2004 IEEE International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRPT2004)April 2004 Hong Kong
Transmission lines fault detection,
classification and location using an intelligent
Power System Stabiliser
M F Othman, M Mahfouf, and D A Linkens
Abstract- A novel technique, namely optimal feature
selection in the wavelet domain and supervised neural
network-fault classifier is developed. An output signal of the
speed deviations of each generator of the multi-area multi-
machines system is taken as the input for the wavelet
analysis. The "oscillation signature" for each of the 4
machines in a 'no fault condition', 'fault' with the PSS and
without the PSS is recorded a t various fault locations for
fault detection using Multi resolution Analysis ( M U )
Wavelet Transforms. The MRA decomposes the signal into
different resolutions allowing a detailed analysis of its energy
content and characteristics. I t is then used as a features for
classes and locations of the fault. Three classifiers are used,
namely the Generalised Regression Neural Network
( G R " ) , the Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN), and the
An Adaptive Network Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), to
train and find the fault location and classification and the
results obtained a r e compared. The two-area 4-machine
system with a double circuit transmission lines between the
two areas is modified to include a fictitious bus for the study.
To control the oscillation at various fault locations, a lookup
table is devised using Simulink@ for various values of the
gain and the time constant of the conventional Power System
Stabiliser. The Integral Square E r r o r and multiple objective
functions are used as a fitness function during the
minimization operation. Results show that the proposed
control of the PSS is more robust in damping the oscillations
as compared to the fixed conventional PSS.
Index Terms- Fault location, Power system stabiliser,
Intelligence techniques, Transmissions lines
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, power systems have become more
complicated under competitive and deregulated
environments. As a result, more advanced security control
is required to smooth power operations and planning. It is
known that power system security control is one of the
main current concerns. As a framework of security
control, fault detection is one of the important tasks.
Specifically, it requires that power system operators at
control centres appropriately handle information on faults
and detect faults effectively. In other words, more
sophisticated fault detection techniques are necessary to
maintain secure power systems.
The Authors are with the Department of Automatic Control and Systems
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, UK.
360
In this study, a new method is proposed for fault detection
and classification. A novel technique, called optimal
feature selection in the wavelet domain and supervised
neural network-fault classifier is developed. An output
signal of the speed deviations of each generator of the
multi area multi machines system are taken as the input
for the wavelet analysis which are then fed to the
Generalised Regression Neural Network (GRNN) and
Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) to give the location
and classification of the fault. Adaptive Neural Fuzzy
Inference System (ANFIS) is used as a third fault
classifier and the results are compared for analyzing the
classification rate performance. Finally, a lookup table is
devised to select automatically the values of the gain and
the time constant of the conventional PSS so that it can
accommodate the oscillations at different locations.
11. REVIEW ON TRANSMISSION LINEFAULTDETECTION
AND INTELLIGENT TECHNIQUES
A. Transmission Line Fault
The conventional studies on fault detection may be
classified into the following three methods:
1. circuit theory based method
2. traveling theory based method;
3. intelligent systems.
Method 1) detects a fault through the nodal voltages, the
line currents and the impedance changes. Method 2)
identifies the fault location using the return time of the
pulse wave. Method 3) uses several approaches such as
expert systems, fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks
(A"s).
Song et a1 [ 11 compared the studies of five neural network
based fault classifier for series compensated transmission
lines, namely the back propagation BP classifier, FM
classifier, RJ3F classifier, Cp Classifier and LVQ
classifier. They were able to conclude that RBF and CF
classifier were the best candidates. Then, Kim and Park
developed hierarchical A N N s for fault diagnosis for
power systems [2]. They use MLP to construct a
hierarchical method for fault detection. Several other
studies are currently under development to study fault
detection. Also, [3] used fuzzy ARTmap Neural networks
and when compared to the error back propagation training
2004 IEEE Intemational Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRF'T2004) April 2004 Hong Kong
algorithm, it could be seen that it was better suited for
solving the problem of fault diagnosis in complex
multicircuit transmission systems. On the other hand, [4]
proposed a scheme that consists of a wavelet-based filter
module, a Prony-based signal processor and an ANN-
based estimator. A three-phase, frequency-dependent (FD)
transmission line model was used and tested using data
employed in the ANN training as well as new data sets.
The proposed locator had a good level of accuracy. A
more recent research comes from [SI who used a
combined adaptive network and fuzzy inference system
(ANFIS) and the results showed that it could detect and
classify faults including low impedance faults (LIFs) and
high impedance faults (HIFs).
B. Wavelet Transform
As a technique, Wavelet transforms has a special feature
of variable time-frequency localisation which is different
from the windowed Fourier transform. Wavelet algorithms
process data at different scales so that they may provide
multiple resolution in frequency and time, these mainly
being used in this study to detect and classify faults. This
property of multiresolution is particularly useful for
analysing fault transients, which contain localized high
frequency components superposed power frequency
signals. For a continuous input signal, the time scale
parameters can be continuous, leading to a continuous
wavelet transform. On the other hand, the discrete wavelet
transform can also be defined for discrete time signals.
The basic concept in wavelet analysis is to select a proper
wavelet, called mother wavelet (analyzing wavelet or
admissible), and then perform an analysis using its
translated and dilated versions. In this report, the
Daubechies five wavelet transform is used to analyse the
speed deviation measured on each of the generator in the
test system.
C. Neural Networks
The use of pattern recognition for power system security
analysis was first investigated in 1968. Since neural
network can be fully applied for pattern recognition, it has
been widely investigated for transient classification
(including faults). All automatic learning approaches to
system security analysis or transients analysis are
confronted by the obstacle of training-set generation
arising from the large number of combinations of
variables and topologies and the computation required for
each simulation. Besides the combinatorial problem, there
is the problem of generating a sufficiently large
population of "insecure" states for a highly meshed
network. How to deal with this problem is still an open
problem Two candidates of this ideal neural network are
probabilistic neural networks (PNN) and generalized
regression networks (GRNN).
I ) Generalized Re.gression Neural Networks ( G R " )
Generalised Regression Neural Networks (GRNN) has
been developed by Donald Specht and works as a multi-
layer feed-forward network. GRNN is based on localised
361
basis function NN which uses the probability density
functions and is quite similar in principle to the Rl3F NN.
The term general regressions imply that the regression
surface is not restricted to be linear. In control
engineering, neural network models are often used as
dynamic plants emulators for controller design and also as
predictor models especially in adaptive control
configurations when they estimate the future values of
variables. In many previous application of the GRNN, the
sigma (0) which is referred to as the smoothing factor in
the G R " algorithm is usually fixed and thus not
applicable in a dynamic environment. To date, there has
not been much work on the application of G R " for
online prediction and classification.
2) Probabilistic Neural Networks (PNN)
Probabilistic Neural Networks (PNN) are feedforward
networks which are built with three layers. They estimate
the probability density function for each class based on
the training samples using either Parzen window or similar
probability density function which are calculated for each
test vector.(see Fig. 1). Vectors must be normalised prior
to be input into the network for each dimension in the
vector. The input layer is fully connected to the hidden
layer which has a node for each classification. Each
hidden node calculates the dot product of the input vector
and the sum is sent to the output layer where the highest
values win. Among the advantages offered by PNN are
that they train faster (more than five times faster than
backpropagation), they converge to a Bayes classifier if
enough training example examples are provided, they
enable a fast incremental training and are robust to noisy
example.
Fig. 1 The PNN Network Achitecture (from
MATLABB).
3) Aduutive Neuro Fuzzv Inference Svstem (ANFIS)
Using a given inputloutput data set, the toolbox constructs
a fuzzy inference system (FIS) whose membership
function parameters are adjusted using either a
backpropagation algorithm alone, or in a combination
with a least squares type of method. This allows the fuzzy
systems to learn from the data they are modeling.
In the ANFIS Editor, the fuzzy inference is generated
using two partition methods; grid partitioning and
2004 IEEE International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRPT2004) April 2004 Hong Kong
subtractive clustering. For grid partitioning, it uses the
Fuzzy C-means clustering (FCM) data clustering
technique. FCM is a data clusterings algorithm in which
each data point belongs to a cluster to a degree specified
by a membership grade. After generating the fuzzy
inference, the generated information describing the model
structure and parameters of both the input and output
variables are passed to ANFIS training phase. This
information will be fine-tuned by applying the hybrid
learning or the backpropagation schemes. The generated
model is of a first-order Sugeno's form and .each
generated rules will have unity weight.
111. RESEARCH
PROCEDURE
A. The Test System
The two-area 4-machine system with a double circuit
transmission lines between two areas is modified to
include a fictitious bus for the study. This system is well-
known and its data and analysis can be found in [6]. (see
Fig. 2).
2"
1 Run classifier performance program-The performance
37e t l l
d'
Fig. 2. Two-Area 4 Machine System
B. Design Procedure
Below are the steps and procedures for fault detection and
classification using the proposed new techniques.
Datafile Program-the original datafile is modified to
include the fictitious transmission line which acts as the
busbar in the nearest line where the fault occurs. Busbar
376 is introduced between bus 3 and bus 101 and the
various calculations of the line distance are obtained. The
'Loadflow' program calculates the new reference bus
voltage and its magnitude automatically.
Run the Base Program-The transient simulation program
is run with the three-phase fault occurring on the
transmission line between bus 376 and bus 101. Output
programs are saved in matfile. The main output data for
the feature extraction is the speed deviation. The program
is run for different lengths of transmission line distances
i.e. 5 %, 25%, SO%, 75%, and 99%.
Run the Wavelet Program-The output signal of the
speed deviation is taken as the input to the wavelet
362
program. The coefficients are generated and the features
from each feature are extracted, namely, the number of
peaks that occurs in the signal, the minimum number of
peaks of the signal, the frequency of the signal and the
energy functions. Each of the coefficients and features are
saved for further processing.
Run Data preprocessing Program- Using Matfile and
Excel spreadsheet program the data was prepared and
normalised for feature classification. For the validating
data used in ANFIS program, a white noise was
introduced and added randomly to the input features.
Run G R " and PNN program- 2 features are used as
the input for the G R " and PNN network and the output
is the class of fault location. The network is trained and
the output map clearly distinguishes the region of the fault
location.
Run ANFIS program- Using the MATLAl3@ command
window the data is imported from Excel103 file to the
workspace. A program generates the training and the
validation data for ANFIS. Using ANFIS GUI the
clustering program is run. The trained data are validated
using the checking data.
for each classifier is run and analysed to determine the
classification rate.
1v. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Early results using a small data set and various numbers of
inputs were conducted and simulated for different types of
classifiers. Below are the results and the discussions of the
simulations using only a small number of input and output
data.
A. Fault Detection
Multi resolution Analysis ( M U ) Wavelet Transforms
was used to extract relevant features from the input signal
i.e. the speed deviation. The MRA decomposes the signal
into different resolutions allowing a detailed analysis of
the behaviour of the signal in its different spectral bands.
The decomposed components were analysessed for their
energy contents and characteristics and are then used as a
feature to detect the fault. Using only the wavelet level 5
coefficient the system succeeded the fault and hence its
time of occurrence.
B. Fault Clussifcatiorr
For generating a small fault we used a small signal
stability program to generate the change of load by giving
a small step impulse response in the time domain. Then,
using the state-space program we calculate the speed
deviation of the generator after the response. To simulate.
For the three-phase fault we used simulate using transient
2004 IEEE International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRPT2004) April 2004 Hong Kong

stability program and recorded the speed deviation of 2) Usinp G R ”

every generator. Both fault signals are then fed to the For the simulation results below, only the data from
wavelet program to extract the features for fault generators 2 and 3 of wavelet coefficient no 5 is used as
classification using neural network. The results of an input training dataset. For GRNN the data must be
classification of the fault type are then classified as: 0 for exact or near to the training data, otherwise, when they are
‘No Fault’, 1 as a ‘Small Fault’ and 2 as ‘Severe Fault ‘(3 out of range, it can be difficult to get hundred percent.
Phase Fault). The result shows that for the training data the algorithm
succeeded in obtaining a 100% accuracy. For testing,
1) Using G R ” as a Fault Classifier unseen data of a small variation in the original signal, a
All the 180 input and output data for both the faults are noise of 0.01% was added to the signal and thus we run
stored. We now run the designed G R ” program with the simulation again for the whole location. The result of
sigma=0.00001 and succeeded in obtaining a 100% correct classification is 100%.
correct classification for the above training data. As for
the testing data we tried various combinations of faults For testing a large variation of unseen data, a noise of
and of the G R ” algorithm and succeeded to classify all 0.02% was added to the original signal. The accuracy of
the false correctly. If one of the values is out of range, the algorithm is only 67.5%. (see Fig. 3)
GRNN will give NaN which will stop the program.
Hence, we used a range checking subroutine to modify the ?”, , ,
0 trainmg
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+ le511np
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distance between the minimum and maximum data points. + em
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The output results of the program for the test pattems 16 00
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gave a 100% correct classification of the fault types. P 14- 5e
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2) Usinn PNN as a Fault Classifier Ba 1 0 -
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Using the same data, the simulation is now carried out :8 - em
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using the PNN fault classifier. But for the PNN, the output 6- e5
target index must first be converted into a vector by a - 4-
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oe

command T=ind2vec(Tc). By using the command 2 +oe

00
net=newpnn(P,T)); and Y =sim(net,P), the network is OO ; 1; 1; zb 5; 3h 95 40
no O f classes
constructed and simulated. It is interesting to note that the
value of sigma (i.e. 1) is the only default value and the Fig. 3. Unseen data Testing using GRNN.
simulation which gives a 100% correct classification for 3) UsinnPNN
the training pattern. When the testing is done using the
This result is for all data from generators 2 and 3 of the
unseen data, it also gives a 100% correct classification.
wavelet coefficient level 5 for length line of 5 percent
increment as an input training and adding 0.1% for testing
C. Fault Location and checking data. For the PNN the data must be exact or
From the 800 data points with 4 different input variables, near to the training data. Otherwise, if it is out of range, it
the input data for the network is reduced to 40 data points can be difficult to obtain a 100% correct classification.
where only the coefficients of level 5 from generators 2 The result is shown in Fig. 4.
and 3 are taken. From the simulation observation,
generators 2 and 3 are from two different areas separating 2 0 . . . . . . .
ee
w

over a large distance transmission lines and give most la - *e -

ee
e.
significant changes in the speed deviation after the fault 16-
me
1 1 4 - ee
occurs. Relatively, when fault occurs close to the em
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generator, the bigger the amplitude then the smaller the ee
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energy function. Thus, to make the network simpler we F 8- e.
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use only the data generated from these two generators. a.

I ) Usina Feed Fonvard Neural Network(FFNN)

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As a preliminary study, we used a Feed Forward Neural ‘0 5 10 15 ZO 25 30 35 40
Network with BFGS (quasi-Newton backpropagation) as
the training algorithm to classify the location of the fault
on the transmission line using the data captured at the
generator on each of the area. The result shows that FFNN From the training data we succeeded in obtaining a 100%
is ineffective for classification problems and requires long correct classification. The program will convert
computations time for convergence within a 47.5% automatically the class position to find the exact location
classification rate. where the fault occurs. For testing, the PNN network, we
applied a 0.01% noise to the original system data and run
the transient simulation again for the whole set of classes.
Then, we run the PNN algorithm and found out that it

363
2004 IEEE Intemational Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring and Power Technologies (DRPT2004) April 2004 Hong Kong

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v. Pss CONTROL STRATEGIES

For comparison, all the 800 data points are tested for all
the data including noise and only the peak value and the
energy function of the wavelet coefficients. This data is
only for the system with the PSS on generators 1 and 2.
With a decreasing value of sigma, the accuracy of
classification is increased as shown below:
Sigma 0.00001 0.000001
accuracy 68.125% 81.875%
a) Discussions
The training time of PNN algorithm for a small scale
problem is a few seconds. With the optimal window size
(presently adjusted by a trial and error operation), the
PNN can classify samples in the testing set with a 100%
accuracy. G R " achieved 87% correct classification
rate. But in comparison, the feed forward NN took 4
minutes to train and achieved a 47.5 YO success rate.
Hence, PNN has a very fast training speed and at the same
time achieves a high accuracy. The only drawback is the
finding of the optimal value of sigma which controls the
width of the area of influence and would typically be set
to smaller values for larger sample sizes. However, it
would not be reasonable to initially search a range of
0.00001 to 10.0 for sigma.
Using a conventional lead-lag controller as the power
system stabiliser in the case study, a lookup table was
devised using SIMULINKB. (see Fig. 7). Data of all the
features from various fault locations is used in the lookup
table to find the gain and time constants at that particular
location. For every feature, the transient stability program
was run and the calculated values of the time constants ( r )
and gain (K) are saved. This exhaustive method is carried
0.0000001
out only once in order to generate the databank for various
81.875%
combinations of the gain and the time constants. In this
study, only the values of TI and the gain K are used.
Another assumption when tuning the conventional PSS is
that Tl=T3 and T2=T4 are fixed. [7]. The Integral Square
Error and multiple objective functions are used as a fitness
function during the minimisation operation. The fitness
functions, the time constant and the gain for various
locations are shown in Table 1.
For testing, and for each fault location detected using the
neural classifier, the SIMULINKB program will
automatically search for the optimal value of TI and K in
order to compensate the damping. Results show that the
control action of the PSS using this method is more robust
as compared to the fixed conventional PSS.

4) Using ANFIS

Using the MATLABB ANFIS GUI tool editor, the data

was loaded and train using the Sub clustering method with
2 inputs and 1 output with 40 membership functions. The
rest of the coefficient are shown below:
Range Influence: 0.05 Squash Factor: 1.25
Accept ratio: 0.5 Reject Ratio:O.15

For the training data, ANFIS reduced the error to nearly 0

but for the checking data the error was 0.59. By
comparing point-by-point locations, the result is deemed
satisfactory by giving a 82.5% correct classification. Such
result is also shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 SIMULINKC3 Look -Up table.

364
2004 IEEE Intemational Conference o n Electric Utility Deregulation, Restructuring a n d Power Technologies (DEWT2004) April 2004 H o n g K o n g
Table I: Gain and Time constant for various locations.
I Lines I MSE I T~ I K I ISE I T~ I K
VI. CONCLUSIONS
A new method in classification and fault detection of a
transmission line using intelligent technique is proposed in
this paper. The use of Multi resolution Analysis ( M U )
Wavelet Transform proved to be very efficient in
extracting relevant features from the signal. The MRA
decomposition components were analysed for their energy
contents and characteristics and are then used as a feature
for different classes and locations of the fault to be
classified.
Neural network are very popular as classifiers and have
proved efficient. However, they need a large number of
data to be effective. But using G R ” and PNN with small
amounts of data gave quite a good correct classification
rate. ANFIS on the other hand performed well since the
data for checking is supplemented with a small deviation
of noise enough to generalise the results.
Hence, this research succeeded in finding a novel way of
detecting, classifying and locating the transmission line
fault using intelligent technique based on PSS input
signals as compared to the traditional method such as the
travelling wave and the impedance methods which are
already established.
Further work will consider finding the optimal value of
sigma such that it can vary throughout the epoch for an
optimal selection. Also, GA will be used to optimise the
selection of the lookup table that will respond to the type
of fault and its location in order to minimise the damping
ratio of the stabiliser.
VII. REFERENCES
Song Y.H., Xuan Q. X. and Johns A. T. ‘Comparison studies of
five neural network based fault classifiers for complex
transmission lines” Electric Power Svstetns Research, Volume 43,
Issue 2, November 1997, p p 125-132
Kim K H., Park J-K “Application of hierarchical neural networks
to fault diagnosis of power systems”, fnternativnal Journal of
Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Vvlume 15, Issue 2, April
1993, p p 65-70
365
(31 Aggarwal, R.K.; Xuan, Q.K; Johns, A.T.; Furong Li; Bennett,
A.; ”A novel approach to fault diagnosis in multicircuit
transmission lines using fuzzy ARTmap neural networks”, IEEE
Transactions on Neural Networks, Vol. 10 (5) 1999 , pp1214 -
1221
[4] Tawfik, M.M., Morcos, M.M “A novel approach for fault location
on transmission lines”, Power Engineering Review, IEEE, pp58-60
[5] Yeo, S. M. Kim, C. H. Hong, K. S. Lim, Y. B. Agganval, R. K.
Johns, A. T. Choi, M. S. “A novel algorithm for fault classification
in transmission lines using a combined adaptive network and
fuzzy inference system” Intemational Joumal of Electrical Power
& Energy Systems vol. 25(9) pp747-758,2003,
[6] G Rogers, Power System Oscillation. New York: Kluwer, 2000.
(71 P. W. Sauer and M. A. Pai, Power System Dynamics and Sta-bility
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998.
VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
University, Australia (1990) and University of Technology Malaysia
(1996). Currently, he is studying PhD at the University of Sheffield,
UK. His fields of interests are in the area of soft computing, intelligent
control and power system stability and control.
(1987) and PhD (1991) from the University of Sheffield (UK).
Presently, he is a Reader in the Department of Automatic Control and
System Engineering, The University of Sheffield. Dr M. Mahfouf has
worked in the areas of Intelligent Control and Modelling in Biomedicine
and Process Indushies for more than 16 years and is the author of more
than 80 papers in these subjects and has co-authored 1 book and 5 book
chapters. He is the recipient of the prestigious IEE HARTREE Premium
Award for a paper published in the IEE Proceedings on Control Theory
and Applications. His research interests include Predictive Control,
FuzzyNeuro-Fuzzy Systems, Intelligent Systems based Modelling and
Control, Evolutionary Computing, Modelling and Control for
Biomedicine, and Modelling and Control in the Metal Processing
Industry.
Y
from Imperial College (1966), M.Sc. from the University of Suny
(1971), Ph.D from the University of Sheffield (1983), and D.Sc.(Eng.)
from the University of London (1 996), UK. He is currently a Director of
Institute for Microstructural and Mechanical Process Engineering: The
University of Sheffield. He has published over 400 papers in these
fields, and has edited and co-authored six research monographs. His
current research interests include neuro-fuzzy modelling and control,
hybrid intelligent systems, intelligent modelling and control in
biomedical systems, and property prediction for alloy materials.