Progress in MEMS and Micro Systems Research

Chang Liu
Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory
208 N. Wright Street
Urbana, IL 61821

Phone: 217-333-4051
Fax: 217-244-6375
Email: changliu@uiuc.edu

Abstract

MEMS technology has revoluntionized microfabrication, and the sensors and actuators industries. What
is the state of the art of MEMS applications that use ceramic materials? what are major trends of
development for the MEMS field in the future? this talk will present a broad and timely overview for
conference attendees that address these twoquestions.

The integrated circuit (IC) technology is the starting
point for discussing the history of MEMS. In 1971,
the then state-of-the-art Intel 4004 chip consisted of
only 2250 transistors. Intel 286 and Pentium III
processors, unveiled in 1982 and 1999, had 120,000
and 24 million transistors, respectively. IC
technology developed with a level of fierceness
rarely matched in other fields. The density of
transistor integration has increased by two-fold every
12-18 months, following the Moore’s Law [1] after
an observation made by Gordon Moore, one of the
co-founders of Intel Corporation. This is a
remarkable feat of ingenuity and determination
because, at several points in the past several decades,
there were deep concerns that the trend predicted –
and in some sense, mandated – in the Moore’s Law
would not continue but run into limits imposed by
fundamental physics or engineering capabilities at the
time.
The microfabrication technology is the engine behind
functional integration and miniaturization of
electronics. Between the early 1960s to the middle of
1980s, the fabrication technology of integrated
circuits rapidly matured after decades of research
following the invention of the first semiconductor
transistor [2].
Many scientific and engineering feats we take for
granted today will not be here without the
tremendous pace of progress in the area of
microfabrication and miniaturization. The list
include the exponentially growing use of computers
and the Internet, cellular telephony, digital
photography (capturing, storing, transferring, and
displaying), flat panel displays, plasma televisions,
fuel-efficient automobiles, sequencing the entire
human genome (with 3 billion base pairs) [3], rapid
DNA sequence identification [4], the discovery of
new materials and drugs [5], and digital warfare.
The field of MEMS evolved from the integrated
circuit industry. The germination of the MEMS field
covers two decades (from the mid 1960’s to 1980’s),
when sparse activities were carried out. For example,
anisotropic silicon etching was discovered to
sculpture three dimensional features into otherwise
planar silicon substrates [6]. Several pioneering
researchers in academic and industrial laboratories
began to use the integrated circuit processing
technology to make micro mechanical devices,
including cantilevers, membranes, and nozzles.
Crucial elements of micro sensors, including
piezoresistivity of single crystalline silicon and
polycrystalline silicon, were discovered, studied, and
optimized [7-9]. At this stage, the name of the field
had yet to be coined. However, both bulk
micromachining and surface micromachining
technologies were rapidly maturing [10-12].
There are a number of notable early works. In 1967,
Harvey Nathanson at Westinghouse introduced a new
type of transistor called the resonant gate transistor
(RGT) [13]. Unlike conventional transistors, the gate
electrode of the RGT was not fixed to the gate oxide
but was movable with respect to the substrate. The
distance between the gate and the substrate was
controlled by electrostatic attractive forces. The
RGT was the earliest demonstration of micro
electrostatic actuators.
In the 1970s, Kurt Petersen at the IBM research
laboratory, along with other colleagues, developed
diaphragm-type silicon micromachined pressure
sensors. Very thin silicon diaphragms with
embedded piezoresistive sensors were made using
silicon bulk micromachining. The diaphragm
deforms under differential pressures, inducing
mechanical stress that was picked up by the
piezoresistors. The thin diaphragm allowed greater
deformation under a given pressure differential,
hence greater sensitivity compared with conventional
membrane-type pressure sensors. The sensors could
be micromachined in batch, therefore increasing the
uniformity of performance while reducing the costs
of production. Pressure sensors for applications
including blood pressure monitoring and industrial
control provided the earliest commercial success of
MEMS technology.
Today, micromachined pressure sensors are built
with a variety of structures and fabrication methods.
These sensors can be based on capacitive [14],
piezoelectric [15], piezoresistive [16], electronics
resonance [17], and optical detection [18] techniques.
Advanced features for integrated pressure sensors
include built-in vacuum for absolute pressure
measurement [14], integrated telemetry link [19],
close-loop control [20], insensitivity to contaminants
[21], biocompatibility for integration into micro
medical instruments [22], and use of non-silicon
membrane materials (e.g., ceramics, diamonds) for
functioning in harsh and high temperature
environments [17, 23, 24].
Ink jet printers offer a low cost alternative to laser jet
printing and nowadays provide high performance and
yet affordable color photographic-quality printing.
Canon discovered ink jet by thermal bubble
formation (bubble jet), whereas Hewlett-Packard
pioneered the technology of silicon micromachined
ink jet printer nozzles in 1978. Arrays of ink jet
nozzles eject tiny ink droplets (“drop on demand”),
upon expansion of liquid volume by thermal bubbles
(see Figure 1). The collapse of the bubble draws
more ink into the ink cavity for the next firing. Color
ink jet printing is achieved by dropping primary
subtractive color dyes – cyan, magenta, and yellow
(CMY).
Silicon micromachining technology played an
enabling role for the ink jet printing technology [25-
27]. Using silicon micromachining, ink-ejection
nozzles can be made extremely small and densely
populated, an important trait for realizing high
printing resolution, and sharp contrast. Small-
volume cavities with equally small heaters means
rapid temperature rise (during ink ejection) and fall,
allowing ink jet printing to reach appreciable speed.
In 1995, the number of nozzles per cartridge has
increased to 300 while the average weight of ink
droplet is only 40 ng. In 2004, ink jet heads are
based on a variety of principles, including thermal,
piezoelectric, and electrostatic forces. The volume of
each drop is on the order of 10 pl, with resolution as
high as 1000 dpi reached [28].
Many ink jet printers on the market today are based
on the thermal ink jet principle and dispense heat-
resistant dyes. Alternative ink jet principles are also
possible. Epson-brand ink jet printers, for example,
use piezoelectric ink jet technology and special ink
dyes (since they do not have to be heat resistant).
The inks for piezoelectric inkjet printers dry more
quickly to minimize spreading on paper and therefore
produce greater resolution.
Today, ink jet printers compare favorably with laser
jet printing. Ink jet printers are generally cheaper
although the cost of replacing ink cartridges makes
ink jet printing more expensive to own and use over
long periods of time. The ink jet technology is being
applied beyond text and photo printing. It is now
used for direct deposition of organic chemicals [29],
elements for organic transistors [30], and biological
molecules (such as building blocks of DNA
molecules) [31].
 silicon – either bulk silicon substrate (single
crystalline silicon) or thin film silicon
heater (polycrystalline silicon). These two forms of silicon
were readily accessible as they were used heavily in
Ink the integrated circuit industry - bulk silicon is used as
reservoir the substrate of circuitry, while polycrystalline silicon
nozzle is used for making transistor gates. Three-
dimensional mechanical structures, such as
suspended cantilevers or membranes, can be made
out of bulk silicon or thin film silicon. In 1984,
Petersen published a seminal paper titled “Silicon as
a mechanical material” [10]. This paper was (and
Ink
still is) widely quoted in the 1990s as the field
drop
expanded rapidly.

The use of thin film silicon leads to surface

micromachined mechanisms including springs, gear
trains, and cranks, to name a few. In 1989, a first
silicon surface micromachined micromotor driven by
electrostatic forces was demonstrated by researchers
at the University of California at Berkeley [32]. A
polysilicon rotor, less than 120 µm in diameter and 1
µm thick, was capable of rotating at a maximum
speed of 500 rpm under a three-phase, 350 V driving
MEMS voltage. This motor, though with limited application
chip at that time, brought the excitement of MEMS to the
broader scientific community and the general public.
Micro rotary motors based on different actuation
principles, covering a wider range of scales (even
down to nanometers), and with much greater
achievable torque and power have been demonstrated
since then [33, 34].

A few years later, the phrase Micro Electro

Ink nozzles
Figure 1: Micromachined ink jet printer nozzles.
(Top) Schematic side-view of an ink jet chip with
fluid nozzles. (Middle and Bottom) Close-up view
of a commercial inkjet printer head, and the
silicon chip consisting of many nozzles. Integrated
circuits on chips control nozzle firing.
(File: fig1-1-1, fig1-1-2, fig1-1-3)
In the late 1980s, researchers in the nascent field
called micromachining mainly focused on the use of
Mechanical Systems – MEMS was introduced. It
gradually became an internationally accepted name
of the field. This name captured the scale (micro),
practice (electro-mechanical integration) and
aspiration (systems) of the new field. Two subtle
facts often elude beginning readers. Many research
results and products of MEMS technology are indeed
components within a bigger system. The phrase
embodies both a unique machining and
manufacturing approach (micromachining), and a
new format of devices and products.
In the 1990s, the field of MEMS entered a period of
rapid and dynamic growth worldwide. Government
and private funding agencies in many countries
throughout the world funded and supported focused
research activities. Early research efforts at several
companies started to bear fruits. Most notable
examples include the integrated inertial sensors by
Analog Devices for automotive air-bag deployment
and the Digital Light Processing chip by Texas
Instruments for projection display. These two
applications are discussed in the following.
The ADXL series accelerometer made by Analog
Devices Corporation consists of a suspended
mechanical element and signal-processing electronics
integrated on the same substrate. The initial
development targeted the automotive market [35].
The accelerometer monitors excessive deceleration
and initiate air-bag deployment in the event of a life
threatening collision. The mechanical sensing
element is a free-moving proof mass suspended by
four support springs (Figure 2). Movable electrodes
in the form of interdigitated fingers are attached to
the proof mass. The fixed and moving electrodes
form a bank of parallel-connected capacitors, with
the total capacitance depending on the distance
between the moving and fixed fingers. If an
acceleration (a) is applied to the chip, the proof mass
(with mass m) will move under an inertia force
(F=ma) against the chip frame. This changes the
finger distances and therefore the total capacitance.
The minute amount of capacitance change is read
using on-chip signal processing electronics. The
integration of mechanical elements and electronics is
critical for reducing interference noises (stemming
from stray electromagnetic radiation) and avoiding
parasitic capacitance associated with otherwise long
conductor leads.
Figure 2: Mechanical elements of an integrated
accelerometer. (Left) The proof mass is at an
equilibrium position without acceleration; (right)
The proof mass moves relative to the fixed fingers
under an applied acceleration.
(Figure name: fig1-2.jpg)
The MEMS technology offers significant advantages
over then existing, macroscopic electromechanical
sensors, mainly in terms of high sensitivity and low
noise. The MEMS approach also decreases the costs
of ownership of each sensor, mainly by eliminating
manual assembly steps and replacing them with batch
fabrication.
Today, one can find a variety of micromachined
acceleration sensors on the market based on a number
of sensing principles and fabrication technologies.
Accelerometers based on capacitive sensing [36, 37],
piezoresistivity [38], piezoelectricity [39], optical
interferometry [40] and thermal transfer [41, 42] have
been demonstrated. Advanced features include
integrated three axis sensing [43], ultrahigh
sensitivity (nano-g) for monitoring seismic activities
[44, 45], increased reliability by eliminating moving
mass [42], and integrated hermetic sealing for long
term stability [46].
The technology that produces the accelerometer can
be modified to realize rotational acceleration sensors,
or gyroscopes [47]. Due to their small sizes, MEMS
inertia sensors can be inserted into tight spaces and
enable novel applications, including smart writing
instruments (e.g., smart pens that detect and transmit
hand writing strokes to computers for character
recognition), virtual reality headgears, computer
mouse (Gyro mouse), electronic game controllers,
running shoes that calculate the actual distance of
running, and portable computers that stops the
spinning of hard disks if the computer is accidentally
dropped.
In the information age, still images and videos are
generated, distributed, and displayed in an all-digital
manner to maximize quality and lower the
distribution cost. Projection display is a powerful
tool for digital multimedia presentation, movie
theaters, and home entertainment systems.
Traditional projection displays are analog in nature,
based on liquid crystal display (LCD) technology.
The Digital Light Processor (DLP) of Texas
Instruments, a revolutionary digital optical projector
[48, 49], consists of a light-modulating chip with
more than 100,000 individually addressable
micromirrors, called digital micro mirrors (DMD).
Each mirror has an area of approximately 10x10 µm2
and is capable of tilting by +/- 7.5o. The mirror array
is illuminated by a light source. Each mirror, when
placed at a correct angle, reflects light towards the
screen and illuminates one pixel. An array of such
mirrors can form an image on a projection screen.
The schematic diagram (top view) of an individual
mirror is shown in Figure 3. A mirror plate is
supported by two torsional support beams and can
rotate with respect to the torsion axis. According to
the cross-sectional view (along A-A’ line), electrodes
are located under the mirror to control its position.
When one of the electrodes is biased, the mirror will
be pulled toward one side by electrostatic attraction
force.
Because of the large number and high density of
mirrors, they are addressed using a row-column
multiplexing scheme. Static random addressing
memory (SRAM) circuits employing 0.8-µm, double
level metal CMOS technology for controlling each
mirror are embedded on the silicon substrate, beneath
the layer for mirrors.
The DLP display offers advantages over the
incumbent, transmissive LCD projection, including a
higher (better) pixel fill factor, greater brightness and
black level, greater contrast ratio, more efficient use
of light, and stability of contrast and color balance
over time. It should be noted that a successful device
such as DLP is not an over-night success but a result
of long-term commitment and development. In fact,
the DLP was successfully launched following a string
of unsuccessful earlier R&D activities at various
companies, carried out in a span of 20 years.
Figure 3: Diagrams illustrating the structure and
operating principles of a single DMD mirror.
(Figure name: fig1-3.jpg)
Today, digital micromirrors find applications beyond
image projection. It is being pursued as a rapid
maskless lithography technology to save the cost of
mask making [50], as well as flexible, in situ DNA
micro-array manufacturing using light-array assisted
synthesis [51]. Advanced optical scanning mirrors,
such as ones with continuous angular tuning, large
displacement range, and more degrees of freedom
have been developed for optical communication.[52]
Besides the acceleration sensor and digital micro
mirror, many new MEMS device categories were
developed in the 1990s, with varying degrees of
industrial implementation presently.
The MEMS technology field has undergone
tremendous amount of change in the past few years.
Among the most important new trends:
(1) MEMS technology is being combined with
nanotechnology and biomedical
technologies to create a brand new
categories of devices and for enabling new
applications;
(2) MEMS technology is moving away from
using silicon and semiconductor materials
exclusively. Polymer materials are being
used more frequently.
In recent years, silicon micromachining techniques
are being rapidly augmented with new materials and
processes. Silicon, a semiconductor material, is
mechanically brittle. It is also expensive or
unnecessary for certain applications. New materials
such as polymer and compound semiconductors can
fill the gap of performance.
Polymer materials are being incorporated into MEMS
because of their unique materials properties (e.g.
biocompatibility, optical transparency), processing
techniques, and low costs compared to silicon.
Polymer materials that have been explored in recent
years include silicone elastomers, Parylene, and
polyimide, among others.
Many sensors and actuators are needed to operate in
harsh conditions, such as direct exposure to
environmental elements, high temperature, wide
temperature swing, or high shock. Delicate
microstructures made of silicon or inorganic thin film
materials are not suited for such applications.
Several inorganic materials are being introduced for
MEMS applications in harsh environments. Silicon
carbide, in both bulk and thin film forms, are
explored for applications including high temperature
solid-state electronics and transducers [53-55].
Diamond thin films provide the advantage of high
electrical conductivity and high wear resistance for
potential applications including pressure sensors and
scanning electron microscopy probes [23, 24, 56].
Other compound semiconductor materials including
GaAs ([57-60]) are also being investigated.
New material processing techniques are being
developed for fabrication both on silicon substrates
and other materials. New processes for MEMS
include laser-assisted etching for material removal
and deposition [61], stereo lithography for rapid
prototyping [62, 63], local electrochemical deposition
[64], photo-electroforming [65], high aspect ratio
deep reactive ion etching [61], micro milling [66, 67],
focused ion beam etching [68], X-ray etching [69]
[70], micro electro discharge [71, 72], ink jet printing
(e.g., of metal colloids [73]), micro contact printing
[74, 75], in-situ plasma [76], molding (including
injection molding, [77]), embossing [78], screen
printing [79], electrochemical welding [80], chemical
mechanical polishing, and guided and self-directed
self-assembly in two or three dimensions [81, 82].
Microfabrication processes have also been expanded
to reach nanoscale resolution to realize
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) [63, 83].
Reliable and economical fabrication of
electromechanical elements with nanoscopic feature
sizes or spacing represents new challenges and
methodologies. Traditional lithography does not
offer sub-100-nm resolution readily, at low cost, and
with parallelism. A variety of nanostructure
patterning techniques, often drastically different from
the photolithographic approach, are developed in the
physics and chemistry communities for producing
nano-meter scale patterns. Readers who are
interested in exploring this class of techniques may
start by reading literatures on nanoimprint
lithography [84], nano whittling [85], and nanosphere
lithography [86].
[1] R. R. Schaller, "Moore's law: past, present,
and future," in IEEE Spectrum, vol. 34,
1997, pp. 52-59.
[2] M. Riordan, "The Lost History Of the
Transistor," Spectrum, IEEE, vol. 41, pp.
44-49, 2004.
[3] L. Rowen, G. Mahairas, and L. Hood,
"Sequencing the Human Genome," Science,
vol. 278, pp. 605-607, 1997.
[4] E. Pennisi, "BIOTECHNOLOGY: The
Ultimate Gene Gizmo: Humanity on a
Chip," Science, vol. 302, pp. 211, 2003.
[5] L. Peltonen and V. A. McKusick,
"GENOMICS AND MEDICINE: Dissecting
Human Disease in the Postgenomic Era,"
Science, vol. 291, pp. 1224-1229, 2001.
[6] K. E. Bean, "Anisotropic etching of silicon,"
IEEE Transaction on Electron Devices, vol.
ED 25, pp. 1185-1193, 1978.
[7] C. S. Smith, "Piezoresistance effect in
germanium and silicon," Physics Review,
vol. 94, pp. 42-49, 1954.
[8] P. J. French and A. G. R. Evans,
"Polycrystalline silicon strain sensors,"
It is noteworthy that the materials and technologies
for microelectronics fabrication have not been
standing still either. In fact, the traditional
photolithography techniques and semiconductor
materials associated with integrated circuits are
undergoing rapidly changes in the past decade. New
processing techniques such as roll-to-roll printing are
being actively pursued for fast production of large
area electronics, photovoltaic generators, and
optoelectronics displays [87]. Organic polymer
materials are being used in place of semiconductor
materials for logic [30], storage [88], and optical
display [89].
The future of new materials and fabrication methods
is bright and exciting. Fabrication and manufacturing
technologies such as micromachining,
nanofabrication, and microelectronics fabrication
have historically been developed in different
communities with virtual disregard of each other, on
independent sets of materials and substrates. As
science and technology progresses towards the micro
and nanoscopic dimensions, these distinct families of
fabrication methods are being connected and
hybridized to create powerful and transcending new
fabrication methods which will enable new scientific
studies and new devices.
Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 8, pp. 219-
225, 1985.
[9] F. T. Geyling and J. J. Forst,
"Semiconductor strain transducers," The
Bell Sysem Technical Journal, vol. 39, pp.
705-731, 1960.
[10] K. E. Petersen, "Silicon As A Mechanical
Material," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 70,
pp. 420-457, 1982.
[11] K. J. Gabriel, "Microelectromechanical
systems," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 86,
pp. 1534-1535, 1998.
[12] J. B. Angell, S. C. Terry, and P. W. Barth,
"Silicon Micromechanical Devices,"
Scientific American Journal, vol. 248, pp.
44-55, 1983.
[13] H. C. Nathanson, W. E. Newell, R. A.
Wickstrom, and J. R. D. Jr., "The Resonant
Gate Transistor," IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices, vol. ED-14, pp. 117-133,
1967.
[14] A. V. Chavan and K. D. Wise, "Batch-
processed vacuum-sealed capacitive
pressure sensors," Microelectromechanical
 Systems, Journal of, vol. 10, pp. 580-588,
2001.
[15] A. Choujaa, N. Tirole, C. Bonjour, G.
Martin, D. Hauden, P. Blind, A. Cachard,
and C. Pommier, "AIN/silicon Lamb-wave
microsensors for pressure and gravimetric
measurements," Sensors and Actuators A:
Physical, vol. 46, pp. 179-182, 1995.
[16] S. Sugiyama, M. Takigawa, and I. Igarashi,
"Integrated piezoresistive pressure sensor
with both voltage and frequency output,"
Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 4, pp. 113-
120, 1983.
[17] M. A. Fonseca, J. M. English, M. von Arx,
and M. G. Allen, "Wireless micromachined
ceramic pressure sensor for high-
temperature applications,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 11, pp. 337-343, 2002.
[18] N. A. Hall and F. L. Degertekin, "Integrated
optical interferometric detection method for
micromachined capacitive acoustic
transducers," Applied Physics Letters, vol.
80, pp. 3859-3861, 2002.
[19] S. Chatzandroulis, D. Tsoukalas, and P. A.
Neukomm, "A miniature pressure system
with a capacitive sensor and a passive
telemetry link for use in implantable
applications," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 9, pp. 18-23, 2000.
[20] J.-S. Park and Y. B. Gianchandani, "A
servo-controlled capacitive pressure sensor
using a capped-cylinder structure
microfabricated by a three-mask process,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 12, pp. 209-220, 2003.
[21] C. C. Wang, B. P. Gogoi, D. J. Monk, and
C. H. Mastrangelo, "Contamination-
insensitive differential capacitive pressure
sensors," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 9, pp. 538-543, 2000.
[22] A. Gotz, I. Gracia, C. Cane, A. Morrissey,
and J. Alderman, "Manufacturing and
packaging of sensors for their integration in
a vertical MCM microsystem for biomedical
applications," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 10, pp. 569-579,
2001.
[23] D. R. Wur, J. L. Davidson, W. P. Kang, and
D. L. Kinser, "Polycrystalline diamond
pressure sensor," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 4, pp. 34-41, 1995.
[24] X. Zhu, D. M. Aslam, Y. Tang, B. H. Stark,
and K. Najafi, "The Fabrication of All-
Diamond Packaging Panels With Built-In
Interconnects for Wireless Integrated
Microsystems," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 13, pp. 396-405,
2004.
[25] C. A. Boeller, T. J. Carlin, P. M. Roeller,
and S. W. Steinfield, "High-volume
microassembly of color thermal inkjet
printheads and cartridges," Hewlett-Package
Journal, vol. 39, pp. 6-15, 1988.
[26] K. E. Petersen, "Fabriaction of an integratd
planar silicon ink-jet structure," IEEE
Transaction on Electron Devices, vol. ED-
26, pp. 191801920, 1979.
[27] J.-D. Lee, J.-B. Yoon, J.-K. Kim, H.-J.
Chung, C.-S. Lee, H.-D. Lee, H.-J. Lee, C.-
K. Kim, and C.-H. Han, "A thermal inkjet
printhead with a monolithically fabricated
nozzle plate and self-aligned ink feed hole,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 8, pp. 229-236, 1999.
[28] F.-G. Tseng, C.-J. Kim, and C.-M. Ho, "A
high-resolution high-frequency monolithic
top-shooting microinjector free of satellite
drops - part I: concept, design, and model,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 11, pp. 427-436, 2002.
[29] J. C. Carter, A. Wehrum, M. C. Dowling, M.
Cacheiro-Martinez, and N. B. Baynes,
"Recent developments in materials and
processes for ink jet printing high resolution
polymer OLED displays," Proceedings of
the SPIE - The International Society for
Optical Engineering; Organic Light-
Emitting Materials and Devices VI, 8-10
July 2002, vol. 4800, pp. 34-46, 2003.
[30] H. Sirringhaus, T. Kawase, R. H. Friend, T.
Shimoda, M. Inbasekaran, W. Wu, and E. P.
Woo, "High-Resolution Inkjet Printing of
All-Polymer Transistor Circuits," Science,
vol. 290, pp. 2123-2126, 2000.
[31] T. R. Hughes, M. Mao, A. R. Jones, J.
Burchard, M. J. Marton, K. W. Shannon, S.
M. Lefkowitz, M. Ziman, J. M. Schelter, M.
R. Meyer, S. Kobayashi, C. Davis, H. Dai,
Y. D. He, S. B. Stephaniants, G. Cavet, W.
L. Walker, A. West, E. Coffey, D. D.
Shoemaker, R. Stoughton, A. P. Blanchard,
S. H. Friend, and P. S. Linsley, "Expression
profiling using microarrays fabricated by an
ink-jet oligonucleotide synthesizer," Nature
Biotechnology, vol. 19, pp. 342-347, 2001.
[32] L.-S. Fan, Y.-C. Tai, and R. S. Muller, "IC-
Processed Electrostatic Micro-motors,"
presented at IEEE International Electronic
Devices Meeting, 1988.
[33] C. H. Ahn, Y. J. Kim, and M. G. Allen, "A
planar variable reluctance magnetic
 micromotor with fully integrated stator and
coils," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 2, pp. 165-173, 1993.
[34] C. Livermore, A. R. Forte, T. Lyszczarz, S.
D. Umans, A. A. Ayon, and J. H. Lang, "A
High-Power MEMS Electric Induction
Motor," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 13, pp. 465-471, 2004.
[35] D. S. Eddy and D. R. Sparks, "Application
of MEMS technology in automotive sensors
and actuators," Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 86, pp. 1747-1755, 1998.
[36] N. Yazdi, K. Najafi, and A. S. Salian, "A
high-sensitivity silicon accelerometer with a
folded-electrode structure,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 12, pp. 479-486, 2003.
[37] N. Yazdi and K. Najafi, "An all-silicon
single-wafer micro-g accelerometer with a
combined surface and bulk micromachining
process," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 9, pp. 544-550, 2000.
[38] A. Partridge, J. K. Reynolds, B. W. Chui, E.
M. Chow, A. M. Fitzgerald, L. Zhang, N. I.
Maluf, and T. W. Kenny, "A high-
performance planar piezoresistive
accelerometer," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 9, pp. 58-66, 2000.
[39] D. L. DeVoe and A. P. Pisano, "Surface
micromachined piezoelectric accelerometers
(PiXLs)," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 10, pp. 180-186, 2001.
[40] N. C. Loh, M. A. Schmidt, and S. R.
Manalis, "Sub-10 cm³
interferometric accelerometer with nano-g
resolution," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 11, pp. 182-187,
2002.
[41] U. A. Dauderstadt, P. H. S. De Vries, R.
Hiratsuka, and P. M. Sarro, "Silicon
accelerometer based on thermopiles,"
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 46,
pp. 201-204, 1995.
[42] A. M. Leung, Y. Zhao, and T. M. Cunneen,
"Accelerometer uses convection heating
changes," Elecktronik Praxis, vol. 8, 2001.
[43] S. Butefisch, A. Schoft, and S. Buttgenbach,
"Three-axes monolithic silicon low-g
accelerometer," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 9, pp. 551-556,
2000.
[44] J. Bernstein, R. Miller, W. Kelley, and P.
Ward, "Low-noise MEMS vibration sensor
for geophysical applications,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 8, pp. 433-438, 1999.
[45] C.-H. Liu and T. W. Kenny, "A high-
precision, wide-bandwidth micromachined
tunneling accelerometer,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 10, pp. 425-433, 2001.
[46] B. Ziaie, J. A. Von Arx, M. R. Dokmeci,
and K. Najafi, "A hermetic glass-silicon
micropackage with high-density on-chip
feedthroughs for sensors and actuators,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 5, pp. 166-179, 1996.
[47] S. Lee, S. Park, J. Kim, S. Lee, and D.-I.
Cho, "Surface/bulk micromachined single-
crystalline-silicon micro-gyroscope,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 9, pp. 557-567, 2000.
[48] J. M. Younse, "Mirrors on a chip,"
Spectrum, IEEE, vol. 30, pp. 27-31, 1993.
[49] P. F. Van Kessel, L. J. Hornbeck, R. E.
Meier, and M. R. Douglass, "A MEMS-
based projection display," Proceedings of
the IEEE, vol. 86, pp. 1687-1704, 1998.
[50] N. Savage, "A revolutionary chipmaking
technique?," in IEEE Spectrum, vol. 40,
2003, pp. 18.
[51] S. Singh-Gasson, R. D. Green, Y. Yue, C.
Nelson, F. Blattner, M. R. Sussman, and F.
Cerrina, "Maskless fabricaiton of light-
directed oligonucleotide microarrays using a
digital micromirror array," Nature
biotechnology, vol. 17, pp. 974-978, 1999.
[52] "Elastomeric Organic Transistors," Science,
vol. 303, pp. 1577e-, 2004.
[53] M. Mehregany, C. A. Zorman, N. Rajan, and
C. H. Wu, "Silicon carbide MEMS for harsh
environments," Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 86, pp. 1594-1609, 1998.
[54] S. Tanaka, S. Sugimoto, J.-F. Li, R.
Watanabe, and M. Esashi, "Silicon carbide
micro-reaction-sintering using
micromachined silicon molds,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 10, pp. 55-61, 2001.
[55] C. R. Stoldt, C. Carraro, W. R. Ashurst, D.
Gao, R. T. Howe, and R. Maboudian, "A
low-temperature CVD process for silicon
carbide MEMS," Sensors and Actuators A:
Physical, vol. 97-98, pp. 410-415, 2002.
[56] T. Shibata, Y. Kitamoto, K. Unno, and E.
Makino, "Micromachining of diamond film
for MEMS applications,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 9, pp. 47-51, 2000.
[57] Z. L. Zhang and N. C. MacDonald,
"Fabrication of submicron high-aspect-ratio
 GaAs actuators," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 2, pp. 66-73, 1993.
[58] S. Adachi and K. Oe, "Chemical etching
characteristics of (001) GaAs," Journal of
Electrochemical Society, vol. 123, pp. 2427-
2435, 1983.
[59] N. Chong, T. A. S. Srinivas, and H. Ahmed,
"Performance of GaAs microbridge
thermocouple infrared detectors,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 6, pp. 136-141, 1997.
[60] N. Iwata, T. Wakayama, and S. Yamada,
"Establishment of basic process to fabricate
full GaAs cantilever for scanning probe
microscope applications," Sensors and
Actuators A: Physical, vol. 111, pp. 26-31,
2004.
[61] M. Heschel, M. Mullenborn, and S.
Bouwstra, "Fabrication and characterization
of truly 3-D diffuser/nozzle microstructures
in silicon," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 6, pp. 41-47, 1997.
[62] S. Maruo, K. Ikuta, and H. Korogi, "Force-
controllable, optically driven micromachines
fabricated by single-step two-photon
microstereolithography,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 12, pp. 533-539, 2003.
[63] W. H. Teh, C.-T. Liang, M. Graham, and C.
G. Smith, "Cross-linked PMMA as a low-
dimensional dielectric sacrificial layer,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 12, pp. 641-648, 2003.
[64] J. D. Madden and I. W. Hunter, "Three-
dimensional microfabrication by localized
electrochemical deposition,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 5, pp. 24-32, 1996.
[65] C.-C. Tsao and E. Sachs, "Photo-
electroforming: 3-D geometry and materials
flexibility in a MEMS fabrication process,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 8, pp. 161-171, 1999.
[66] C. R. Friedrich and M. J. Vasile,
"Development of the micromilling process
for high-aspect-ratio microstructures,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 5, pp. 33-38, 1996.
[67] M. P. Vogler, R. E. DeVor, and S. G.
Kapoor, "Microstructure-level force
prediction model for micro-milling of multi-
phase materials," ASME Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering,
vol. 125, pp. 202-209, 2003.
[68] A. A. Tseng, "Recent developments in
micromilling using focused ion beam
technology," Journal of Micromechanics
and Microengineering, vol. 14, pp. R15-
R34, 2004.
[69] A. D. Feinerman, R. E. Lajos, V. White, and
D. D. Denton, "X-ray lathe: An X-ray
lithographic exposure tool for nonplanar
objects," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 5, pp. 250-255, 1996.
[70] M. Manohara, E. Morikawa, J. Choi, and P.
T. Sprunger, "Transfer by direct photo
etching of poly(vinylidene flouride) using
X-rays," Microelectromechanical Systems,
Journal of, vol. 8, pp. 417-422, 1999.
[71] D. Reynaerts, W. Meeusen, X. Song, H. V.
Brussel, S. Reyntjens, D. D. Bruyker, and R.
Puers, "Integrating electro-discharge
machining and photolithography: work in
progress," Journal of Micromechanics and
Microengineering, vol. 10, pp. 189-195,
2000.
[72] K. Takahata and Y. B. Gianchandani,
"Batch mode micro-electro-discharge
machining," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 11, pp. 102-110,
2002.
[73] S. B. Fuller, E. J. Wilhelm, and J. M.
Jacobson, "Ink-jet printed nanoparticle
microelectromechanical systems,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 11, pp. 54-60, 2002.
[74] J. A. Rogers, R. J. Jackman, and G. M.
Whitesides, "Constructing single- and
multiple-helical microcoils and
characterizing their performance as
components of microinductors and
microelectromagnets,"
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal
of, vol. 6, pp. 184-192, 1997.
[75] A. J. Black, P. F. Nealey, J. H. Thywissen,
M. Deshpande, N. El-Zein, G. N. Maracas,
M. Prentiss, and G. M. Whitesides,
"Microfabrication of two layer structures of
electrically isolated wires using self-
assembly to guide the deposition of
insulating organic polymer," Sensors and
Actuators A: Physical, vol. 86, pp. 96-102,
2000.
[76] C. G. Wilson and Y. B. Gianchandani,
"Silicon micromachining using in situ DC
microplasmas," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 10, pp. 50-54,
2001.
[77] R.-H. Chen and C.-L. Lan, "Fabrication of
high-aspect-ratio ceramic microstructures by
injection molding with the altered lost mold
technique," Microelectromechanical
 Systems, Journal of, vol. 10, pp. 62-68,
2001.
[78] X.-J. Shen, L.-W. Pan, and L. Lin,
"Microplastic embossing process:
experimental and theoretical
characterizations*1," Sensors and Actuators
A: Physical, vol. 97-98, pp. 428-433, 2002.
[79] V. Walter, P. Delobelle, P. L. Moal, E.
Joseph, and M. Collet, "A piezo-mechanical
characterization of PZT thick films screen-
printed on alumina substrate," Sensors and
Actuators A: Physical, vol. 96, pp. 157-166,
2002.
[80] R. J. Jackman, S. T. Brittain, and G. M.
Whitesides, "Fabrication of three-
dimensional microstructures by
electrochemically welding structures formed
by microcontact printing on planar and
curved substrates," Microelectromechanical
Systems, Journal of, vol. 7, pp. 261-266,
1998.
[81] D. H. Gracias, J. Tien, T. L. Breen, C. Hsu,
and G. M. Whitesides, "Forming Electrical
Networks in Three Dimensions by Self-
Assembly," Science, vol. 289, pp. 1170-
1172, 2000.
[82] G. M. Whitesides and B. Grzybowski, "Self-
Assembly at All Scales," Science, vol. 295,
pp. 2418-2421, 2002.
[83] M. Despont, J. Brugger, U. Drechsler, U.
Durig, W. Haberle, M. Lutwyche, H.
Rothuizen, R. Stutz, R. Widmer, and G.
Binnig, "VLSI-NEMS chip for parallel
AFM data storage," Sensors and Actuators
A: Physical, vol. 80, pp. 100-107, 2000.
[84] S. Y. Chou, P. R. Krauss, and P. J.
Renstrom, "Imprint of sub-25 nm vias and
trenches in polymers," Applied Physics
Letters, vol. 67, pp. 3114-3116, 1995.
[85] Y. Zhang, K. Salaita, J.-H. Lim, and C. A.
Mirkin, "Electrochemical Whittling of
Organic Nanostructures," Nano Letters, vol.
2, pp. 1389-1392, 2002.
[86] A. J. Haes and R. P. V. Duyne, "A
Nanoscale Optical Biosensor: Sensitivity
and Selectivity of an Approach Based on
the Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance
Spectroscopy of Triangular Silver
Nanoparticles," Journal of American
Chemical Society, vol. 124, pp. 10596-
10604, 2002.
[87] A. Shah, P. Torres, R. Tscharner, N.
Wyrsch, and H. Keppner, "Photovoltaic
Technology: The Case for Thin-Film Solar
Cells," Science, vol. 285, pp. 692-698, 1999.
[88] R. F. Service, "ELECTRONICS: Organic
Device Bids to Make Memory Cheaper,"
Science, vol. 293, pp. 1746a-, 2001.
[89] C. Kim, P. E. Burrows, and S. R. Forrest,
"Micropatterning of Organic Electronic
Devices by Cold-Welding," Science, vol.
288, pp. 831-833, 2000.