (a) Mode1 used By Zaarour and Redwood (1 996) .................... 26

Figure 2.4 (b) Non-Composite Mode1 Used by Megharief (1 997) ............26 Figure 2.5 Finite Element Mode1 .............................................................. -30
31

Figure 2.6 Pure Bending and SheadMoment Arrangement .................

Figure 4.1 Test Arrangement of Beam H ...................................................

>J

- 3

Figure 4.2 Interaction Diagram Demonstrating Theoretical Methods ......54

.
Figure 5 -6 Husain and Speirs ( 1973) ........................ . ...,..

Figure 5.1 Two Hole FEM Model Under Vertical Loads Only ................. 64
Figure 5.2 Three Hole FEM Model Under Pure Shear Forces .................. 65

Figure 5.3 Three Hole FEM Model Under Pure Bending Moments .........66

Figure 5.4 Three and Four Hole FEM Models .......................................... 69

Figure 5.5 Zaarour and Redwood ( 1 996).................................................. -70

.................. 71

Figure 5.7 Husain and Speirs ( 1971 ) ................................................ 7 1 Figure 5.8 Altifillisch, Cooke and Toprac ..............................................
72

Figure 5.9 Shear Buckling Coefficient Redwood and Demirdjian ( 1998) 75 Figure 5 .I0 Modified Pure Shear Buckling Coeficient Curves ................ 77 Figure 5.1 1 Buckling Coefficient Curves Under Pure Bending Forces ....- 7 9 Figure 5.12 Elastic and Plastic Interaction Diagrams ................................ 80 Figure 5.1 3 Comparison of Test Results With Proposed Expressions ...... 83

Table 3.1 Redwood and Demirdjian ( 1998)................ ,.............................. 44 Table 3.2 Zaarour and Redwood ( 1 996) ................................................... -44 Table 3.3 Galarnbos Husain and Speirs (1975).......................................... 45 Table 3.4 Husain and Speirs (1 973) ........................................................... 46 Table 3.5 Husain and Speirs ( 1 971) ........................................................... 47 Table 3 -6 Bazile and Texier ( 1968) ........................................................... 47
48 Table 3.7 Halleux ( 1967) ...........................................................................

.
LlST OF TABLES

Table 3.8 Sherbourne (1966) ..................................................................... 49 Table 3.9 Toprac and Cooke (1959) .......................................................... 50

cKMnEmm

Table 3.10 Attifillisch. Cooke and Toprac (1 957) ...................... - .............. 51

Table 4.1 Surnmary of Test to Theoretical Predictions ............................. 38

Table 5.1 Summary of Resuits under Pure Moment Forces ...................... 67

Table 5.2 Summary of Results Under Pure Shear Forces ......................... 68

Table 5.3 Statistical Results ....................................................................... 82

NOTATIONS
Ar .4,

area of flange
area of web width of one sloping edge of the hole width of flange depth of the original beam section total depth of castellated beam section depth of bottom tee section
depth of top tee section

br
d

'4
db

4
C

compression force coefficient of variation degree of freedom

cov
DOF
E
e

modulus of elasticity
length of welded joint finite element analysis finite element method yield stress stiffiiess matrix differential stiffness matrix height of one sloping edge of hole height of hole height of plate

FEA

FEM

F ,
G GD
h
ho

h,

moment of inertia depth of top tee section excluding flange buckling coeffkient

flexural buckling coefficient

shear buckling coefficient length of beam bending moment elastic buckling moment under pure bending forces elastic moment to cause web buckling critical moment plastic moment

critical moment based on beam test results

yield moment moment to fonn flexwal mechanism ultimate moment constant force elastic section modulus distance from center-line to centerline of adjacent castellation holes tension force thickness of the flange thickness of the web displacement vector

modified displacement vector

Shear force
elastic buckling shear under pure shear forces critical shea to cause web buckling shear obtained fiom elastic anaiysis horizontal shear force critical value of Vh cntical shear based on beam test results plastic shear shear O btained fiom plastic analysis vertical shear force to cause rnid-post yielding vertical shear force to fom plastic mechanism ultimate shear to cause web buckling applied load distance fiom top of the flange to centroid of tee-section plastic section modulus of castellated beam full section plastic modulus factor utilized in plastic analysis factor utilized in plastic analysis

angle of castellation
critical stress expansion ratio

sii

factor appiied to shear y ield stress eigen value eigen vector

poisson's ratio
aspect ratio

CHAPTER ONE

1. I Introduction

Sincc rht. Second World L\.*ar. man>-attcmpts ha\-e been made b' structural enyineers w
: i d ne\\ ways to dccreass the cost of steel structures. Eue to limitations on mrisimum cillowable deflsctions. the high strength pruperties of structural i t ~ t l cannut utilized to best adwxage. .As
3

~1~\3>': be

result. se\.ernl ne\! rne~l-iodsha\.e been airned

O&' the

.IL

incrcnsing the stiffncss of steel mcmbers w-ithout an)- increasri in iteiylir rquired. Cnstellated bams w r e one of these solutions ( Fig. 1.1 1.
r

steel

Fig. 1.1 CastslIatzd Beams

Castellated (or expanded) beams are fabricated from wide flange 1-beams. The web of the section is cut by flarne along the horizontal x-x avis along a "zigzag" pattern as shown in
Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Zig-Zag Cutting Dimensions of Rolled B e m s

The two halves are then welded together to produce a beam of greater depth with hexagonal openings in the web (Fig. 1.3), or rectangular plates may be inserted between the two parts. producing octagonal holes (Fig. 1.4). The resulting beam has a Iarger section modulus and greater bending rigidity than the original section. without an increase in weight. However, the presence of the holes in the web will change the structural behavior of the beam from that of plain webbed beams. Experirnental tests on castellated beams have shown that beam slenderness. castelhtion parameters and the loading type are the main parameters, which dictate the strength and modes of failure of these beams. Casteilated bearns have been used in constmction for many years. Today. with the developrnent of automated cutting and welding equipment. these beams are produced in

an alrnost unlimited number of depths and spans. suitable for both light and heavy
loading conditions. In the past. the cutting angle of castellated beams ranged from 45" to

70 but currently, 60" has become a fairly standard cuning angle. although 45" sections

are also available. It should be noted that these are approxirnate values. actuai angles will
vary slightly from these to accommodate other geometrical requirements. As roof or floor

beams. joists. or purlins, these sections may replace solid sections or tmss members.

Their aesthetic attributes produce an attractive architectural design feature for stores, schools and service buiidings. In structures with ceilings. the web openings of thesc members provide a passage for easy routing and installation of utilities and a r i conditioning ducts. Typically. the dimensions of a castellated beam are defined as follows (referring to Figs. 1.2 to 1.4):

d, = d + h + h ,

(For no plates. h,=O)

4 Expansion ratio, y = d

where. d = original beam depth

h = depth of cut h, = height of plate

b = width of sloping edge of hole

d, = depth of top tee section

Figure 1.3 Castellated beam section properties

Figure 1.1 Castellated beam section properties with plate rit mid depth

1.2 Failure Modes of Castellated Beams

To date, experimental studies on castellated beams have reported six different modes of
failure (Kerdal & Nethercot 1984). These modes are closely associated with beam geornetry. web slendemess, hole opening, type of loading, and provision of lateral supports. Under given applied transverse or coupling forces, failure is Iikely to occur by

one the following modes: Vierendeel or shear mechanism. flexurai mechanism. lateral
torsional buckling, rupture of welded joints, web post buckling in shear and compression buckling.

1.2.1 Vierendeel or Sbear Mecbanism

This mode of failure is associated with high shear forces acting on the beam. Formation of plastic hinges at the reentrant corners of the holes deforms the tee section above the openings to a parailelogram shape (Fig. 1.5). This mode o f failure was first reported in the works of Altifillisch (1957), and Toprac and Cook (1959). Bearns with relatively short spans with shdlow tee sections and longer weId lengths are susceptible to this mode of failure. Shorter spans can carry higher loads leading to shear becoming the goveming
loac!. When a castellated beam is subjected to shear, the tee sections above and below the

openings must carry the applied shear, as well as the pnmary and secondary moments.
The primary moment is the conventional bending moment on the beam cross-section. The

secondary moment, also known as the Vierendeel moment. results from the action of
shear force in the tee sections over the horizontal length of the opening. Therefore. as the

horizontal length of the opening decreases, the magnitude of the secondary moment will

decrease. The location of this failure will occur at the opening under greatest shearing force. or if several openings are subjected to the s m e maximum shear. then the one with
the greatest moment will be the critical one.

Plastic Hinges
Figure 1.5 ParalleIogram Mechanism

1.2.2 Flexural Mechanism

Under pure bending. provided the section is compact (at lsast Class 2 (CSA 1991)). the
tee sections above and below the openings yield in tension and compression until thty

becomc fully plastic. This mode of failure was reported in the lcorks ot'Toprric and Cook
( 1 959) and Halleux (1967). They conciuded that yieiding in the tee sectioris ribo\.c. and

bclow the openings of a castellated beam was similar to that of a solid beam under pure bendiny forces. Thus. the maximum in-plane carrying capacity of a castellatrd beam under pure moment loading was determined to be
= Z'xE;

wliere Z' i tlie full s

section plastic modulus taken through the vertical enteriine of ri hole.

1.2.3 Lateral-TorsionaCBuckling
As in soiid web beams,

out of plane movement of the b a r n without any web distonions

describes this mode of failure. Lateral torsional buckling as s h o w in Fig. 1.6. is usually associated with longer span beams with inadequate lateral support to the compression flange. The reduced torsionai stifiess of the web, as a result of relatively deeper and slender section properties, conmbutes to this buckling mode. Nethercot and Kerdal
(1982) investigated this mode of failure. h e y concluded that web openings had

negligible effect on the overail lateral torsional buckling behavior of the beams they tested. Furthemore, it was suggested that design procedures to determine the lateral buckling strength of solid webbed bearns could be used for castellated beams provided reduced cross sectional properties are used.

Fia,. 1.6 Lateral Torsional Buckling (Redwood & Dsmirdjian 1998 )

1.2.4 Rupture of Welded Joints

The mid depth weld joint of the web post between two openings rnay rupture when
horizontal shear stresses exceed the yield strength of the welded joint (Fig. 1.7). Husain
and Speirs (1971) investigated this failure mode by testing six beams with short welded

joints. This mode of failure depends upon the lengtb of the welded joint (e). The horizontal length of the openings is equai to the weld length. and if the horizontal length
is reduced to decrease secondary moments. the welded throat of the web-post becomes

more vulnerable to failure in this mode.

Weld Rupture
Figure 1.7. Weld joint Rupture
As mentioned in 1.2.1, formation of a Vierendeel mechanism is likely to occur in beams with long horizontal hole lengths (and hence long welds). On the other hand. short weld
lengths are prone to cause failure of the welded joints as the horizontal yield stress is

exceeded. Dougherty (1993) found a reasonable balance of these twvo failure modes. by
suggesting the following geometry:

Weld length

hl e =3

and for a 60' cutting angle with no plates.

Therefore. opening pitch s = 2(6

+ e ) = 24)

(0.289 + 3

= 1-08h,,

1.1 h,,

This concept has been demonstrated in many of the current available Castelite Standard

Beam Geometry sections. (Castetite Steel Beam Design Manual 1996).

1.2.5 Web Post buckling

The horizontal shear force in the web-post is associated with double curvature bending
over the height of the post. As shown in Fig. 1.8, one inclined edge of the opening wili be stressed in tension, and the opposite edge in compression and buckling will cause a twisting effect of the web post along its height. Several cases of web post buckling have been reported in the literature: Sherbourne (1966), Haileux (1967). Bazile and Texier
( 1968).

Many analytical studies on web post buckling have also been reported to predict the webpost buckling load due to shearing force. Based on finite difference approximation for an

ideally elastic-plastic-hardening material Aglan and Redwood (1976) produced sonis graphical design approximations for a wide range of beam and hole geometries; sorne correlations between experimental and non-linear finite element analysis (FEM) estimations were found in the works of Zaarour and Redwood (1996). Delesque ( 1968)

used an energy method to solve an elastic buckling problem by treating the wsb post as a variable section rectangular bearn in double curvature bending, susceptible to lateral torsional buckling. However. Zaarour and Redwood (1 996) found large differences in the results obtained frorn Blodgett's method in cornparison to their test results and finite element approximations they used. Blodgett's method is therefore not used in this project.

In recent works of Redwood and Demirdjian (1998). approximations of buckling loads

were derived based on elastic finite eiement analysis and good correlations btmveen

experimental and theoreticai estimations were found. This work showed that the results of Aglan and Redwood ( 1976) should not be used for very thin webs. This mode of failure
and these theoretical results are discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters.

Fig. 1.8 U'eb Post Buckling (Redwood rP: Demirdjian 1998 >

1.2.6 Web Post Buckling Due to Compression

A concentrated load or a reaction point applied directly over a web-post causes this

failure mode. This mode was reported in the expenrnents conducted by Toprac and Cook
(1959). Husain and Speirs (1973). Buckling of the web post under large compression

forces is not accornpanied by twisting of the post. as it would be under shearing force.
Such a failure mode could be prevented if adequate web reinforcing stiffeners are

provided. A strut approach was proposed in the works of (Dougherty 1993). which suggests that standard column equations could be used to determine the strength of the
web post located at a load or a reaction point.

1.3 RESEARCH PROGRAM

1.3.1 Objective and Scope of Work

The objective of the current research is to study failure of castellated b e m s \cith panicular emphasis on web post buckiing. The goal is to make use of the availabie elastic and plastic analysis methods. and derive expressions that will predict critical shear force causing web-post buckling. This thesis uses many previous experimental results to provide cornparisons \\-ith theoretical approximations. and thus validation of the suggested methods described. T h e first part of the research program focuses on the theoretical methods of analysis to be
used to predict failure loads of castellated beams. These methods include plastic analysis

of the Vierendeel mechanism and for yielding of the mid-post joints. The finite element

method is used to perform elastic buckling analysis and predict critical loads of al1 test
beams. A thorough literature search then follows to list al1 relevant experimental data to be compared with theoretical methods. Correlations between experimental and theoretical

results are then made. Thc second part of' the thesis tocuses on general design considerations and thus is aimed
at the principal objective of the research. Elastic buckling modes are investigated under

different moment to shear ( M N ) ratios. Well-defined relationships. based on pure shear

and pure bending forces to cause web buckling. are developed to predict eiastic buckling

n ' loads under a

M N ratios. Results of elastic buckling and mechanism yielding loads are

then combined and fitted curves are derived to predict ultimate shearing forces causins

web-post buckiing. To apply these expressions in a more general fashion. a parametric study investigating the behavior of a wide range of casteltated beam geometries is developed. and buckiing coefficients under pure shear and bending forces are derived. Sugested predictions are then tested against actual test results, and good correlations are obtained.

1.3.2 Outiine of the Thesis

The thesis is divided into six sections. M e r a bnef introduction to castellated beams and their modes of failure of Chapter 1, Chapter 2 focuses on several theoretical methods of analysis to predict modes of failure of castellated beams. h e s e methods include plastic analysis, web-post yielding at mid-height, buckiing analysis, and finite element approximations. Chapter 3 contains a surnmary of relevant test data provided by previous testing and available in the Merature. Relevant information on each test beam is tabulated. Theoretical approaches described in Chapter 2 are tested against actual experimental test beams, and reconciliation of analysis with test results is the topic covered in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 focuses on design considerations for castellated beams. Relationships defining elastic buckling under any M N ratio are developed. A parametric study. as welI as expressions estimating shear force causing buckling are derived. Results of suggested methods are tested against actual experimental test results, and correlations between tests

and theories are made. Concluding rem&

are summarized in Chapter 6.

CHAPTER TWO
METHODS OF ANALYSE

2.1 General

Several theoretical approaches are considered to analyze the yielding and buckling fidure modes of castellated bearns. Plastic anaiysis of the Vierendeel mechanism failure, ris rvell
as anaiysis of mid web post yielding are sumrnaiized. Elastic finite element buckiing

analysis is used to predict buckling loads. Finite element mode1 generation as well as
buc kling analysis in the MSCMASTRAN finite element package are described.

2.2 Plastic Analysis The construction of an interaction diagram relating shear force and bending moment at mid-length of an opening has been described by Redwood (1983). This diagram can be
used to study failure caused by the formation of a Vierendeel mechanisrn formed by the

development of four plastic hinges at the re-entrant comers of the tee section. above and below the hole. For the beam to anain this plastic failure, the web and flanges are assumed
CO be

stable and withstand the high shear load until plastic hinges are fonned at

the reentrant corners of an opening in high shear region. As the load increases, primary
and secondary stresses resulting fiom combined effect of shear and moment forces lead to

complete yield at the four corners thus forming plastic hinges. This analysis is based on the assurnption of perfectly plastic matenal behavior with yielding according to Von

Mises criterion. A typical interaction dia-

is shown in Fig. 2.1. The shear and

moment values have been non-dirnensionalized by division of the section's ti1y plastic

shear and moment capacities.

The diagram can be constructed using the following results:

v =JS

A,

I;Y

Where shear area A, = dg&.

To generate the curve, k, is varied between O and 1. Below the value 1. the curve
becomes vertical. For given beam characteristics and hole location subjected to a load. a radial line can be drawn fiom the origin to intercept the interaction diagram for the corresponding shear-to-moment ratio (VIM). The horizontal and vertical coordinates of
the intercepted point then predict the shear and moment values to cause yield nlechanism

failure.

Interaction Diramm
Specimen 10-5a

-YieidTheory
A

Test Resuit

Figure 2.1 Interaction Diagram (Redwood and Demirdjian ( 1 998))

23 iMid-Post Yielding .
It is possible for yielding of the web-pst at mid-height to occur before failure due to

formation of shear mechanism takes place. This mode of failure occurs particularly to beams with closely spaced openings with low moment-to-shear ratio. The vertical shear force to cause mid-post yielding is defined through.

and the basic approach to define this relationship (Hosain and Speirs 1971 ) is derived by

using equilibrium equations from the free body diagram of castellated beam section as shown in Fig. 2.2.

The horizontal shear force, V, can be expressed as

when the vertical shear force V, and V, are equal, then

v x s - (d x - 2 y , )

where,

V, is defined as the difference between the two horizontal forces C and C7,

This equation is based on the assurnption that the line of action of forces C I and C->are
acting at the centroid of the tee section above the openings.

The web post will yield when the minimum weld-post area is subjected to the shear yidd

Due to the maximum shear stress k i n g at the throat, the yielding is contained. and it cm

be expected that strain-hardening will develop leading to a significantly higher failure

load than that given by Eqn. 2.1. In the work of Husain and Speirs ( 197 1 ) the sliear y ield
stress has been measwed directly and is significantly higher than the expected value

based on F~

4 3In view of this the yield stress used, for this mode of Mure only. will be .

later increased by a factor P, as discussed in Chapter 4.

V,Q

Figure 2.2 Free-body diagram of castellated bearn

2.4 Buckling Analysis

Based on a finite difference bifrcation analysis of the web post ueated as a beam spanning between the top and bottom of the openings, graphical results relating critical moments in the p s t to different beam opening geometries were developed by Aglan and Redwood (1 976). The materiai was considered to be an elastic-perfectly plastic linear strain-hardening material. For different hole height to minimum width ratios. critical
moments in the post at the level of the top and bottom of the opening, divided by that

( s section's plastic moment capacity, A(, = 0 . 2 5 ~ - ef

Fig. 2.3. F0r.a given beam, the value of MJM,

were presented. as shown in

is first read from Fig. 2.3. By multiplying the

given ratio by the section's plastic capacity M,, as given above. the horizontal shear
' r acting at the minimum weld length is calculated as Vh = -. From the free body h,,

w,

Vh diagram of Figure 2.2, the Vfl ratio is given by - =

d$y,

. Therefore. the vertical

shear force to cause buckling in the web-pst is then derived as VL,=

et,

2 .~.l,,,(d,- 2 y , )
~h,,

where yield on the smallest web-pst cross-section -

fi

is an imposed upper limit on

V,,. In the work of Zaarour and Redwood (1996), who tested 12 castellated beams.

satisfactory predictions were obtained with the Aglan and Redwood (1976) approach. However, in more recent work (Redwood and Demirdjian 1998). tests of very thin

webbed castellated beams showed that the graphical results such as shown in Fig. 2.3
provided unsafe predictions. a result that was believed to be due to the assumed restraint

conditions at the top and bottom of the web-pst. The method of Aglan and Redwood
( 1976) is

therefore not considered M e r in this study.

#?

; 0.0

1
dt,=lO
20

>

@ -

i 0.4
O.?
O

30

Figure 2.3 Predicted Web-Post Buckling Moments for 4=60U (Aglan and R e d ~ o o d 1976)

2.5 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

2.5.1 General

The finite element method has previously been used to pertorm buckling analyses on
castellated beams and is also used in this project. This section therefore describes the sofhare used and the specifics of the application to castellated beams.

In previous work (Zaarour and Redwood, 1996 and Megharief and Redwood, 1997) FE AM
studies of the buckling of web-posts in composite and non-composite beams were found to give good approximations of test resuits (2-10% variations). Both studies utilized the finite element package MSCRVASTRAN developed by the MacNeal SchwindIer Corporation (Caffiey and Lee 1994). The same package is used in the current research

with the objective to utilize FEM as a reiiable tool to simulate experimental tests and
generate web p s t buckling loads.

Zaarour and Redwood (1996) studied buckling of thin webbed castellated beams based on a single web-post model, as show in Fig. 2.4(a). Mesh refmement was based on the convergence of web p s t buckling loads in cornparison to several experimental test results. Megharief and Redwood (1997) investigated the behavior of web-post buckiing

of composite castellated beams. Their mode1 consisted of full flanges, web and transverse
stiffeners and the model comprised two complete web openings as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). This larger model was needed in order to incorporate the shear c o ~ e c t i o n between steel section and slab, and hence the composite action on the bearn. The model used in the

current research is similar to the non-composite beam mode1 utilized by Megharief and Redwood (1997) as shown in Fig.2.4(b), however, based on the different needs in the current work, more refmed meshes and a greater number of openings are used. as
discussed subsequently. The following sections describe the particular steps necessary to
use the MSCNASTRAN system and the details of the generation o f the models.

Fig. 2.4(a) Model used by Zaarour and Redwood ( 1996)

Fig. 2.4(b) Non-Composite Model used by Megharief and Redwood ( 1997)

2.5.2 Input File Prepamtion

Elastic finite element bifurcation analysis was carried out for al1 test beams. hanalysis
in MSCNASTRAPJ is submitted in an input file, which consists of three major sections:

Executive control. Case control and %ulkdata. SampIe input file is given in Appendix A.
Executive Control Sectioa: is the first required group of statements to detne the type of

analysis, time allocation and system diagnostics.

Case Control Section: specifies a co~lection grid point numbers or element numbers of

to be used in the analysis. Requests output selections and loading subcases.

Bulk Data Entry: contains al1 necessary data for describing the structural model.
Includes geometric locations of grid points, constraints, element connections, element properties and loads. To prepare a detailed description of a model, the following classes of input data must be
provided: Gromerry: locations of gnd points and the orientations of the coordinate system

Elrrneni connectivity: identification number of grid points to which each dernent is co~ected.
Efement properties: definition of the thickness, and the bending properties of each

element.
,Material properties: definition of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

C'onsrrninis: specifications of boundary and symmetry conditions to constrain free-body

motion that will cause the anaiysis to fail.

Louds: definition of extemally applied loads at grid points.

2.5.3 Mode1 Geomety and Type of Elernents

A skeleton model based on a given beam geometry is first developed through defining the

x. y. and z coordinates of each grid point. Grid points are used to define the geometry of a
structure. to which finite elements are attached. Each gnd point possesses six possible degrees of fieedom (DOF) about the x, y, and z-axes, three translations (T 1. T2. T3) and three rotations (RI, W.R3), which constrain the grids to displace with the loaded structure.
As the geometry of the structure is defined. the grid points are connecteci by finite

elements. Two-dimensional CQUAD4 isotropic, tinear elastic (MAT 1) membranebending quadrilateral plate elements were chosen to define the finite elements of the

model. CQUAD4 element input card is defined through four grid points whose physical location determines the length and width of the element. By assigning a material identification number in the CQUAD4 input card. ail essential material properties. membrane, bending, thickness, shear and coupling effects of the elements are defined in
the shell element input property card (PSHELL).Similady, linear elastic properties of the

material, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio are defined in the MAT1 data entry input card by assigning a property identification number in the PSHELL entry card.

2.5.4 Constrainta

Single point constraints (SPC) are used to enforce a prescribed displacement (components
of translation or rotation) on a grid point. The degrees of fieedom in MSC/NASTEWN

are defined as numbers 1. 2, 3.4, 5, and 6. corresponding to three translation. T l , T2. T3.
and three rotational degrees of freedom. RI. R2. RX The propenies of CQUAD4

elements used in modeling the web, flanges and the stiffeners had zero normal twisiting stiffness. One way to ensure non-singularity in the stifiess matrix and to account for the out of plane rotational stiffhess or the sixth degree of fieedom (R3)is through AUTOSPC

and KGROT commands in the Bulk Data Entry, as recommended in the manuals. In ail
models K6ROT was taken as 10,000. This value is a fictitious number assigned to suppress singularities associated with the normal degrees of freedom. Values of 100. 10.000 or 100,000 are recommended by the manuals, however, a value of 10.000 was tested to provide acceptable results. Fig. 2.5 shows a typical mesh. this one comprising two openings. The model is supported at the bottom lefi-hand corner where constraints 2 and 3 are applied; these prevent movement in the vertical and out of plane directions. Displacements in the x and z directions at the upper and lower flange to web intersecring nodes at the right end are restricted by constraints 1 and 3. to prevent t-igid body rotation about the z-axis. These constraints simulate symmetry of half the span of a simply supported beam geometry. Out of plane displacements are prevented on the perirneter of the web.

2.5.5 Loads

Shearing forces were applied to the models by assigning two transverse (negative y
direction) loads at the right hand end, as shown in Fig. 2.5. Moment loads were applied
by applying two equal and opposite (x-direction) concentrated horizontal loads at the lefi-

iland end at the flange-to-web intersections (Fiy. 2.6). Thus sliear and moment could be
assigned in any desired combination.

Fig. 2.5 Finite Elernent Mode1

Fig. 2.6 Pure Bending and SheadMoment Arrangement

2.5.6 Buckling Analysis

The type of analysis to be performed in MSCINASTRAN is specified in the Executive

Case Control section in the input file using the SOL command with the CEND delimiter to represent the end of this section. Linear buckiing analysis is defined through SOL 105 command. Two loading conditions must be defined in the case Control section. Subcase 1 will define the static load condition applied to the system, and subcase 2 selects the method of eigen value extraction method.

The equilibriurn equations for a structure subjected to a constant force may be written as

P l {u) = {Pl
where G is the stifniess rnatrix, u the displacement vector, and P the applied load vector.
To include the differential stiffbess effects, [Go] the differential stifiess matrix is
introduced that results f o including higher-order ternis of the strain-displacement im

relations (these relations are assumed to be independent of the displacements of the structure associated with an arbitrary intensity of load).

Hence, by introducing q as an arbitrary scalar multiplier for another "intensity" of Ioad.

the equilibrium equation becomes,
( [G] q [ G D ] ){u*) = (qP) where u* is the modified displacernent
vector resulting

fiom displacements under an intensity of Ioad, and fiom differentiaI

sti ffness effects.

By perturbing the structure slightly at a variety of Ioad intensities, the "intensity" factor q

to create unstable equilibriurn conditions. will be the factor to c a w buckling.

(163 t r l l G ~ l ) W = 0, )
This requires the solution of an eigenvalue problern:

[G -tlG,I{v) = 0 ,
The solution is nontrivial. (q different fiom zero) only for specific values of q that would make the matrix [G -qGD]singular.

The product of the first load intensity factor or the first eigenvalue q with the applied load
would give the frst buckling load of the rnodel, and the eigenvector <p, the bucicied shape.

The requirements for an eigen value solution in MSCMASTRAN are defined in the Bulk Data Entry. By using the EIGB entry, and specifying a set identification number for the model. the range of interests of eigenvalue limits is determined. Two methods of eigenvalue extraction methods are avaiiable in the software invoked by the cornmands: INV and S M . The S

W method is an enhanced version of the iNV method. Lt uses

Snirm sequence techniques to ensure that ail roots in the specified range have k e n found.
I t is suggested that S

W is a more reliable and more efficient method than the INV

method, and hence is used in al1 computations. PARAM entry is another statement used

to account for AUTOSPC command to constrain dl singularities on the stifiess matrix

as described in Section 2.5.4.

Limitations of SOLLOS required small deflections in the prebuckied c ~ ~ g u r a t i o n and stresses to be elastic and linearly related to strains. The two conditions were fully satisfied.

Buckling modes resulting from the analyses were examined carefully in each case.
Unrealistic buckling modes were sometimes
O btained.

for example buc kling on the

tension side of the beam under pure bending. and in each such case the associated
eigenvalue was negative. and was rejected. Under pure shear. the two identical symmetric
modes were associated with positive and negative eigenvdues of almost equal magnitude,
and in some cases the negative one was msrrginally iower than the positive one. The lowest value was accepted.

2.6 Summary

In this chapter the severai methods of analysis used later in this thesis have been described. Further details, especially of the FEM applications. are described when particular applications are discussed in the following chapters.

CHAPTER THREE
LITERATURE: REVIEW

3.1 General
An investigation of previous literature on non-composite castellated beam tests was

conducted fiom which data was obtained in order to make comparisons between

experimental and theoretical results in later chapters. For each test beam, the section
properties, geometry and experimental arrangements were studied and relevant data are

summarized in tables at the end of this chapter.

3.2 Literature Review

Reviews on non-composite castellated beams have been extensively reported in the

Li terature. However, generally accepted design methods have not been established due to
the complexity of castellated beams and their associated modes of failure. An outline of

previous expenmental work on castellated beams is reported here with the objective of
describing only the main features of each investigation. The data and test results for the

beams described are the subject of detailed analysis in subsequent chapters of this thesis. The test programs are described in reverse chtonological order.

3.2.1 Redwood and Demirdjiaa (1998)

Four castellated beams, two identical ones with four openings 10-5(a), IO-5(b). a third with six openings (10-6) and a fourth with eight openings (10-7), al1 with identical cross sectional properties. were tested. The main focus of the experiment was to investigate the
buckling of the web post between holes and to study any effects of moment-to-shear ratio

on the mode of failure. Simple supports and a central single concenuated load were used

for al1 specimens. Al1 beams were provided with bearing stiffeners at support and at load points. Mean flange and web yield stress values were obtained from tensile coupon tests.
Based on the experimental ultimate loads, except beam 10-7. which failed by lateral

torsional buckling, buckling of the web post was the observed mode of failure of al1 these bearns. Bearn 10-7 is omitted fiom further consideration in this project, since interest is in
web buckling only. The buckling mode involved twisting of the post in opposite

directions above and below the mid-depth. Ultimate load values were given as the peak test loads. Test conditions were then sirnulated by elastic finite element analysis. and good predictions of the buckling loads were reported (4- 14% variations).

3.2.2 Zaarour (1995) Fourteen castellated beams fabncated rom 8,10,12, and 14 inch light beams (Bantam
sections manufactured by Chaparral Steel Company) were tested. Six of these had 2 in. (50.8 mm) high plates welded between the two beam halves at the web-post mid-depth.

The objective of the experiments was to study the buckling of the web post between

openings. Simple supports and a central single concentrated load were used for al1 specimens. Al1 beams were provided with bearing stiffeners at support and at Ioad points. Average flange and web yield stresses were obtained from tensile coupon tests for each size of beam.
The reponed ultimate strengths were based on peak load capacities of the bearns. Web

post buckling was observed in the failure of 10 cases. and in two cases. local buckling of the tee-section above the openings subjected to greatest bending moments occurred. Two lateral torsional buckling modes were also observed; these have been omitted tiom further consideration shce interest is in web buckling only. FEM analysis was also used
to predict web-pst buckling load.

3 2 3 Galambos, Husain and Speirs (1975) ..

Four castellated beams fabrcated fiom W 10x 1 5 sections ( 10 in deep. 15 pounds per foot (see Table 3.1 for dimensions)) were tested to validate a numerical analysis approach to determine the optimum expansion ratio based on both elastic and plastic methods of analysis. Al1 beams were simply supported and were subjected to a concentrated load at mid-span. The span and weld lengths were kept constant, but the depths were varied
based on different expansion ratios. Ultimate loads were recorded. but no further

discussion about the modes of failure was given.

3.2.4 Husain and Speirs (1973)

Bearns fabricated fiom twelve 10%15 beams (alternative designation for W 1OX i 5 ) were tested to investigate the effect of hole geometry on the mode of failure and ultimate
strength of castellated beams. Specimens A-2, B-1, C and D were subjected to two

concentrated point loads, and the rest of the beams had a single concentrated load at midspan. Al1 beams were simply supponed and adequate lateral bracing and full depth

bearing stiffeners were provided (except for beams C and D where partial depth stiffeners

were used). The loads were based on the ultirnate load values obtained during the

experiments. Specimens A-1, A-2, and B-3, failed by the formation of plastic hinges at the re-entrant

corners of the opening where both shear and moment forces are acting. As for Specimens
G- 1. G-2, with flanges of Canadian Standard S 16.1-94 class 1 section properties. and G3, a class 2 section, yielding of the flanges in the region of high bending moment iead to

flexural failure. The class section properties were calculated for some beams in an anempt to investigzte if any local buckiing possibilities were present. Bearns 8-2, C, and
D failed prematurely due to web buckling directly under the point of load application.

Similar failure was exhibited by Beam B-1 that failed by web buckling under the
concentrated load before a Vierendeel mechanism had fonned. hus, beams B-1. B-2. C. and D were omitted fiom m e r study.

3.2.6 Husain and Speirs (1971)

The main focus of this experiment was to study the yielding and rupture of urlded joints of castellated beams. The experimental investigation consisted of testing sis simply supported beams under various load systems. A single concentrated point load \vas applied to b e m s E-2. E-3. F-1 and F-3 and two concentrated loads were used for beams E-1 and F-2. Full depth-bearing stiffeners and sufficient lateral bracings wr.Etrt: pro~ided to pre\.ent premature buckling. The reponed final results were caiculated on the b a i s of directI). measured yield and ultimate shear stress values. The measured shcar stresses \iwe significantly higher than values which wvould have been expected tiom tsnsile coupon tests. probably as a result of strain hardening. The prediction of' ultimate strengtli based on web-post yield (see Section 2.3) can therefore be espected ro bc. wrp, consenative. Sudden weld rupture accornpanied by violent strain energj- reIease \vas the
common mode of failure for all beams.

3.2.7 Bazile and Texier (1968)

T~vo series of beams. four HEAS60 and three IPE270 sections (for dimensions see Table
3.1 ) kvere tested to failure. The objective of the experiment was to de\.elop a trther

understanding of different beam characteristics and properties. geometn and espansion ratios of castellated beams. The simply supported beams were tested under eight unifonnly distributed concentrated loads. Three test loads. P l . P L and P3 wrtt reponed to describe the different phases of the load-deflection diagrarn of each beam. Loads PI

and P2 define sudden changes in slope and P3 was the ultimate load. Flange and web

yield stresses were obtained f o beam coupon tests and full depth stitTeners were im provided at support reaction points. Beams A, B and E failed under web buckling in the zone of maximum shear. The beams F and G failed by lateral torsional buckling and were
thus omitted from M e r study herein. Beams C and D had deep (200rnm) plates at mid-

depth, and were reported as faiiing by web-pst buckling. Estimated strengths of the posts
of these two bems, using the colwnn strength formula of CSA (1994) assuming widths

equal to the maximum and minimum actual widths, bracket the uitimate test value of the concentrated load. It is therefore evident that these were compression buckling failures under the action of the concentrated loads acting directly above the unstiffened webposts. Since this mode is not k i n g studied, these two beams were not considered M e r .

3 2 8 Halleux (1967) ..
Five types of beams with different geometricai properties, dl fabricated fiom the IPE300

rolled steel sections, were tested to destruction under two equal concentrated loads applied at the third-span points. The experimental faiiure load was based on the intersection of the tangent to the tinear part of the load vs. deflection diagram with the tangent to the h o s t horizontal part of the curve. Measured yield stresses are not reported. Calculations in the reference are based on the yield stress of the material, that is,
24 kglmm'(235 MPa), and it is later stated that yield stresses determined from umeponed

tensile tests were significantly higher than the above-mentioned value. Therefore, due to

the uncertainty in the yield stresses the reported results must be treated circumspectly.
3.2.9 Sherbourne (1966)

This test program was designed to investigate the interaction of shear and moment forces
on the behavior of castellated beams under varying load conditions. The test arrangement

consisted of simply supported beams with fidl depth bearing stiffeners under load and reaction points. Seven tests were perfonned which ranged from pure shear to pure
bending loading conditions. Load-deflection curves are given in the paper. From these the

ultimate loads and Ioads obtained fiom the intersection of tangents to the initiai linear
part and to the almost linear pst-yield part were obtained. Beam El, subjected to a single

concentrated load at mid-span, failed through extensive yielding of the b o a t at middepth of the post between the first and second hole opening. Beam E2 was designed to investigate the effect of pure moment, and was subjected to two concentrated point loads. Failure of this beam however, was outside the central control section and was associated
with extensive yielding in the end zones experiencing both shear and moment forces. The

hole closest to the load was the most severely damaged. Web buckling was the mode of failure of specimen E3 in the zone of maximum shear, under the two point loading system. Specimen E4 was designed to study the effect of pure shear across the central opening. The deflection curve demonstrates considerable strain-hardening, and web buckling was the observed mode of faiiure. Beams L 1, L2, and L3 were tested under pure
bending moments. The first two were reported to fail by flexurai mechanisms. L3 was
also reported to fail by fiexural mechanism, however, lateral torsional buckling was also

associated with the failure mode.

3.2.10 Toprac and Cooke (1959)

Nine castellated beams fabricated fiom 8B10 rolled sections were tested to destruction. The objectives of the investigation were to study the stniciural behavior in elastic and plastic ranges. to study load carrying capacity and modes of failure, to compare observed results with theoretical calculations, and to determine an optimum expansion ratio for such bearns. Loads were applied at four concentrated points and failure loads were reported as the ultimate loads. Well-defined yield stress values were obtained through coupon tests and adequate bearing stiffeners were provided under reaction points. Specimens A and C failed through excessive lateral buckling and are omitted from further study. The iiltimate load of specimen B was recorded, but no frther details were given.
As for specimen D which had a ciass 2 web tee stem section, web throat, tee section and

compression flange yielding progressed in the shear span. As the maximum load was reached. yield at the top low moment hole corner and at web-post mid-depth was evident. Yielding and buckling of the compression flange in the pure bending region was the failure mode of Bearn E. Local buckling of the compression flange in the constant moment region was d s o the observed failure mode of specimen F; however, as the load
was hrther increased, the

beam buckled laterally. A Vierendeel mechanism in the region

of highest shear was the mode of failure of specimen G. Specimen H, with a class 2

lange section, failed through buckling of the compression fiange in the constant moment region. Specimen 1, with a class 1 web tee stem section failed through a Vierendeel rnechanism in the highest shear region.

3.2.1 1 ~ltfilliscb, Cooke and Toprac (1957)

The objective of the investigation was to study the structural behavior of castellated beams both in the elastic and plastic ranges, and to study their strength and mode of
faiIure. Three joists fabricated from 10B 1 1.5 shapes with equal spans and simple supports and with varying positions of two symmetrical concentrated loads were used. Varying

expansion ratio, b a depths, hole and web-post geometries were studied for each of em these tests. Test loads were reported as the ultimate loads obtained during the experiments. Beam A was provided with full bearing stiffeners under each load. It failed through extensive yielding of the tee section and local compression flange buckling in the region of constant moment. The flange to width ratio of beam A corresponded to a class 2 section.

Bearn B consisted of three tests. In the first two, B1 and B2, loads were in the elastic
range in order to venQ theoretical stress and deflection analyses. The third test. B3, involved loading to destruction, but was omitted fiom M e r study because of the inadequacy of lateral bracing system.

Bearn C was provided with shon bearing stiffeners, (approximately half beam depth)
below the load points. The first two tests were in the elastic range and the third was

loaded to destruction. The filure mode of this beam involved yielding of the web at the
top low-moment corner of the opening in the shear span nearest the load application

point. followed by local buckling of the compression flange at the other end of the opening. The flange had a Class 2 section properties. Yielding of the throat was also noticed.

TABLE 3.1 Redwood & Demirdiian ( 1998)

TABLE 3.2.a Zaarour & Redwood ( 1996)

TABLE 3.2.b Zaarour & Redwood (1 996) (continued)

For

' refer to description of footnotes on page 5 1. ,

TABLE 3.2.c Zaarour & Redwood ( 1996) (continued)

TABLE 3.3.a Galambos Husain & Speirs ( 1975)

253.75
302.65 101-60

354.58
101-60

101.60 5.84 6.86 N.A. N.A.

N.A. N.A.

5.84 6.86 1 53.40

100.89

5.84 6.86
153.40

335-45
39.9

303-59 425.45 59.3

333.43

333 -43

333.13

TABLE 3.3.b Galambos Husain & Speirs (1975) (continued) BEAiM H-3 P H-4 340.6 1 403 -35 d," 101.60 1 1 -60 0 bi 5 -83 5.84 tu 6.86 6.86 4 il e 152.40 152.30 176.58 302.5 1 ljo" sa 425.35 425 -45 55.68 68 -3 Oh 338.67 333.43 F,

"

TABLE 3.4.a Husain & Speirs ( 1973)

TABLE 3.4.b Husain & Speirs (1 973) (continued)

TABLE 3.4.c Husain & S ~ e i r ( 1973) (continuedl s

TABLE 3.5.a Husain & S~eirs 197 1 1 (

TABLE 3.5.b Husain & S ~ e i r s 197 1 , (continued 1 ( ) . BEAM F- 1 F-2 38 1 .O0 38 1 .O0 d2 a
-

F-3 38 1 .O0
101.60 5 -33 6.83 50.55 254.00 347.65 60.00 248.2 1

b. a ;

10 1.60

L
tfil

5.33 6.83
50.55 254.00 247.65 60.00 248.2 1

e h,," sa
Oh F,

101.60 5.33 6.83 50.55 254.00

217.65 60.00
248.2 1

TABLE 3.6.a Bazile & Tesier ( 1968)

TABLE 3.6.b B a d e & Texier ( 1968) (continued)

TABLE 3.7.a Halleus ( 1967) Series 1

TABLE 3.7.b Halieux ( 1967) Series 1 (continued)

TABLE 3.7.c Hallei

(1 967) Series 2 (continued)

TABLE 3 7 6 Halleux ( 1967) Series 2 (continued) ..

TABLE 3.8 Sherbourne ( 1 966)

TABLE 3.9.a Tovrac & Cooke (1959)

TABLE 3.Y.b Toprac & Cooke ( 1 959) (continued) :

TABLE 3.9.c Toprac gi Cooke ( 1959) (continued) G BEAM H 330.20 295.9 1 d, " 100.3 3 100.33 b. il ; 4.72 3.35 1,
t,.il

J
200.9 1 100.33 4.70 5.1 1 N..A K..A.

354.33 1 00.33
4.70 5-13 38.10

eil h,,"
a

(Ph.
Fyb

F, tiana '

5.18 76.20 264.16 4 16.56 45 2 9 6 . 41 296.4 1

5.16

38.1 O
194.3 1

370.5 1
45 296.4 1 296.4 1

309.63 385.83 45 296.4 1 296.4 1

N.A. N.A. N.A. S..i\.

TABLE 3.10 Altfillisch, Cooke & Toprac (1957)

" Al1 dimensions are in mm.

Angle in degrees.

' Yield Stress F, in Mpa.

CHAPTER FOUR
RECONCILIATION OF ANALYSIS W H TEST RESULTS T

1.1 General

The results of the previous research work on castellated beams described in Chapter 3 are

compared in this chapter with the methods of anaiysis described in Chapter 2. Al1 shear
and bending moment loads are non-dimensionalized by dividing by the plastic shear or

moment capacity of the section to facilitate numerical cornparirom, and a governing

mode of failure is predicted. Correlations between test results to theory are then reported.

1 2 Comparative Data .
The complete set of data for al1 78 bearns tested in the references of Chapter 3 are given

in Tables 3.1 to 3.10. Of these, 21 were eliminated fiom fiuther consideration because
they failed by modes other than those k i n g considered in this project. The remaining 57
beams are considered in this chapter. For reasons discussed below, more of these beams

had to be removed fiom consideration. For the remainder the predicted and measured ultimate loads are compared. A summaxy of these results is given in Table 4.1. Detailed computations for each of the four predicted failure modes (Vierendeel and horizontal web-pst yield mechanisms, flexural mechanism and FEM buckiing analysis)
are given for each beam in Appendix B. Because of the varying moment-ta-shear ratios at
each hole in a beam, al1 holes must be considered independently, and the most critical one

for each failure mode must be identified. Construction of the interaction diagrams representing plastic failure mechanisms was first
carried out. For the given beam arrangement shown below (Fig. 4. l ) , such a diagram is
demonstrated in Fig. 4.2.

m-DLIQn
Figure 4.1 Test Arrangement of Beam Fi (Toprac & Cooke 1959)

"

hob 1

Figure 4.2 Interaction Diapram Demonstrating Theoretical Methods of Analyses.

The radial lines represent the M N ratios for each of the openings in one-half of the span.
with the two holes under pure bending being represented on the vertical axis as holes 7
and 8. The M N ratio at the centerline of each opening is used. For each opening,

theoretical predictions of V N , and M/M, are obtained from the intersections of the radial
lines with the interaction diagrarn representing Vierendeel and flexural plastic

mec hanisms.

On the diagram are also plotted the predicted ilure loads corresponding to mid-post
yielding (V,,,N,,, and the buckling load predicted by FEM. The first of these is based on

Eqn 2.1 with the shear yield stress taken as f3F443. This has a constant value for al1 webposts, and plots on Fig. 4.2 as a vertical Iine (WO lines corresponding to two values of P
are shown). Elastic

FEM results are given. although it is recognized that this buckling

usually involves inelastic action. The influence of plasticity is considered in Chapter 5.

and is neglected at this stage as good results with elastic analysis have been reported by

Redwood and Demirdjian (1 W8), and initially the simplest sotution was sought. Based on the typical FEM model arrangements of Section 2.5, a two-hole model with 8 16 elements, as shown in Fig. 2.5, was chosen to sirnulate the behavior of a web-post under high shearing force. This represents a half-span of a beam with four holes, and was subject to the restraints and other details outlined in Section 2.5. Only vertical loads were used and the model is subjected to constant shear force with some small bending forces which were considered to be negligible insofar as they wodd affect the buckling load
(see Redwood and Demirdjian 1998). These FEM results are plotted on the interaction

diagram as two points with ordinates representing the moments at the two holes used in
the model. Thus it is implicitly assumed that moment has negligible effect; this assumption is examined in detail in Chapter 5.

4.3 Cornparisons

Al1 modes of failure for each hole in a beam are identifiable on a diagram such as Fig.
4.2. The triangies represent the loading (V and M) at each hole for a given load on the

beam (values given in fact correspond to the failure load). As load is applied to the beam.

these points c m be considered as expanding proportionally outward from the origin. The critical hole is the one for which the plotted point first reaches the failure envelope. and the mode would be identified by the part of the envelope attained. This may alternatively
be interpreted as identiQing the failure hole as that one for which the ratio of test load to

predicted load is a maximum.

The results shown in Fig. 4.2 are affected by the analysis for the horizontal web-post
shear yield mode which, as discussed in Chapter 2, is known to be quite conservative. If these results (i.e. the vertical dashed lines) are ignored it can be seen that a flexural mechanism failure is predicted at holes 7 and 8: hole 6 is almost at the point of failure in
a Vierendeel mechanism mode, and holes 5 and 4 in the same shear span are farther fiom

the failure surface. Holes 1, 2 and 3 are loaded well below the Vierendeel mechanism load, and are far below the elastic buckiing load. The observed failure mode was that of pure bending, as predicted by the above reasoning. If the horizontai yield mode had been considered holes 1, 2 and 3 would have been criticai (with both predicted failure loads lower than observed). It seems clear that in this case, the horizontal yield mode was not relevant; in effect the verticai line should be shifted to the right to reflect a higher shear

yield stress than 1. ~ S443. F There is some evidence that the effective shear stress at rnid-depth of the post at failure is
very high compared with the expected value F//. ,')

Husain and Speirs ( 1971 ) directly

measured the shear yield stress of notched specimens fabricated from ASTM A36 steel (nominal F,=36 ksi (248 MPa)) and for a number of specimens the average value was
41.6 ksi (287 MPa). The tensile yield stress was not reported, and so some uncertainty

exists as to the enhancement above F443 that this represents. However. if it is assumed that the A36 web material had a real t e n d e yield stress of about 53 ksi (365 MPa) (such
hi& values have been measured for A36 steels in the 1960-70 period, see Redwood and

McCutcheon (1969)) then the measured shear yield is 1.35 (=41.6+(53/'13)) times that expected value of FJ J ~ Greater enhancement would occur if the estimate of the tensile . yield was too high. On this basis. it has been asswned throughout that the effective shear yield stress at the mid-depth of the posts is 1.35 times

~ 4 d 3Thus the factor P is taken as .

1.35. In the example of Fig. 4.2, it appears that even this enhancement is insufficient to
reflect the effective shear in the test beam. Following the above procedure, test-to-predicted Ioad ratios were computed for each test
beam. Certain tests had reported maximum test loads, while others derived their failure

loads fiom the intersection of tangents of the two curves of load vs. deflection diagrarn. Whenever applicable, both reported loads are used for comparisons.

4.4 Discussion In generai, the numencd results indicate good correlation with test results. .Most of the

cases with poor correlation, as indicated in Table 4.1, are those for which yield stress
values were not given, and nominal values have been used. These beams are identified by asterisks, and are noted in the literature review of Section 3.2. Excluding the identified beams for which F, is not known, the mean and the coefficient of variation (COV) of the test-to-predicted ratios for al1 other beams are 1.127 and 0.225.

These are based on the ultimate loads; if the tangential Ioad is used where available. these numbers becorne 1.O86 and 0.195. Of the 57 beams listed, approximately half (29) had the mode of failure predicted correctly. Of the others, some test modes were not defined (4), in others modes are identified as flange buckling when a yield mechanism may have been imminent or already developing ( S ) , in others. the uncertainty concerning the shear capacity of the web-post affects the prediction. and for most of the remaining cases, there were only

small differences between the failure load for the predicted mode and that of an
alternative mode.

Table 4.1 Summary of Test and Theoretical Predictions Reference

Beam Tedtheory Ul timate Loads
1 .O43 1.137 1.132

Testhheory Tangential Loads

Mode of failure Test Theory

-

Redwood & Demirdjian (1998)

10-5a 10-Sb 10-6

Web Buckling Web Buckiing Flange and Tee Buckling

Web Buckling Web Buckling

Web

Buckling

Zaarour &

8- 1

1.105

Redwood (1996)
8-2 8-3 8-4 10- 1 10-2 0.793 0.9 15 0.646 0.967 0.847

Shear Mechanism
Web Buckling Shear iMechanism Web Buckling Web Buckling Web Buckling

Shear -Mechanisrn
Shear Mechanisrn Shear iMechanism Web Buckling Shear ~Mechanism Web Buckling

Re ference

Beam ' Testltheory Ultimate Loads

10-3
10-4

Test'theory Tangentiai Loads

Mode of failure Test TheonWeb Buckling Web Buckling Web BuckIing

LVeb

0.950
0.8 13

Cb-sb

Buckling
L* b !e

12-1

0.953

Buck1ing Shear Mechanism Shear .Meclianisrn

U'c b

12-2

O -966

Buckling 13-3

0.857
0.840 1.001

12-4
Calam bos, Husain & Speirs (1975)

H-2

\Vsb Buckling Web Buckling N.A.

N.A.
N.A.

Buckling
L\'e b

H-3
H-3 P H-4
Husain & Speirs ( 1973)

1 .O87
1 .O62

1.186

N. .%
1 .O5 1
1.158

A-1 A-2

1.136
1.259

Shear Mechanism Shear Mechanism

Sheor Mechanisrn Shear Mechanisni Shear Mec hanism Shear Mechanism Mid-Post Y ielding Mid-Post Yielding

Buckling Sliear blechanism Sliear .Meclianism Shsar kleciianisrn Shear Mechanism Shear iLlechanisrn Shear .Mecliariisrn
Sh e u Mechanism

B-3

1.196

1.137

G- 1 G-2
G-3

1.314 1.146 1.208 1.960* 1.81 l*

1.173
0.990
1 .O46

Husain & Speirs (1971)

E-1
E-2

Mid-Pest Yielding Mid-Post Yielding Sliear Mschanism Mid-Post Yielding Mid-Post Y iclding

Reference

Beam

Testltheory Ultimate Loads

1.809* 1.397* 2.135*

TesU'theory Tangent ial Loads

Mode O!' fai 1ure

Test Mid-Post Y ielding Mid-Post Y ielding $1 id-Post Y ielding Flesural Mec tianisii~

Theor?. ~Mid-Post Yielding [Mid-Post Yielding Mid-Post Irit.lditig

E-3
F- 1

F-2

F-3

1.530*

Sliear blcchanism
Sliear Mechanisin Shear Mechanism Flesural h~lclianism Sliear Mechrinism Slierir klcchanism Shear iMechanism Shear iMechanism
-

Bazile & Texier

( 1968)

A
-

1.3 14
--

B
E
Halleux (1967) Series 1
1

..

.-

1.1 16 0.942 2.82 i **

IB
3
5

3 .OOO*

2.090* * 1.504**

Web Buckling We b Buckling We b Bucklitig Slierir blechanism Shear Mechanism Flesural Mechanism FlesuraI blschanism

-.

Series 2

2.854** 2.181** 2.058** 1.576** 1.503

3B
5

Sherbourne (1965)

E- l
E-2

1.226
12 8 4

1.630

Sherir h4echanisni Shear Meciianism Shear Mechanism Flesural Meclianism hl id-Post Y ielding Mid-Post Y ielding

SI i a r
.Mecfianism Sfierir ~Mechanisrn Sliear blechanism Sliear Meclianisin SIierir LMechrinism Shear iblechrinism

Reference

Beam E-3

Testhheory Ultimate

Loads 1.700
1.613
1.O63

Testltheory Tangential Loads 1.423

1.442
1 .O63

Mode of failure Test Theory

Web Buckling Web Buckling Flexural Mechanism Flexurai Mechanism Flexural Mechanism

E4
L- 1

Shear Mechanism Shear hlechanism Fiexural Mechanism

Flexural .Mechankm

L-2

1.O43

1.O43

L-3

1.1 13

1.1 13

Flexural Mechanism
Flexwal Mechanism Shear Mecha~sm Shear Mechanism Mid-Post Yielding Shear Mechanisrn Flexural Mechanisrn Shear Mec hanism

(L.T.B?)
Toprac & Cooke

0.956

(1959)

Flange Buckling Flange Buckling

Shear Mechanism Flange Buckiing Shear Mechanism Flange Buckling Flange Buckling

E
G

1.277

1.425
1.218 1.808

H
1

Altfillisch, Toprac & Cooke (1957)

0.887
1.122

*Minimum yield stress values of the conesponding beams were defined. The nominal

yield stress of 248 MPa (36ksi) was used to compute these ratios.

** Actual yield stress values of these beams were not reported. Minimum yield stress
value of 235 MPa (24kg/rnm2)was used to compute these ratios.

CHAPTER FIVE
GENERALIZED ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 General

In the FEM analyses considered so far. the only loading condition treated approximates
pure shear. and furthemore the mode1 has been limited to one cornpx-ising only two openings. In this chapter more cornplete models are examined and moment-to-shear ratios \.a~-ing from pure shear to pure bsnding are considered. In addition. the analysis has dealt only with elastic buckling behavior. and the impact of inelasticit). is esamined. In section 5.2. the loading used to create any moment-to-shear ratio is described and in section 5.3 modeIs containing up to four openings are considered under pure shear as tvell
as pure bending. The effect of moment-CO-shear ratio is then considered for four test

beams representative of a wide range of castellated beam geometries. These results are used to establish a generai forrn of interaction diagram to define elastic buckling loads of castellated beams under any shear to moment ratio. Having established this form. in sections 2.3-5.7 a parameter study deriving web buckling coefiicients c o ~ e r i n g wide a
range of geometries is performed. The use of these elastic results. in conjunction uith the

plastic analyses is examined in section 5.8 with the aim of developing inelastic buckling equations. These are then compared with relevant test results.

5.2 Loading on General Models

To study the behavior of models under various shear to moment ratios, several MSCMASTRAN elastic fmite element buckling anaiysis nins were necessary. To create pure shear and pure bending forces, as well as various V M ratios. different loading patterns had to be irnposed on the finite element model descnbed in Chapter 2.
In order to produce pure shear force conditions at any point within the length of the

model, the two vertically concentrated static loads (Fig.5.I) used in the analyses
described in section 2.4 must be supplemented with forces producing a counter-clockwise

couple. This couple was created by applying equal and opposite horizontal forces at the top and bonom web-to-flange intersection points at the left hand end of the model, as
shown in Fig. 5.2. In the several models considered below these forces could be adjusted

to provide pure shear at any desired point (e.g. the hole centerlines). Similarly, with the
vertical loads removed, a clockwise couple applied by such horizontal forces on the lefi

end of the beam was used to simulate pure moment conditions, as shown in Fig. 5.3. Any combination of shear and moment forces could be generated by cornbining these verticai
and horizontal loads in m y desired proportion.

The deformed shapes under vertical loads and under pure shear conditions as shown in
Figs. 5.1 and 5.2, demonstrate the same buckling pattern of the post, with slight rwisting of the flange to accomodate the double curvanue bending efiect over the hieght of the post. Under pure bending conditions however, the region above the middle opening resisting the compression force is buckled, with large twisting of the flange to accomodate the buckled shape.

Fig. 5.1 Two Hole FEM Mode1 under Vertical loads onl?.

Fig. 5.2 Three Hole FEM Mode1 Under Pure Shear Forces

Fig. 5.3 Three Hole FEM Model Under pure Bending Moments

5.3 Elastic Buckling Interaction Diagram

Due to the presence of the stiffener on the left end and the applied constraints on the right
of the model, it was thought that the stiffened web posts adjacent to these ends mi@ provide restraint to the rotations of the imer web-post of the two hole model. To ensure there is no such restmint, models consisting of three and four holes were also investigated. Both pure bending and pure shear forces were considered for two. three and

four hole models, al1 under the same boundary and loading conditions. These analyses
were canied out for four of the test beams described in the literature. These were beam G2 from Husain and Speirs (1973), beam B-1 fiom Altifillisch Toprac and Cook (1957).

beam F-3 Husain and Speirs (1971)and b a r n 10-3 from Zaarour and Redwood (1996).
These four beams were found to have the diverse properties representing a wide range of castellated beam geometries. Resuits for pure bending are expressed as the beam buckling moment as a ratio of the plastic moment and are given in Table 5.1. The three and four hole models produce similar buckling moments and these were lower than for the two hole rnodel.

Beams

2 Hole Mode1

3 Hole Mode1

4 Hole Mode1

Table 5.1. Summary of Results Under Pure Moment Forces.

Similar numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the behavior of 2. 3. and 4
hole models under pure shear conditions (Fig. 5.4). The chailenge here was to determine

at which hole zero moment forces should be edorced to produce the pure shear condition.

As indicated in Table 5.2, several analyses were done to create the zero moment force

condition at different holes. Al1 the holes of the two and three hole models were tested,
and only minor difierences in the results were obtained. For the four hoie model only the
two

interior holes had imposed the zero moment conditions and again only minor

differences are evident, with no trend discernible between the rnodels with different numbers of holes. The differences in the critical buckling shear loads of 2, 3. and 4 hole
rnodeIs were less than 3%.

M =O Beam
10-3 B-1

2 Hole Mode1 at hole 1 - at hole 2 Vcr Vcr

(W
39.09 83.25

OcN) 39.00 83 .25

3 Hole at hole 1 Vcr (kW

39.84 8 1.40

Mode1 at hole 2 Vcr (kW

40.09 82.46

at hole 3 Vcr

4 Hole at hole 2 Vcr

Mode1 at hole 3 Vcr

(W
39.99
82.42

(W
38.62 82.5 8

(W
38.66 81.36

Table 5.2. Surnmary of Results Under Pure Shear Forces.

In view of these results and to be consistent in subsequent analyses, the three hole model
was

chosen to represent al1 further FEM analyses in this study. It sbould be noted that

under pure shear loading the different models produced only marginally different results

and the two hole mode1 utilized for the analysis of Chapter 4 was thus conftnned to be satisfactory for that application.

Fig. 5.4 Three and Four Hole FEM Models.

A complete interaction diagram for elastic buckling was obtained for each of the four

selected beams using the three hole model. The results are shown in Figures 5.5. 5.6. 3.7

and 5.8 (the two ordinates of the elastic FEM results plotted for each V N p ratio refer to
the M N ratio for the first two holes of the model).
It c m be seen that under pure bending, plastic failure occurs at much lower loads than the

buckling loads. Under pure shear, buckling loads may range from much lower to much

higher vatues than the plastic failure load. The resuits shown on these diagrams will be
discussed below.
Interaction Diagmm Beam 103

Figure 5.5 Zaarour and Redwood (1 996)

Interaction Diagram Beam G-2

- , , Yield ,

Theory

BasUCFRd
n

=2

Figure 5.6 Husain and Speirs ( 1973)

Interaction Diagnm Beam F 3

,,Y RH Theory ,,

Bastic FEM

Figure 5.7 Husain and Speirs ( 197 1 )

Interaction Oiagnm Beam B

Figure 5.8 Altifillisch, Cook and Toprac ( 1 957)

The interaction buckIing relationships c m be approximated by a curve defined by:

with Mo and V, corresponding to pure shear and bending conditions respectively. Several dif'ferent values o f n were exarnined. The curve found to best represent the FEA results and for the fuIl range of M N was fouid to correspond to n = 2. In this way. given -Mc, V,, values, a relationship defining the buckling behavior under any M N ratio is established.

5.1 Parameter Study

Having established a generai expression defining the elastic buckling beha~iorof

castellated beams under any M N ratio. a pararneter study relating the behavior of beams with different geometries under pure shear and pure bending conditions was carried out. Elastic finite element analysis was performed on 27 beams to derive elastic web buckling coeftkients under pure shear and pure bending conditions. The beams were designed and selected to present various ratios and proportions of castellated bearn geometries. The relevant parameters were considered to be the ratio of hole height to minimum web-post width. hJe. and the ratio of minimum web-post width to web thickness. eh,,. Because of the wide range of possible beam and castellated hole geornetries. the pararneter study had
to be of limited scope. and thus the following computations are restricted to castellations

witli a hole edge siope of 60 to the horizontal.

5.1 Previous Parameter Study

In a previous study by Redwood and Demirdjian (1998). a pararneter study to tind the elastic buckling loads under high shear loading was carried out that incorporated a \\.ide range of bearn characteristics. The study assumed elastic behavior throughout. The midpost weld was assumed to be Full penetration and had the sarns thickness and material properties as the web. The flange was included in the mode! because of its importance in restraining web rotations, but conservative estimates of flange dimensions were used for
the general case. These assumed that the flange was only as thick as the web. and the

f'lange width was that of a Canadian Standard S 16.1-94 class 3 section. Thus:

V'

Two series of beams were considered, each with a constant hole height-to-beam depth
ratio. For each senes. the relevant parameters were selected to be the hole height to minimum web-post width, hJe, and the ratio of minimum web-post tvidth to web thickness, e/t, The castellations had hole edge slopes of 60" to the horizontal. without intermediate plates at mid-height. This angle is representative of present industry standard cutting angles.

The FEM model consisted of two holes and was identical to that used for the analyses
described above in Chapter 4. Thus loading was primarily a sliear load. with tu-O vertical
loads applied at one end at the level of the flanges. with the model supported venically by
a point load at the other end.

Ln the study the critical horizontal web-post shear force dong the welded joint was found
using FEM. and then the corresponding vertical shearing force on the beam was found. lncorporating the principal parameters by writing horizontal shear force at buckling as

a non dimensional shear buckling coefficient k was derived as

X: =
The tlnite elernent analysis gave the ratio of shearing force in the web post to the vertical

shear on the beam, VJV. The product of the ratio V,N and the vertical shear force to

cause buckling gave the criticai horizontal shear force V,,,, in the web-post at the welded joint. V,,, was then related to vertical shear V through

4, -=

"

dx-2~$

. (Eqn 2.3) derived

from the free body diagram of Figure 2.2. where y, defines the line of action of the
longitudinal force resultant acting in the the tee section. which was taken as being at the

crntroid. This was verified by comparing this value with that given by the FEM for the 27
beams used in the parameter study. An average ratio of 0.983 with coefficient of variation of 0.02 was found. suggesting that the centroid provided a close approximation. dalues of k obtained from the parameter study are shown in Figure 5.9.
k curves

Figure 5.9. Shear Buckling Coefficient Redwood & Demirdjian (1998)

The vertical shear that will cause web post buckling can therefore be obtained by
-reading the value of k fiom Figure 5.9

-using equation 5.2 to find the horizontal shear in the web post
-using equation 2 -3 to uansform V,,, to vertical shear V

These curves cover a wide range of castellated beam geometries with 60" openings.
Through linear interpolation between the two series of curves. the buckling coefficient for
a wide range of beam geometries c m be detemined.

5.5 Shear Buckling Coeff~cients (k.)

The previous parameter study was refined in the current research to correspond to buckling under pure shear, and to make the flange modelling slightly more conservative.
A new study to incorporate pure bending is descnbed in section 5.6. For the current

research the selected mode1 consisted of three holes as FEM results revealed its better performance under bending moment: although no irnprovement was noted for pure shear. consistency between models for the two load cases was considered desirable. The flange dimensions assumed were modified so that the width was based on the assumption of Class 1 section. i.e. 6, =
ri

2(l45),

. (Clause

1 1 2. Canadian Standard S 16.1-94) ~vhere F,

\vas taken as 350 MPa. This reduced the flange widths, making the tlange restraint slightly more conservative. Narrower flange widths would make al1 cases consenfative as compared to class 3 section. which was found to be slightly unconservative for some compact sections. Under pure shear conditions, two vertical forces were applied on the nglit end at the level
of the flanges and two horizontal counter clockwise coupling forces were applied on the

lefi end at the flange to web intersecting nodes to counter the overturning etlct of the vcrtically applied forces. Thus there were no bending moments at the centre o f the span

(Fig. 5.2).
Fig. 5.10 shows the results of the analyses for web-buckling coefficient k, due to pure

shear. There were minor variations between the results of the new and the previous studp due to the minor modelling changes. For beams with hJdZ =

0.5. el\, = 15 is plotted on

the curves to demonstrate the slightly greater dependency of e/4, than evident in the previous study. Furthemore. there are minor differences between the shape of the c u n e s for h,/d, =O.S. From the FEM studies of different models in Section 5.3 differences up to
3% can be expected between the hvo and three hole models. and this together with the

flange modelling change explains the differences between the results shown in Figs. 5.9
and 5.10.
k" curves

Figure 5.10. Modified Pure Shear buckling coefficent Curves

5.7 Flexural Buckling Coefficients (kb)

To derive an expression for web buckling due to pure bending moment forces. the same
series of beams under the sarne conditions were subjected to two horizontal clockwise coupling forces.
M,r Taking a , = - where S is the section rnodulus of the unperforated section. and , S

assuming that the area of the web resisting the compression force is jt, a coefficient k is

defined by

S impli @ing by incorporating

[2(1

kx

'
')]

into kb

- P

This tlexural buckling coefficient. kb. is given in Fig. 5.1 1 for a given variety of

castellated beam geometries. Almost constant kb values are maintained in the hJdo = 0.74
unti1 the lines curve downward, indicating that hole height to minimum width (h,/e) ratio has very little effect on the overall beam buckling behavior under pure bending forces.
The k values Vary less than the k curves, indicating that the flexural buckling load is not , ,

sensitive to the ratio of hole height to minimum width (hJe). While camparing the two

series of bearns, larger buckling coefficients under pure moment conditions were found for the senes of bearns Mth larger tee sections hJd,=.5. but the behavior was reversed

under pure shear conditions, where beams with lower tee sections with hJd,=0.74 had higher k coefficients. ,

Thus based on a given beam geometry, the critical moment to cause elastic buckling is
simply caiculated using equation (5.5).

Figure 5.11. BuckIing Coefficient Curves Under Pure Bending Forces

5.7 Effect of Inelasticity on Ultimate Strengb

Since buckling usually involves inelastic action, the influence of plasticity is considered in this section to improve the already mentioned methods of analysis and derive general expressions incorporating both elastic and inelastic buckling actions.

The construction of interaction diagrarns for elastic buckling can now be performed for
any beam with 60" openings, and follows the procedure used for the four bearns as

discussed in Section 5.3. Elastic buckling values of shear (V,) and moment (M,) can be

, computed from the k and kb curves. By dividing the resuits by the plastic shear and
moment capacities of the section, such a diagram can be plotted on the sarne a.xes as the yield mechanism interaction diagram. (see Fig. 5.12)
Interaction Diagnm 6eam 6-2 Huaain & Speim (t973)

Figure 5.12 Elastic and Plastic Interaction Diagrams

On this diagram, radial lines fiom the origin for each hole of the test bearns were then
drawn and from each line a plastic and elastic buckling shear capacity is obtained at the

intersection points. For each test beam, the two governing shear values were thus obtained. the plastic mechanism and elastic buckling shears. V,, and V,,.

To obtain an estimate of the ultimate shear load of the test beams which incorporates the
possible interaction of elastic buckling and yielding failure modes. the following two
cases were considered: From equations for inelastic lateral buckling of beams (Clause 13.6. CSA 1994).
c .VI, = 1.15 M, 1- ):O

. If M. is replaceci by V,, and My by V

.,

we c m w t e

Alternarively, fiom colvmn strength equations (CS& 1994) C , = A F , following expression is proposed,

+ A" '

1. the ;

y, = y,, (1 + k2")-;
where h. is now interpreted as and n is a coefficient based on fitting to test results.

The equations were then plotted and compared against acnial test results for the 60"

casteilated beams (summary of results is given in Appendix C). To plot the results in a non dimensional form wtiile maintaining consistency, it was convenient to divide Vu by

V , ,as indicated in Fig. 5.13. ,

Based on the results of 17 test beams with 60' holes and relevant failure modes. both equations 5.6 and 5.7, with n taken as 4.0 in the latter, were found to provide similar

predictions of the test results. The following statistics apply to the two predictor equations

TesVPredicted Eqa. 5.6 Eqn. 5.7

Mean
1.1 13 1.166
Table 5.3 Statistical Results

COV 0.137 0.148

For these 17 beams the simplified approach taken in Chapter 4, in which the predicted
strength was taken as the lower of the yield strength and the elastic buckiing (FEM)

strength, produced a mean of 1.O96 and COV of 0.170. The increased mean value for the two equations is expected, since both will predict a lower value than the lowest of the yield and elastic buckling strengths. It should also be noted that for use in equations 5.6 and 5.7, the elastic buckling strengths were computed using the generalized buckling interaction equation 5.1, whereas the computations in Chapter 4 were based on exact rnodeiing of each bearn. The lower COVs represent an improvement in the prediction if equations 5 .O and 5.7 are used.

As s h o w in Fig. 5.13, the four bearns with

of about 0.5 reported by Sherbourne (1 968)

show significant overstrength compared with the predictions. The reason for this is not
clear. but it may be noted that the actual beam cross-section dimensions were not given.

and nominal values have been used in the calculations.

VuNpl, MuIMpl Vs Lambda

Lambda
-

Figure 5.13. Cornparison of Test Results With Proposed Expressions

CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
6.0 Conclusion

The objective o f this research prograrn was to study the failure of castellated b e a n ~ s with
particular emphasis on web-buckling. Several theoretical rnethods predicting fom~ation of' plastic mechanisms, yielding at mid-depth o f web-posts and eiastic buckling anafyses u-ere correlated with the results of a number of physical tests of castellated beams reported in the Iiterature. Since web buckling usually involved inelastic action. the effect of plasticity was considered in conjunction with elastic FEM results. to modify the theoretical nlodeIs used initially.
.4 parameter study for a wide range of castellated beam geornetries
rias

performed to

deri\*eelristic web buckling coefficients under pure shear and pure bending forces. These results established elastic buckling interaction diagrams. For any given M N ratio. results obtained from elastic and plastic interaction diagrams were established.

The following remarks on the behavior of castellated beams are based on the several theoretical models used incorporating both elastic and plastic analyses. and their cornparisons with physical test results.

- Results obtained from the interaction diagrams based on plastic anaiysis used to predict

84

shear or flexural mechanisms were found to give generaily satisfactory predictions. This diagram is designed based on the properties of a given beam. However, it does not account for yielding of the web-pst, or web-buckiing.

- Y ield stress developed at the minimum horizontal width of the mid-post, equation 2.3.
was

found to be conservative. A factor of P = 1.35 was applied to the sheaf yield stress to

account for the sttain hardening eEect expected to be developed at this section. Much
higher failure loads were then obtained compared with those given by the initiai stress limit equation, and this led to more realistic resuits.

Elastic buckling analysis with FEM models could be correlated with experimental

results, and therefore was used to perfonn various parameter studies. However. it was

considered necessary to take into account the effect of plasticity on the buckling loads. To
do this, the following steps were taken:

- Given the eiastic criticai buckling loads under pure shear and pure
bending ( , b) V, loads, a curve of shape (MMO)" (VN,)" 1 with n=2 + =
was fitted to define the buckling loads under any VA4 ratio.

- A parameter study was performed to denve the buckling coefficients

under pure shear and pure bending conditions covering a wide range of castellated beaxn geometries. This study in conjunction with the elastic

FEM buckling curves. gave the elastic buckling loads of a variety of

castellated beams under any M / V ratio.

- Expressions incorporating both elastic and inelastic behavior of web

buckling gave better approximations of the buckling loads. with coefficient of variations fiom O. t 90 to O.137.

- The design considerations and computations incorporating the effect of elasticity and
plasticity on the buckling loads is limited to 60Ucastellated beam geometries. Extension
to other beam geometries is desirable.

REFERENCES

Aglan. A.A., and Redwood, R.G. 1974. Web buckling in castellated beams. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs, London, U.K., Part 2, Vol. 57, pp 307-320. Altifillisch, M.D., Cooke, B.R., and Toprac, A.A., 1957. An investigation of open web expanded beams. Welding Research Council Bulletin, Series No.47. pp 77s-88s. Bazile, A., and Texier, 5.1968. Essais de poutres ajoures (Tests on castellated beams). Constr. Mtallique, Paris, France, Vo1.3, pp 12-25. Caffiey, J.P., and Lee, J.M. 1994. MSCMASTRAN: Linear static analysis user's guide, V68. The Macneal-Schwendler Corporation, Los Angeles, California, USA Canadian Institute of Steel Construction. 1995. Handbook of steel construction, 2nd edition. Universal Off'set Limited, Markham, Ontario, Canada Galambos, A.R., Husain, M.U., and S p i n W.G. 1975. Optimum expansion ratio of castellated steel beams. Engineering Optimization, London, Great Britain, Vol. 1. pp 21322s. Halleu, P. 1967. Limit anaiysis of castellated steel beams. Acier-Stahl-Steel, 325, 133144. Husain, M.U., and Speirs, W.G. 1971. Failure of castellated beams due to rupture of welded joints. Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 1.
Husain, M.U., and Speirs, W.G. 1973. Experiments on castellated steel beams. J. American Welding Society, Welding Research Supplement, 52:8, pp 329s-3423.

Kerdal, D., and Nethercot, D.A. 1984. Failwe modes for castellated beams. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 4, pp 295-3 15. Megharief, J.D. 1997. Behavior of composite castellated beams. M. Eng. Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, McGill University. Raymond, M., and Miller, M. 1994. MSC/NASTRAN: Quick reference guide, V68. The Macneal-Schwendler Corporation, Los Angeles, California, USA. Redwood, R.G. and McCutcheon, J.O. 1969. Beam tests with unreinforced web openings, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vo1.94, No.ST1, 1-1 7.

Redwood, R.G.1968. Ultimate strength design of beams with multiple openings. Preprint No. 757, ASCE Annuai Meetings and National Meeting on Structural Engineering. Pittsburgh, Pa, U.S.A.. Redwood. R.G., and Cho, S.H. 1993. Design of steel composite beams with web openings. Journal of Constructionai Steel Research, 25: 1&2.23-42. Redwood R.G., and Demirdjian S. 1998. Castellated beam web buckling in Shear. Journal of Stmc?ural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 124(8): 12021207. Sherboume, A.N. 1966. The plastic behavior of castellated bearns. Proc. 2"" Commonwealth Welding Conference. Inst. Of Welding, No. C2, London. pp 1-5. Toprac, A.A., and Cooke, B.R. 1959. An experimental investigation of open-web beams. Welding Research Council Bulletin, New York. Series No.47, pp 1 10.

Ward, J.K. 1990. Design of composite and non-composite cellular beams. The Steel Cofistniction Institute.

Zaarour, W.J. 1995. Web buckling in thin webbed castellated beams. M.Eng. Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics. McGill University.

APPENDIX A
Finite Element Input File

This Appendis contains a sample input file to construct the 2 hole Finitr: Element mode1
and perforrn Elastic Buckling Analysis.

$-:Ar

S ........................................................ EXECUTIVE CONTROL SECTION

S !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! S

s Elastic Buckling analysis of "Castellated Beam"

s 2 Hole !Mode1 of reference Beam 10-3 (Zaarour and Redivood ( 1996))

S S S SOL 105 Tl M E=9OO CEND

S
S .............................................. S . B:. C A S E C O N T R O L S E C T I O N S ..............................................
S

TITLE = beam 10-3 S SET 1 = 1.73.78.83.88.93,16 1.162.163,164.165.238.233.238.253.258.333.348. 3 73.378.427.428.429.430.43 1.499.504.509.5 14.5 19,664,669,674.679.683.769. 774.799.803 S

S
ECHO = NONE FORCE = I SPC = I O SPCFORCE = ALL STRESS(PL0T) = ALL DISPLACEMENT(PL0T) = ALL S

S
SUBCASE I SPC = 10 LOAD = I O DlSP = ALL FORCE = ALL S SUBCASE 2 SPC = I O METHOD = 100 FORCE = ALL DlSP = ALL S S BEGIN BULK PARA M.POST.0 PARAM.KfiROT. 10000.0 PARAM.AUTOSPC.YES EIGB. IOO.S1NV,-5.0,5.0,.3,3.,+EIGB +EIGB.MAX S S THIS SECTION CONTAINS BULK DATA FOR SE O

S S
GRID 1 GR!D 2 GRID 3 GRlD 4

O O O O

0.0 0.0 0.0 O 28.956 0.0 0.0 O 339.34 0.0 0.0 O 368.3 0.0 0.0 O

s*************************************** s The coordinates for 1057 grid points are defined. s***************************************
S .

GRlD

IO57

705.56 12- 185.99 -35.3 1 O

s************************************
CQUADJ 816 Z

8 16 elements are thus defined through grid points

867

617

1033

1057

S
S THIS SECTION CONTAINS THE LOADS. CONSTRAINTS. A N D CONTROL BULK DATA SENTRIES S

s
S
MATI. 1.200000 0.333333 MAT I .2700000...0.333333 M A T 1 .;.2OOOOO...O.333 333 S S PSHELL. 1.1.3.6068.1 PSHELL.2.2.4.445,2 PSHELL.3.3.9.525.3

...

S
FORCE. 1 . 0 . 5 0 . 0 0 - . . . 069,00...1000 FORCE. 10.6 17..5000..0.0.-1.0.0.0 S S SPC 10 17 235 SPC 10 609 13 SPC 10 617 13 9 3 SPC I O SPC IO 10 3 SPC I O 115 3 SPC 10 116 3 SPC 10 117 3

SPC SPC SPC SPC SPC SPC

IO IO 10 10 IO

SPC SPC
SPC

10 10
IO 10 IO 10 IO 10 1 0 10
1 0

SPC
SPC

SPC
SPC SPC SPC

sec
SPC

SPC
SPC SPC SPC SPC SPC SPC

IO IO

IO
IO 10 10 10 10 10 IO 10

SPC
SPC SPC

S
ENDDATA

APPENDIX B
Detai led Test-to-Theory Results

This Appendix contains detailed Test-to-Theory computations for al1 the beams Iisted in Table 4.1. For each test beam. each hole until mid-span is studied. Al1 results are transformed to shear and moment forces, and are non-dimensional. Reported ultimate test

and (M,,,/M,), elastic FEM buckling (VJV,). Shear mechanism (Vl,N,). load (V ,, N p )
yielding of the horizontal joint (VyhNJV,), flexural mechanism (M,,,/M,) and ratios are al1

calculated. Ratios of test results to the predicted failure modes are then computed. aiid maximum ratio on each row is calculated. The predicted failure mode is derived based on
the ratio selected by the maximum of ail the ratios of Test-to-Theory on each row.

s i

3;
,

3E:

E,i

:
*

,
1

'

81i 8
I l

:oip
,

kib!
!

si SI
1

: El :.ai"/ %

'

Wi ? !W ! ~ h
O

a.

Pi

m'cv
F

:o.

di

2:

00 O .

k k ?,

hl'-:

Q D I

P . i
>-:
El

I ,

,g ~ j m m

q q I 1

-1

'0,OI

$ E!
si
,

Cr)

9 '9
1

Cr)I

i
'

(O

O O '

> El

c3-h!
0 "!'"

o1 O

5
w b

a l

m ' l n in.a0 o o l m a01 "'v)!? rr,

O1OiO'Ol

m b V) (DJb l h *'??
a1 raO

hl!

e 0 0 0 0
F - F -

9'
> O

X;5; * ml*0 * Of0 O

aX

CnQiCnaQ)

0 0 0 0 0

* 0
1 1

r-r-oco C? Y , ?

0 0 0 0 0

L " I c > ~ I ~ ? ~

Q a u D h l

0 0 0

m e C D wm(Oaoa

0 h - r ~ "

> -

0 0 0 0 0
-

CD'*

(O

t )I Q a

0)

0'0 ' 1 0 0

(9:q4<4'Cc1

> -

% % 8 %0 , ~ 0

0,o O

r : ?i q

* C V I ' O IqO il
0 1
1

r"

s'

QD ! 9 1 l b O;fliq:U?i o \ o l0 : o

C ~ , Q ~ - , = I

si 21
$!
,

$ Ei aE
I

a--v - V ) U 3 r n O p ~ ' -9 q O 00,o

O F - *
W O C V orna-

3' a.
g
si'

r - r - r - b r a)aDaqaoQ

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
N <D (O b v O O ~ c q c o

b m q ( V Q

o Q , a D m ( D

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

-5:

aQS&CZ
:ha
O ~ o O

cumU-)S
O

h l ; h l l mC U I
, .-!FJ"sF/

0 : Oi , O ! o

'3"'

pi

cr)
<

- 7 F

0 0 0;o' -

0 cwm
F

- ' v n

SI

P'

eam iole

Max ratio -- 4 0 s m p

over
VtrslNp

test )tediction over heoq

.

.- -

1 2

3 4 .. 5 -- -

0.847 0.415 0.817 buckling -0.847 1.245 0.847 2.085 0.847 2.915 0 847 3.745 - --

lean - --.vole --

ratio -- -

Max M,e,4Mp test mdictior --avec over :heoq vu.&

1 2
3 4
Bar(

0.95C O.606 0.950 buckling 0.95(1 1 818 0.95(1 3.023 O. 950 4 235

hole

test ~redictior ratio over over VirstNp theoq

O 812 0.812 O 812 O 812 O 577 0.813 1 744 2 897 4 051

Max

1 2 3 4

buckling

Max MtesdM, test predictioi

ratio --. --

over
v t.e..s. f l p .

ove1 heor
buckling - - -

O. 840 .. 0.609 0.84( 0.840 1.827 0, 840 3.055 .

. . .. .

Max k -. - .M-P test predictioi . J . - - . ratio over over

L / V p heoq
I

1.338 0.662 1.O01 1.409 1.986

j.592 3.310 1.785 4.641 5.966

shear mech.

-(

E r3
a
-1

.
1

ml
F i

b 1
,

y,

-1 ad . E z 5 1
-'

(q

a 5.

as

%1

a),

>

S.

z:

=? QO a ) O

Max ratio . .

test predictior over heory 1.l86 -- - -

0.976 0.976 0.976 1.052 -.. 1,106

shear mech.

Max ratio --- .

test predictioi ovet

heory - .
O.862 0.91C 1.136
. .

1.136 .

shear mech.

Max ratio

test predictior over heory 1.259 shear mech.

1.259 0.474

3ear
holt

Max ratio

over

V,,#,

test ~redictior over :heor

2' 3
--

5 6 8

4-

1.O20 1.020 1.020 1.020 1.O20

0.268 1.O16 - . - 0.804

shear mech.

1.%O 1.876 2.412 1 .oz0 '2.948 1 .O20 3.484

1 .O46 4.020
.

ref:
lean hole -- --

--

Y?"
0.283 0.283 or000

Max tesUM test irediction ratio over ove1 ItesUV heor)

1 2

1.960 0.495 1.960 mid-post 1 960 1.484 1 .O39 infinite

7
hole tesW VcrN

tesWy tesuMy . .-

Max tesUM test predictioi ratio over over iheory -1.8l mid-post 1 --

kN.n - - .* . ..-

Mp

105.:
-.

..

test - - - -- - - -- predictioi over heory -- - - -

kN.w -. - . . .

ml!

1.809 mid-posl - --

109.1

Csflv,k.4- -- . . . -- - - -

Max ratio - -- -

WasilMp

over
v,esfl,

test predictioi ove1

heory
1.497 mid-post

kN.m . .

109.1

LD

CO

si >a; ! s! ,i
,
E:

a:

'm'm'm9- c ~ o J -, ! ~
I l I C Y I i ~ .NS N FNi /S , SN SP, ~ C VI ~ Ci V ~! -? ~ ~

! 1
8

W 1 N 1 C V i N . C V CV

W -r'Wa*,'

IO

10

; OI O I O ; O O ! O j /

T 1

'+ 7 5 , T . Y y T ' y
0 : o '0 0 O
O O

CV hl

O
r3 Q)

d b, ; w i m ' F i a, i b !! : ~j 8~8 ; 0 [ 0 1 0 ~ ~. ~ ~ ~ 8 !
~ ~ ~ l ~

$:
~E i ; : T:
i ~

m rn m 'O - 0 a Q> Q ) . a N in 0 ! O4 rN ,i ' .O .O O ~ o 4 0 N C ~V , O O ; O

'
- . Y

ca; * ri -2 m.! ?
a Cu
*.

Ob 0,

' P -,a0 ep * IoD :al1 Q i*! ,8/8iO;1818181Pi~i

a) I Q D aD joD :a) !a3 tQD
,

7 . 7 ' -

W : ( D (D W ( D ' C D (O (D ,O .O ; O ! O O O O O
.b

-~

,
~ ~ ~ ~ j

C0.w.

. CV. N i rC iV tb - ' o ! >i

1
I . I I : . , , j l : - I C V ; * I 9 l I m ! < D i b : < .o ! I ! I ; I I

. o : o ; o , o .O O ~
;

% ! aa~ O
rC)

w , n l -nl
OD 0 O

O ,

, g ! ~: !
S l ~ :i

. .-

.
C V : r n ! O
(O'bai

bear
holt

Max M,es4M1 test predictioi ratio over ove1 VI*,fl, theor

1 23
4 5 -6-. -

3.00c O 360 3.00( 2.945 1.075

2,943 1.795 2,953 2.510 0.830 infinite D.838 infinite - -

shear . mech.
. . .

bean -- hols

Max M,.,4MF- test predictior .. . ratio over over - v..fl, theo~ -1.845 O 433 2.090 1.845 1.296 1.845 2 162 !. 090 3 027 1.742 infinite 1.742 infinite

1
2 3

shear mech.

4 5 6

Max Mt@ S m , test aredictioi ratio over ovet theor Vtes& -- .

- "

2.854 2.822 2.821 0.907

0.547 2.854 - -.j .636

2r729
infinite

shear mech. ...

O. 907 infinite

Max
ratio

4e*mp

over
VieriNp

test ~redictior over heoq

s hear mech

1.728 2.181 1 725 1 364

0.574 2.181 1.359 2 866

infinite 1.364 infinite

bea ho1

ratic
1
*--

-over Vte.1N
test predictia over theor]

23

4 5 - .-

2.051 0.493 2.058 - . 2.051 1.479 2. OS( 2.461 1.08( infinite I.O& infinite .-

shear mech.

lear. . --. rok -

Max

rtio - -

Ove1

v!../v?
.O43 ,136 .576 .547 .547

test vedictioi - ove1 heory

1 2

3
4

0.603 1S i 6 1.809
3.015

shear mech

infinite infinite

~ear holr

Max ratio
M,,M ISI

over
vte,fl,

test predictio over heoq

12 --3 -- 4 .

1.21C 1.214 1-61 3 1.606

0.283 0.850 0.567 0.000

1.613

shear

mech.

~i' .

L2 L3

ential Loads

106 infinite 1 .O63 flexural 1,O4 infinite 1 .O43 f~exura~ 1.11 infinite 1.113 flexural . . mech.

ean
-

!oie-

Max rtio

ovec

test ~redictioi ovec ieory

1.226

1 2 3 4

.225 O 283 .225 0.850 226 1416 225

shear mech

Man Mt,s/M, ratic over

Vtesflp

test predictio ove1 :heoi

1.214 1,211 1.211 3.771 3.87: j.99.

I .oor
i.ooi

0.429 t ,211 mid-post . . -- . 1.281 . 2.134 5.550 6.404 7.257 infin~te infinite
. . -.

Max MtedM, test predlctioi ratio over over heoq v l e p p

..

1 .8O8 0.580

1.808
.-

l.8Ol L9OO 1 953 1,821

1.741 5.099 6.259 infinite

shear mech.

APPENDIX C
Elastic and Plastic Theoretical Computations

This Appendix contains al1 caIculations in deriving the Buckling loads under the effect of
Inelasticity on the Ultimate Strength.

5 s

-:

Ccs

gi d!

a 12 ):St1

-.

-1

a'-Y) Y ) ' Stm1 - 0-Q a Qt Qt a D D D

if.
p n .

bbf'

hlmm ? ? -

- m u