Dominican Republic Point-of-use Water Purification Project Report

BLUElab
better living using engineering l a b o r a t o r y

Spring, 2006
Prepared for Manos A Tiempo (NGO) Prepared by 2006 BLUElab Dominican Republic Project Team Jeffrey Borgeson David Dudek Sanford Gifford Manuel Hernandez Robert Penfold Ryan Rindler Emily Yatch John Whitehead Marc Zawislak

Report Outline
I) II) III) IV) Executive Summary Problem Identification Stakeholder Identification Work Contributed (A) Qualitative Testing on Drinking Water Samples (B) Workshop Presentations for Rancho al Medio (C) Arsenic Testing on Drinking Water Samples (D) Biosand Filtration (E) Identification of Appropriate Technology V) Indicators VI) Conclusions VII) Project Hand-off VIII) Lessons Learned IX) References X) Appendix (A) Roles and Responsibilities of Team Members (B) Qualitative Testing on Drinking Water Samples (C) Workshop Presentation for Rancho al Medio (D) Arsenic Testing on Drinking Water Samples

I) Executive Summary
Working with Health in Action (HIA) and Manos a Tiempo, our group set out to further elaborate and build from the achievements of last years ENGR 490 Dominican Republic group: the Clean Team. Our goals consisted of 1) the qualitative testing of primary drinking water sources, 2) the development of educational programs for the community, and 3) further investigation into the most appropriate point-of-use water filtration method for the community of Rancho al Medio. Biological (e.g., fecal coliform) and heavy metal (e.g., arsenic) tests were conducted from samples taken from public and private wells, the nearby river and a local residents rainwater collection (all of which were used for drinking). Educational programs consisted of presentations to the community-at-large and community leaders. Ongoing research is being conducted into biosand filtration, as we are in contact with Jim Bodenner (Founder: Safe Water Institute), who is in charge of implementing a biosand filtration project in the Dominican Republic. Our team is working on forming a relationship with Mr. Bodenner that will us address the needs of Rancho al Medio, via our community partner, Manos A Tiempo. The BLUElab DR Team traveled to the Dominican Republic (3/23/06 to 4/6/06) to carry out water testing and educational programs. The team also met with Andrea Pestone, a Peace Corps volunteer working with a nearby community who has implemented a biosand filter project in her own community. Biological tests conducted in the Dominican Republic found high concentrations of fecal coliform in the river. The arsenic testing was conducted in Michigan on samples collected from the trip by using a mass spectrometer. All samples showed low traces of arsenic, which suggests that arsenic is not a likely cause of their poor health conditions.

II) Problem Identification

Rancho al Medio is a small, underprivileged community in the Dominican Republic. It is located southwest of the capital, Santo Domingo. This community faces many problems such as unreliable drinking water, unsafe water storage issues, and no effective household water filtration processes. The communitys population is approximately 1500 and the unemployment rate is at 43%. However, of the 57% with a job, only 5% have a fixed income and a mean monthly wage of RD$ 2,966 (< $100). Furthermore, considering that a typical household consists of five members and only one wage earner monthly income is only RD$593/capita (<$20/capita). Therefore, it is important that proposed water purification technologies be affordable and effective in order to accommodate this community. Major health complaints of Rancho al Medio include: diarrhea, influenza, parasites, and conjunctivitis. It needs to be determined for the community if these health complaints could be a result of the poor quality of their drinking water.

III) Stakeholder Identification

Stakeholders share a common interest in a specific project and can be affected by what occurs during the project. A stakeholder can be immediately affected by a specific situation or they can be later affected by the outcome or result. Primary Stakeholders: Community members of Rancho al Medio Manos a Tiempo BLUElab Health in Action Primary stakeholders are personally affected by the drinking water project in Rancho al Medio. The community members of Rancho al Medio have a vested interest in their own water quality and health. Manos a Tiempo, our community partner organization in the Dominican Republic, is interest in improving the welfare and well-being of fellow Dominicans and specifically those in Rancho al Medio. Thus, addressing the water quality issues in the community is in their interest. BLUElab and Health in Action are both student organizations at the University of Michigan that are involved with the community of Rancho al Medio and would like to see that the project is successful so that they community can address their public health and educational needs, and begin to sustainably improve their own quality of life. Secondary Stakeholders: The University of Michigan Water distributors Water filter fabricators Local government

Secondary stakeholders may or may not be active in the project, but are affected by the outcome of the project in one way or another. The University of Michigan has its reputation and credibility at stake when a team of students, representing the university, carry out any external project. Local water distributors who currently provide potable water to the community (e.g., water truck drivers, motorcycle couriers, and store owners) may be impacted by this project, since their business may be jeopardized, and thus this impact should be mitigated. Potential local water filter fabricators have a business opportunity, if the community is willing to pay for commercialized systems and have a vested interest in this project. Gonca, S.A., a ceramics wholesaler with a workshop just outside of Rancho al Medio has expressed interested in the research and development of ceramic filter systems, whereas the Association of Filter Makers (AFAFIL), local fabricators of biosand filters have expressed willingness to work with Manos A Tiempo to implement their technology in Rancho al Medio.

IV) Work Contributed

The source of self-reported health problems was investigated by the BLUElab team, as well as the identification of an appropriate technology for water treatment, and increased awareness of waterborne pathogens, illnesses, and safe water handling practices. Major health complaints were addressed through the testing of drinking water samples in the community. These tests took the form of qualitative (presence/absence) tests and heavy metals testing for arsenic using mass spectrometry. Unsafe water storage issues were addressed in educational workshops presented to Rancho al Medio. Household water filtration processes were also looked into during and after the trip to the Dominican Republic.

(A) Qualitative Testing on Drinking Water Samples:

Testing of the drinking water in the community of Rancho al Medio is important in educating the community members of the quality of their water supply. While in the Dominican Republic qualitative testing in the form of presence/absence tests for the formation of hydrogen sulfide was performed. There is a presence of fecal coliform in the water if hydrogen sulfide forms during these tests. If hydrogen sulfide forms in the sample there will be black precipitate and if the sample doesnt form hydrogen sulfide then the sample will remain clear. These samples were taken to the education workshops and shown to community members. This put a striking image in their minds and created a visual that meant the water they are drinking could be dangerous. Many community members accompanied our team during collection of the water samples and this allowed them to learn more about the testing and what we were doing. Fecal coliforms are bacteria that live in the digestive tract of warm-blooded animals (humans, pets, farm animals, and wildlife) and are excreted in the feces. In themselves, fecal coliforms generally do not pose a danger to people or animals but they indicate the presence of other disease-causing bacteria, such as those that cause typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and cholera [1]. This is a concern for the community of Rancho al Medio because farm animals, such as cows and donkeys, travel to the river daily and care is not

taken that these animals do not defecate in the river where drinking water is then collected. It can also be a problem for rainwater collection or even the storage of water, if left outside with out a lid, because birds and small animals could become a danger to the supply. It was hypothesized that fecal coliform would be high in the river water compared to the well and rainwater samples. It was also predicted that the river samples would be higher in fecal coliform concentration later in the day compared to in the morning, as well as downstream in comparison to upstream. This was thought to be the result of higher usage of the river (e.g., livestock, water collection, bathing, swimming, and washing). To prove the above hypotheses, samples were taken in the morning when we arrived and in the afternoon before we left. Samples were also gathered from many different sources such as: the river, rainwater, wells, spring, and a private faucet. The river samples were also taken upstream and downstream and both of these locations were taken mid-river and at shoreline. The data collected from these tests support some of the hypothesis stated above (Table 1 & 2), as the river and spring demonstrated the highest most probable number (MPN) of disease-causing pathogens, downstream locations, and afternoon samples had higher MPNs, on average,
Table 1. Qualitative Water Test Results, considering 9 different sources of drinking water in the community of Rancho al Medio. Given a specific dilution factor and proportion of samples with a positive result (P/A Ratio), the most probable number of organisms per milliliter of water is calculated (MPN).
Source Well x Rainwater River Spring Spring Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 Well 5 Dilution Factor 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 # Samples 5 8 90 5 5 18 2 2 5 3 # Days 1 2 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 P/A Ratio 1.00 0.13 0.63 1.00 0.80 0.61 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 MPN 8 1 80 8 80 8 8 1 1 8

Table 2. Detailed Qualitative Water Results of the river (R), where DS denotes downstream, US: upstream, M: morning, and A:afternoon.
Source RDS,M,M RDS,M,A RDS,S,M RDS,S,A RUS,M,M RUS,M,A RUS,S,M RUS,S,A # Samples 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 P/A Ratio 0.70 1.00 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.60 MPN 80 80 46 46 46 80 80 46

(B) Workshop Presentation for Rancho al Medio:

To prepare for this years trip to the Dominican Republic an educational workshop on drinking water was created to present to the community members of Rancho al Medio. This presentation contained information in the form of pictures, words, and props. It also used activities to engage the listeners in the workshop. Some of the topics introduced in the presentation included: waterborne illnesses, rainwater collection, storage of drinking water, and filtration of water via SODIS (solar water disinfection). These workshops were held daily for the duration of four days while in the Dominican Republic. A final workshop was presented to leaders of the community. This workshop for the leaders allowed them to communicate their needs and concerns in an open setting. Time for feedback using surveys was also included at the end. The presentation of this educational workshop for Rancho al Medio can be found in Appendix B.

(C) Arsenic Testing on Drinking Water Samples:

Heavy metal contamination in drinking water is a concern of all communities, especially underdeveloped communities. Arsenic is found in the earths crust and enters water through the dissolution of minerals and ore. This discovery of arsenic in groundwater proved that well water could possibly be unsafe for drinking. Chronic arsenic poisoning, as occurs after long-term exposure to drinking water is very different to acute poisoning. Immediate symptoms on an acute poisoning typically include vomiting, oesophageal and abdominal pain, and bloody rice water diarrhea. Long-term exposure to arsenic via drinking water causes cancer of the skin, lungs, urinary bladder, and kidney as well as other skin changes such as pigmentation changes and thickening (hyperkeratosis) [2]. Some of these acute symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal pain were complaints from the community of Rancho al Medio as found in last years survey conducted by BLUElab. Drinking water samples brought back from Rancho al Medio during this years trip were tested for arsenic to determine if the symptoms mentioned above could be related to the arsenic concentration in their drinking water. Three main sources of drinking water were tested: a locals rainwater collection, a public well in the community, and the local river. Thomas Yavaraski, a laboratory services supervisor from the Civil and Environmental Engineering department of the University of Michigan, assisted our team in experimentation using mass spectrometry to determine the arsenic concentration in these samples. A mass spectrum is a record of the relative abundances of a series of ions of different masses that form when a sample of a compound is bombarded by high-energy electrons in a mass spectrometer. This bombardment causes an electron to be lost from a molecule of the compound, resulting in the formation of a radical-cation known as the molecular ion. The molecular ion fragments by the loss of radicals or neutral molecules

to give positively charged ions. The mass spectrometer separates these cations according to their mass-to-charge ratios, m/z, and records their masses and their relative abundances [3]. Information regarding the testing of arsenic using mass spectrometry can be found in Appendix D. This appendix will include an equipment and materials list, the procedure for the experimentation, the tabulated data, and a conclusion of the findings. The World Health Organization (WHO) set a provisional guideline for the arsenic level in drinking water at 0.01 mg/L. All samples tested from Rancho al Medio are safely below this level. The highest arsenic level was found in Well X water at 0.001971 mg/L and the lowest level of arsenic was found in a locals rainwater collection at -0.000107 mg/L. Having the highest level of arsenic in the well attributes the generation of arsenic to the groundwater. This testing for the arsenic concentration using mass spectrometry suggests that the arsenic content in the drinking water of Rancho al Medio is not a health concern to its community members.

(D) Biosand Filtration

Biosand is form of water filtration which treats water in multiple ways within a single unit. Current biosand devices are typically a concrete box filled with sand and water. First the sand acts as a mechanical filter (similar to the clay filters) blocking larger chunks as well as cysts and worms. Next, predation: Micro-organisms living in the sand eat away at bacteria and other pathogens. Natural death: The pathogens trapped in the sand will not continue to infect the water due to a lack of food and un-ideal temperatures. Finally, absorption: Viruses attach to the grains of sand and are then inactivated by antiviral chemicals produced by the organisms; some organic compounds are also absorbed by the sand. Additional treatment can easily be added, for example, a layer of nails adds iron, which bonds with arsenic (filtering it out). Recently our group has been in contact with Jim Bodenner. He is not only the owner of the closest biosand filter to Ann Arbor, but he is also a major contributor to biosand projects through out the Dominican Republic. Along with Rotary, over $300,000 USD have been contributed and over 8,000 biosand filters have been placed throughout the Dominican in the last 24 months. Recently his company received the exclusive patent rights for a more easily mass produced plastic biosand filter from the inventor of the original biosand filter as well. We hope to form a better partnership with him to further our own capabilities.

(E) Identification of Appropriate Technology

The identification of the most appropriate water treatment technology for the community of Rancho al Medio is of utmost importance. Using the technology selection tool introduced by Robert Baffrey [4] and previously collected data of the Rancho al Medio community (Appendix D), our team considered the role of drinking water source (e.g., well, river, and water from a truck) and storage (e.g., open or semi-protected water storage). Results from this study suggested that SODIS offered the most appropriate technology for our community, based on their financial constraints, and that biosand

filtration was the next best option for all considered conditions. In addition , a systematic analysis of water purification technologies, based from the EWB Water Resource Guidelines, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Center for Disease Control (CDC), was conducted to compare the benefits and costs of additional technologies (Appendix D).
Table 3(a-d). Ranking for Household Water Treatment System technologies based on sitespecific and tech-specific factors. Scenarios considered include A) a composite source of water with open water storage, B) a composite source of water with semi-protected water storage, C) the river with open water storage (worst case), and D) water from the truck with semi-protected water storage (best case). A) Composite source of water with open water storage
Household Chlorination SODIS Boiling Ceramic Candle Filtration Concrete BioSand Filtration Combined Flocculation/Disinfection 525 610 470 500 525 510 2 1 6 5 2 4

B) Composite source of water with semi-protected water storage

Household Chlorination SODIS Boiling Ceramic Candle Filtration Concrete BioSand Filtration Combined Flocculation/Disinfection 530 615 470 500 535 510 3 1 6 5 2 4

C) River with open water storage

Household Chlorination SODIS Boiling Ceramic Candle Filtration Concrete BioSand Filtration Combined Flocculation/Disinfection 515 600 460 470 525 510 3 1 6 5 2 4

D) Water from the truck with semi-protected water storage

Household Chlorination SODIS Boiling Ceramic Candle Filtration Concrete BioSand Filtration Combined Flocculation/Disinfection 535 615 475 505 535 512 2 1 6 5 2 4

V) Indicators
Indicators play an important role in a project like this. An indicator allows someone to tell if what they are doing is having a positive or negative effect. The testing done on the drinking water samples contained very easy to notice indicators. For instance, if the drinking water of Rancho al Medio is contaminated with fecal coliform then the test sample will turn from clear to black. Also, if arsenic was present in the water the recording on the computer data acquisition program from the mass spectrometer would jump and you would notice a higher arsenic concentration. Another indicator in this project was the displayed during the educational workshops presented in Rancho al Medio. During the final presentation to the leaders of the community they were left with time for any comments or concerns. Some of the leaders also had the chance to complete surveys that determined whether or not the workshops had helped them and what they would like to see in the workshops. These were also straight forward indicators that allowed our team to know if these educational workshops were successful.

VI) Conclusions
This project proved successful in solving the problems identified above. Testing of the drinking water samples in Rancho al Medio addressed the health concerns of the community. It was proven using mass spectrometry that arsenic is not present in a significant amount to harm the drinking water. The samples tested were an order of magnitude lower than the provisional guideline for arsenic declared by the World Health Organization. It is recommended that further testing be done on the drinking water samples brought back from the Dominican Republic. This is currently being started in the form of quantitative testing to determine the fecal coliform count in each water sample. The educational workshops presented to community presented safe water storage solutions. It also related their health issues to waterborne illnesses and introduced SODIS, a simple filtration system. While SODIS is simple and easy the wait for the water to be disinfected can take 24 hours. This is a long time to wait considering the few minutes it takes for a biosand filter to disinfect the water. It is recommended that biosand filtration be explored more deeply to determine if it is the right choice for household water filtration systems for the community of Rancho al Medio. A filter prototype, both durable and easy to use, should be developed, tested, and finalized using locally available materials, prior to traveling to the Dominican Republic. There are many improvements next years team could make over our teams effort. Due to inexperience, our ceramic filter development project was fairly unfocused and inefficient. Therefore, the 2007 team should clearly define specific goals for the project and allow ample time for completion of seemingly small goals and tasks. It is our recommendation that the 2007 team develop a focused and detailed work plan complete with short-, mid-, and long-range goals.

Following is a more specific set of recommendations for next years filter team: 1.) The 2007 team should conduct background research. The following websites will be helpful: http://www.potpaz.org/ and http://www.purifier.com.np/. Also, we recommend that next years team set up a meeting with some team members from the 2006 project. Please contact Jeff Borgeson (jborgeso@umich.edu) or Manny Hernandez (manueleh@umich.edu). Based on the background research and any new ideas, next years team should generate detailed specifications for a ceramic filter apparatus. Next years team should rely on a pottery expert to fabricate the actual ceramic filter element. It is not extremely difficult to fabricate the bucket and attachment apparatus, but production of viable ceramic filter elements was difficult. Our team spent an incredible amount of time in the UM Art Schools pottery studio trying to work with clay. It would have been far more efficient to generate a detailed technical drawing of the filter element, and then simply ask a willing pottery expert to fabricate it for us. John Leyland, the coordinator of UMs pottery studio, may be willing to do this. If not, he may know someone who would be interesting in helping. His email is jleyland@umich.edu. After a preliminary filter has been fabricated, the 2007 team should ensure that the filter is durable and user friendly. A chief problem with the filters produced by our team was they exhibited a very powdery texture and crumbled very easily. The 2007 prototype should not have either of these characteristics. Also, the filter element should be mated to the bucket/reservoir in a fashion that will allow the user to refill the bucket with water without disrupting the designs efficiency. For example, the seal covering the interface between the filter element and the bucket should not be destroyed when the user freely pours two or three gallons of water into the apparatus. The filter prototype should have a flowrate of 1-2 L/hr. Also, the filter should remove at least 90% of the bacteria found in the raw water. Quantitative testing procedures mentioned earlier in this report can be used to measure the filter efficiency of the prototype. During the troubleshooting process, next years team should contact experts. Obtaining focused and knowledgeable advice would streamline the troubleshooting process. John Leyland (jleyland@umich.edu) and Ron Rivera (kamaron@ibw.com.ni) are two knowledgeable individuals. John Leyland does not have extensive experience with developing ceramic filters. However, he is the coordinator of the pottery studio and has been very generous in providing materials and general advice on working with ceramics. Mr. Leyland also knows other pottery experts who may have extensive experience with these filters: he may be willing to help next years team get in touch with these people. Ron

2.) 3.)

4.)

5.)

6.)

Rivera is a relief worker affiliated with Potters for Peace; he is involved with Nicaraguan potters who have experience producing these filters. Furthermore, there are many groups around the world working on these ceramic filter projects. Besides contacting Ron Rivera, our team did not make an enormous effort to contact established pottery filter teams. We suggest that next years team attempt to do this. 7.) There were two main concepts our team did not get the chance to investigate: colloidal silver coatings and die-casting filter production techniques. These are two things mentioned in other teams websites that we did not fully investigate.

VII) Project Hand-off

The tasks we have completed this semester have played a large role in the overall picture of helping the drinking water problems in Rancho al Medio. The results of our work will be used in the future involvement of BLUElab and future ENGR 490 teams to come. Our team hopes to document the CourseTools website that compiles our teams contributions. This will be a useful attribute for future teams working with the community. Quantitative testing methods have also begun to be established, and should finalized before the next field survey. Talks with Jim Bodenner are still pending, but should be realized in Fall 2006. If successful, implementation of biosand filtration could be a project for BLUElab, Jim Bodenner, and Manos a Tiempo to arrange and implement next year.

VIII) Lessons Learned

During this project one lesson stood out the most. This lesson would be to be prepared for experimentation and use extreme caution when doing it. While in Rancho al Medio our team was successful in completing qualitative testing but unsuccessful in completing quantitative testing, so the drinking water samples had to be brought back to campus with us for further testing. The quantitative testing was uncompleted because a hot water bath was needed to incubate the samples. While in Rancho al Medio there wasnt a source of electricity to plug our water bath in. We tried to run it off a car battery, but found that it required more than just that. We needed a consistent source of electricity, so we moved the laboratory to the hostile we were staying at. We soon realized that the electricity and water are turned off during the day so we couldnt run the testing there either. Another problem in the quantitative testing was the broth our team was using. We didnt receive the new broth in time for departure to the Dominican Republic, so we were relying on broth leftover from the testing done last year. This broth was unreliable and would yield bad results. All of these problems could have been dealt with if the experimentation was more carefully planned. This could be accomplished if the experimentation was ran before departure to the Dominican Republic to make sure trial runs turned out the right way.

IX) References
[1] [2] [3] [4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Fecal Coliform. Available online at http://www.epa.gov/maia/html/fecal.html, accessed April 16, 2006. World Health Organization. 2001. Arsenic in Drinking Water. Available online at http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs210/en/, accessed April 3, 2006. Ege, Seyhan. 2004. Organic Chemistry Structure and Reactivity, 4. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. 483. Baffrey, Robert. 2005. Development of Program Implementation, Evaluation, and Selection Tools for household Water Treatment and Safe Storage Systems in Developing Countries. MIT.

X) Appendix

Appendix A Qualitative Testing on Drinking Water Samples

Overview:
This appendix contains information regarding qualitative testing that was done on drinking water samples while in Rancho al Medio. These qualitative tests were in the form of presence/absence test for hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria such as Salmonella, Citrobacter, Proteus, Edwardsiella, and some species of Klebsiella. These organisms serve as a more reliable indicator of disease-producing organisms than E. coli in a tropical climate. Results from the hydrogen sulfide detection test are easy to interpret. Black precipitate will be seen in the sample if hydrogen sulfide is present. The sample will remain clear if hydrogen sulfide does not form. Included below are the materials needed and methods.

Materials:
Glass vials with screw-on cap Deionized water Water samples from Rancho al Medio Nutrient broth

Procedure:
10 mL of the water sample is added to the glass vial and then the nutrient broth is added to the vial. The vial is then capped and shaken to dissolve the nutrient broth. This is repeated for a 10X dilution of the water samples by adding 1 mL of the water sample to the vial and then 9 mL of deionized water to the vial. This is also capped and shaken. The samples are incubated at ambient temperature for twenty-four hours. After this time has elapsed it is noted whether or not the sample has black precipitate present. These are rated 0 for a clear sample, 1 for a sample containing black precipitate, and 2 for a sample that is all black. A photo showing these different conditions is shown in the next section. The data collected from this experiment is tabulated in an Excel format and can be referred to after this section.

Photo Documentation:

This photo is described from left to right. The first three samples were taken from a locals rainwater collection and are rated 0 for a clear sample. The next two samples were taken from well #1 and are rated 1 for black precipitate. The last two samples are taken from well #2 and are rated 2 for a black sample.

Appendix B Workshop Presentation for Rancho al Medio

Overview:
This appendix contains the presentation that was performed during workshops for the community of Rancho al Medio. These workshops were conducted for four days (February 27, 2006 through March 2, 2006) during the time that we were in the Dominican Republic this semester. ***Please see the separate attachment for this appendix labeled DR Workshop Presentation.***

Appendix C Arsenic Testing on Drinking Water Samples

Overview:
This appendix contains information on the heavy metal testing done on drinking water samples brought back from Rancho al Medio. The testing is specifically for arsenic content in the water using a mass spectrometer. Included below are the equipment and materials list, procedure, raw data in the form of an Excel spreadsheet, and conclusion for the experiment.

Equipment:
Mass spectrometer Computer with data acquisition program

Materials:
Deionized water Water samples from Rancho al Medio 1 ppb arsenic standard 10 ppb arsenic standard Ethanol Gallium

Procedure:
Deionized water is run as a blank sample to begin the experimentation. Once the mass spectrometer tests the blank sample it sends the data to the computer program and this provides the laboratory technician with how much arsenic is in the sample. This creates a zero base-line for all samples to be compared with. This also helps determine if there are any deviations in the procedure or equipment by running the blank before, during, and after all the samples. After the blank is run through the mass spectrometer it is followed by running the 1 ppb sample of arsenic and then the 10 ppb sample of arsenic. Running the blank, 1 ppb, and 10 ppb samples creates a calibration curve to plot where the samples from Rancho al Medio will lie. Ethanol and gallium are run through the mass spectrometer after each trial. The ethanol sterilizes the testing probe and tubing while the gallium normalizes the readings because over time the readings will tend to drift. Test samples taken from a locals rainwater collection, the river that flows through Rancho al Medio, and well X are tested for arsenic through the mass spectrometer. These samples are proceeded by a final run of the 1 ppb arsenic standard, the 10 ppb arsenic standard, and finally the blank sample of deionized water.

The data collected from the mass spectrometer is organized into an Excel spreadsheet for this experiment that can be referred to after this section.

Excel Results for Arsenic Determination:

ARSENIC TESTING WHO's Provisional Guideline: 0.01 mg/L (10 ppb) Concentration Sample 1 ppb As 10 ppb As 10 ppb As Rain Water River Water Well X Water Deionized Water 1 ppb As 10 ppb As (ppb) 1 10 10 -0.107 0.934 1.971 -0.21 1 10 Concentration (mg/L) 0.001 0.01 0.01 -0.000107 0.000934 0.001971 -0.00021 0.001 0.01 Conversions 1 mg/L = 1 ppm 1 ug/L = 1 ppb 1 mg/L = 1000 ug/L

Conclusions:
The arsenic levels in the drinking water samples brought back from Rancho al Medio are greatly lower than the provisional guideline level provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) set at 0.01 mg/L. The highest arsenic level was found in Well X water at 0.001971 mg/L and the lowest level of arsenic was found in a locals rainwater collection at -0.000107 mg/L (Note: The deionized water, which is presumably clean and arsenic free, read a level of -0.00021 mg/L. So, this negative number is actually useful and shows that if the deionized water is taken to be arsenic free then the rain water actually contains 0.000103 mg/L after subtracting the blank level from the rainwater level.). This experimentation using mass spectrometry proved that the arsenic present in the drinking water samples from Rancho al Medio is not of any safety concern to its consumers.

Appendix D Identification of Appropriate Technology

Overview:
This appendix contains information on the benefits and associated costs of a variety of household water purification technologies. It is a collection of data from a number of sources, including the EWB Water Resource Guidelines, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Center for Disease Control (CDC). Additional information is provided on waterborne pathogens and illnesses, chlorination and water storage containers to be used in unison with filtration technologies.
Cost SODIS Cost of Pop materials PET Bottle, shape and size matter, 1.5 L optimal Locally available? Yes maintenance clean bottles, aerate water, monitor for tmax and duration Yes, but no Replacable Parts No, is there an easier indicator for testing for residue life until bottles scratched indicators of wear Scratches no growth layer, physical degredation of filter encasement container discoloration Flow Rate 2liters/bottle/6hours if sunny Minimum Mechanical Filtration size none Disinfection effectiveness moderate with enough sun, should be 90-99% Low, around 80%, could be as high as 90% high moderate to high depending on quality of filter moderate to high depending on quality of filter moderate to high depending on quality of filter moderate to high depending on quality of filter moderate to high depending on quality of filter high high High Low low

US$10 - US$30 Cost of Chlorine? How much do they have to Chlorinating water buy? Potters for Peace US$7-US$10 in D.R.

Bio-sand

Concrete, Sand Chlorine tablets, liquid, powder, or gas Clay, Saw Dust, and Bucket/Spout Clay , Saw Dust, Collodial Silver, and Bucket/Spout Clay & Saw Dust Clay, Saw Dust, and Active Carbon Filter

No Yes Yes No Yes No ? limited No ? Yes Yes

Forever One Drinking ~1 Year

60 Liters/hour 10-20 minutes per treatment

microns none microns microns

cracks, film growth, clogged 1-1.75 Liters/hour cracks, film growth, clogged

Potters for Peace with US$7-US$10 in D.R. Plus film Cost of Silver Candle or other Ceramic Filter Ceramic Filter with active carbon Ceramic Filter with film or other compound Boiling water U-V radiation Black bottle system Plain Sedimentation Fabric filter

~1 Year

cracks, film growth, clogged cracks, film growth, clogged cracks, film growth, clogged

1-4 Liters/hour

microns microns microns none none none

energy used to boil quite high

fuel for heat, pan for water Controlled U-V source solar cooker

Life of pan

6 L/hour 1.5 hours per batch

Figure 1. Comparative Assessment of Available Household Water Purification Technologies. NOTES: Re:SODIS, key performance factors of SODIS include temperature and duration of treatment; SODIS can be affected by UV absorbing solutes including microbes and by turbidity. Most SODIS studies have been done for bacteria; bacteria can re-grow after 1-2 days of storage. Re:Bio-sand, many feel that this technology is less effective, acceptable and sustainable in practice than in theory. Re: Chlorination, free chlorine provides a residual effect. Re: All ceramic filters, systems can remove helminthes and protozoa mechanically, as well as large sediment. Re: boiling water, bacteria can re-grow after 1-2 days of storage, biggest disadvantage is fuel source and time. Re: U-V Radiation, U-V-Radiation systems are extremely fast and effective, but expensive and require electricity. Re: black bottle system, achieves high enough temperatures for viruses, less affected by turbidity, but requires cooker or collector. Re: plain sedimentation methods, these are seen as pretreatment, can remove large microbes (helminthes and some protozoa), solids. Re: fabric filter, can remove many helminthes, large sediment.

Table1. List of waterborne pathogens and relevant characteristics.

Table 2. Typical contaminants of drinking water. NOTE: The filtration size required for helminthes is 1 mm, and the highest number of cases are reported in the tropics and subtropics. Protists are reported worldwide, and symptoms include severe diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, fatigue and weight loss. Protists can also form cysts resistant to chemicals so must be removed mechanically. Bacteria can live for weeks on surface water; and require the use of microfiltration or disinfection. Viruses can't be completely removed by micro filtration; normally disinfection is used, but many have shown resistance to chlorination. A number of authors now suggest that Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like viruses are the major causes of both food and waterborne illnesses worldwide, including 6.5 million annual cases of waterborne viral disease in the United States alone.

Typical contaminants of drinking water Helminths round worms tape worms Guinea worm Cyclospora cayetanensis
cholera (Vibrio cholerae). campylobacter enteritis (Campylobacter jejuni) bacillary salmonellosis and dysentery enteric fever (Shigella spp.), (Salmonella leptospirosis (Leptospira)

Size (bacteria or eggs and larvae many more 0.01mm

blood flukes

protists

Giardia lamblia

Cryptosporidium

1-100microns

bacteria

typhoid (Salmonella typhi),

paratyphoid (Salmonella paratyphi-A),

0.2 microns

viruses Organic compounds inorganic compounds

Hepatitis A, Benzene Naturally occurring:

enteroviruses Echovirus many more see EWB Carbon tetrachloride paper Industrial Arsenic, Barium, Boron, Chromium, Flouride, Sources and Cadmium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, human Cyanide, Uranium, Cadmium, Cyanide, Mercury dwellings: Mercury

rotaviruses

poliovirus

Hepatitis E

0.004 microns

Agricultural Activities:

Nitrate, Nitrite

Pesticides:

Alochlor, Aldicarb, and many more

Table 3. Preparation of 1 L of 1% chlorine solution.

Table 4. Alternative Household Water Storage Vessels: Advantage and Disadvantages of Different Designs and Materials.

*Oxfam vessel is used primarily for emergency water storage and delivery. But, vessels of similar size and shape have been used for household water collection and storage worldwide.