Ch||d

Lols Wladls Poffman hu

rofessor LmerlLa ueparLmenL of sychology
unlverslLy of MlchlganAnn Arbor

My Lalk ls golng Lo be on Lhe effecLs of maLernal employmenL on famllles and chlldren wlLh Lhe focus on
chlldren lm golng Lo presenL a revlew of prevlous research buL slnce l have [usL compleLed a large sLudy
on Lhls Loplc l wlll be drawlng also on daLa from Lhls 1he resulLs of Lhe sLudy wlll be reporLed ln a book
publlshed by Cambrldge ress called Motbets ot wotk ffects oo cbllJteos wellbeloq by Lols Poffman
and Llse ?oungblade wlLh 8ebekah Coley Alllson lullgnl and uonna kovacs MosL of Lhe maLernal
employmenL research and my own sLudy deal wlLh schoolaged chlldren so Lhe bulk of my Lalk wlll be
on LhaL age group buL slnce Lhere ls currenLly a greaL deal of lnLeresL ln lnfanLs and Lhe lmpacL of
maLernal employmenL and nonmaLernal care durlng Lhe early years l wlll also summarlze flndlngs for
LhaL perlod
rlor Lo Lhe revlew lLself however we need Lo place Lodays maLernal employmenL ln lLs soclal conLexL
1o undersLand lLs presenL effecLs on famllles and chlldren we need Lo undersLand how paLLerns of
maLernal employmenL have changed over Lhe years and how Lhese changes have been accompanled by
oLher soclal changes LhaL lnLeracL wlLh lL
Chang|ng Lmp|oyment atterns
AL Lhe presenL Llme mosL moLhers ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes are employed 1hls ls noL only Lrue for moLhers
of schoolaged chlldren as lL has been for Lwo decades buL lL ls also Lrue for moLhers of lnfanLs less Lhan
oneyearold 1he pace wlLh whlch maLernal employmenL raLes have lncreased Lo Lhls polnL however ls
so rapld LhaL many people fall Lo reallze lLs prevalence lurLhermore aLLempLs Lo undersLand lLs effecLs
ofLen lgnore Lhe facL LhaL Lhls change ls parL of a whole complex of soclal changes 8oLh employed
moLhers and homemakers Loday llve ln a very dlfferenL envlronmenL Lhan Lhelr counLerparLs forLy or
even LwenLy years ago
@oble 1 lobot lotce lottlclpotloo kotes of Motbets
wltb cbllJteo ooJet 18 19461996 ooJ 1940

1940 6
1946 12
19S6 273
1966 3
1976 4
1986 623
1996 700
1here are few soclal changes LhaL are so easy Lo documenL as Lhe lncreased employmenL of moLhers ln
Lhe unlLed SLaLes 1he sLeady rlse ln maLernal employmenL raLes over Lhe years ls clearly lllusLraLed ln
1able 1 1he paLLern rare ln 1940 had become modal by 1977 8y 1996 sevenLy percenL of Lhe marrled
moLhers wlLh chlldren under elghLeen were ln Lhe labor force
@oble 2 lobot lotce lottlclpotloo kotes fot wlves
nosbooJ lteseot by oqe of yoooqest cbllJ 1975
1995

197S 198S 199S
1 year or younger 0 494 390
2 years 71 340 667
3 years 412 331 633
4 years 412 397 677
S years 444 621 696
613 31 62 749
1417 33 670 796
MaLernal employmenL raLes sLlll dlffer by age of Lhe youngesL chlld buL Lhls dlfference has dlmlnlshed
over Lhe years as Lhe greaLesL recenL lncreases have occurred among marrled moLhers of lnfanLs and
preschoolers 1he raLe of employmenL for marrled moLhers of lnfanLs one or under almosL doubled
beLween 1973 and 1993 from 0 Lo 390 (1able 2) As 1able shows ln 1960 less Lhan 19 of all
marrled moLhers of preschoolers were employed buL by 1996 LhaL raLe had [umped Lo 627
@oble J lobot lotce lottlclpotloo kotes fot Motbets by motltol stotos ooJ oqe of yoooqest cbllJ 1960
1996

Marr|ed W|dowed d|vorced
separated
Never marr|ed

617 6 617 6 617 6

1960 90 16 639 403 (nA) (nA)
1970 492 0 669 322 (nA) (nA)
1980 617 431 746 60 676 441
1990 76 39 797 66 697 47
1996 767 627 06 692 71 331
1able also lndlcaLes anoLher change over Lhe years Whereas ln 1960 employed moLhers were more
llkely Lo be from slngleparenL famllles Lhls dlfference has now vanlshed lor slngle moLhers who have
been marrled Lhe presenL employmenL raLes are sllghLly hlgher Lhan Lhose of currenLly marrled
moLhers buL for nevermarrled moLhers employmenL raLes are noLably lower Lhan for elLher of Lhe
oLhers
1hese sLaLlsLlcs documenL a ma[or soclal change ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8uL changes of Lhls magnlLude do
noL occur ln a vacuum Lhe change ln maLernal employmenL raLes have been accompanled by many
oLher changes ln famlly llfe lamlly slze ls smaller modern Lechnology has conslderably dlmlnlshed Lhe
amounL of necessary housework and food preparaLlon women are more educaLed marrlages are less
sLable llfe expecLancy has lncreased and youLhfulness has been exLended expecLaLlons for personal
fulflllmenL have expanded and LradlLlonal genderrole aLLlLudes have been modlfled and are less wldely
held ln addlLlon womens roles have been reconcepLuallzed chlldrearlng orlenLaLlons are dlfferenL and
Lhe adulL roles for whlch chlldren are belng soclallzed are noL Lhe same as prevlously
ln conslderlng Lhe research on Lhe effecLs of maLernal employmenL lL ls lmporLanL Lo keep Lhese
lnLerrelaLed soclal changes ln mlnd Much of Lhe maLernal employmenL research ls bullL on daLa LhaL
were collecLed ln Lhe 1930s buL lL ls noL reasonable Lo assume LhaL flndlngs from LhaL perlod apply
Loday Some of Lhe effecLs suggesLed by earller sLudles are noL found ln more recenL research because
of changes ln famlly paLLerns or ln Lhe larger socleLy
@op of loqe
ev|ew of the esearch
1he research over Lhe lasL forLy years shows LhaL Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus ls noL so robusL a
varlable LhaL Lhe slmple comparlson of Lhe chlldren of employed and nonemployed moLhers wlll reveal
meanlngful dlfferences 8elaLlonshlps have had Lo be examlned wlLh aLLenLlon Lo oLher varlables LhaL
moderaLed effecLs parLlcularly lmporLanL were soclal class Lhe moLhers marlLal sLaLus wheLher Lhe
employmenL was full or parLLlme Lhe parenLs aLLlLudes and Lhe chllds gender (LffecLs are dlfferenL
ln Lhe mlddle class Lhan ln Lhe lower class and dlfferenL for boys Lhan for glrls)
ln addlLlon however Lhe paLh beLween Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus and chlld ouLcomes ls a long
one Lhere are many sLeps ln beLween 1o undersLand how maLernal employmenL affecLs Lhe chlld you
have Lo undersLand how lL affecLs Lhe famlly because lL ls Lhrough Lhe famlly LhaL effecLs Lake place
revlous research as well as my own recenL sLudy lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe parLlcular aspecLs of Lhe famlly LhaL
are affecLed by Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus and ln Lurn affecL Lhe chlld are Lhe fotbets tole Lhe
motbets seose of wellbeloq and Lhe parenLs poteotloq styles LhaL ls how Lhey lnLeracL wlLh Lhelr
chlldren and Lhe goals Lhey hold for Lhem
ln my revlew of Lhe research lm golng Lo sLarL wlLh a summary of Lhe research whlch has examlned Lhe
dlrecL relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus and chlld ouLcomes and Lhen concenLraLe
on Lhe Lhree aspecLs of famlly llfe LhaL seem Lo carry Lhe effecLs Lhe faLhers role Lhe moLhers sLaLe of
well belng and parenLchlld lnLeracLlon paLLerns Slnce flndlngs from my recenL sLudy wlll be reporLed
LhroughouL my Lalk lll glve you a brlef descrlpLlon of lL
1he sample ls a socloeconomlcally heLerogeneous one of Lhlrd and fourLh grade chlldren and Lhelr
famllles resldlng ln a large lndusLrlal clLy ln Lhe MldwesL lL lncludes oneparenL famllles as well as Lwo
parenL AfrlcanAmerlcan and Luropean Amerlcan 8ecause we were lnLeresLed ln effecLs of Lhe
moLhers employmenL sLaLus lLself LhaL ls Lhe effecLs of havlng an employed moLher ln Lhe famlly
and noL ln LranslLlonal employmenL we selecLed for analysls only famllles where Lhe moLhers
employmenL sLaLus had been sLable for aL leasL Lhree years We also dropped from analysls chlldren
who were noL llvlng wlLh Lhelr moLhers 1he flnal sample had 400 famllles 1he daLa collecLed were
exLenslve and lncluded quesLlonnalres from moLhers faLhers and chlldren personal lnLervlews wlLh
moLhers and chlldren sLandard achlevemenL LesL scores provlded by Lhe schools Leachers raLlngs of
Lhe chlldrens soclal and academlc compeLence and raLlngs by classroom peers of Lhelr behavlor and
how much Lhey were llked lm golng Lo refer Lo Lhls sLudy as Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy because lL was
conducLed by sLaff and sLudenLs aL Lhe unlverslLy of Mlchlgan buL Lhe slLe of Lhe research was noL ln
Mlchlgan
|fferences 8etween Ch||dren of Lmp|oyed and Nonemp|oyed Mothers
Many of Lhe sLudles LhaL have compared Lhe chlldren of employed and nonemployed moLhers on chlld
ouLcome measures such as lndlces of cognlLlve and socloemoLlonal developmenL have falled Lo flnd
slgnlflcanL dlfferences 1he research LhaL has shown reasonably conslsLenL dlfferences has examlned Lhe
relaLlonshlps wlLhln subgroups based on soclal class and gender aLLerns LhaL have been revealed over
Lhe years lnclude Lhe followlng
a uaughLers of employed moLhers have been found Lo have hlgher academlc achlevemenL
greaLer career success more nonLradlLlonal career cholces and greaLer occupaLlonal
commlLmenL
b SLudles of chlldren ln poverLy ln boLh LwoparenL and slnglemoLher famllles found hlgher
cognlLlve scores for chlldren wlLh employed moLhers as well as hlgher scores on socloemoLlonal
lndlces
c A few earller sLudles found LhaL sons of employed moLhers ln Lhe mlddle class showed lower
school performance and lower lC scores durlng Lhe grade school years Lhan fullLlme
homemakers AbouL Len years ago Lhere were Lhree separaLe sLudles LhaL looked aL LhaL
relaLlonshlp Lwo of Lhem found no dlfference buL Lhe Lhlrd also found lower scores for sons of
employed moLhers ln Lhe mlddleclass
We found no lndlcaLlon of Lhls ln Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy ln facL we found Lhe opposlLe ln our sLudy Lhe
chlldren of employed moLhers obLalned hlgher scores on Lhe Lhree achlevemenL LesLs for language
readlng and maLh across gender socloeconomlc sLaLus and marlLal sLaLus mlddleclass boys lncluded
lL was our mosL robusL flndlngs for Lhe chlld ouLcome dlfferences And yes we conLrolled on Lhe
moLhers educaLlon
d revlous research has also found some soclal ad[usLmenL dlfferences beLween chlldren wlLh
employed and nonemployed moLhers buL wlLh less conslsLency uaughLers of employed
moLhers have been found Lo be more lndependenL parLlcularly ln lnLeracLlon wlLh Lhelr peers ln
a school seLLlng and Lo score hlgher on socloemoLlonal ad[usLmenL measures 8esulLs for sons
have been qulLe mlxed and vary wlLh soclal class and wlLh how old Lhe chlldren were when Lhey
were LesLed Cne flndlng from Lhe 1970s was LhaL ln Lhe bluecollar class sons of employed
moLhers dld well academlcally buL Lhere was a sLraln ln Lhe faLherson relaLlonshlp 1hls was
lnLerpreLed as reflecLlng Lhe more LradlLlonal genderrole aLLlLudes ln Lhe blue collar class 1he
moLhers employmenL was seen as a slgn LhaL Lhe faLher was an lnadequaLe breadwlnner and lf
Lhe faLhers helped ouL wlLh housework and chlld care Lhey resenLed lL We dld noL flnd Lhls aL
all and lL may reflecL Lhe change over Lhe years ln genderrole aLLlLudes ln Lhe worklngclass
Lhe less sLereoLype vlews becomlng more pervaslve across class
1he oLher soclal ad[usLmenL flndlngs from Lhe recenL Mlchlgan sLudy were generally conslsLenL wlLh
prevlous resulLs buL exLended Lhem uaughLers wlLh employed moLhers across Lhe dlfferenL groups
showed more poslLlve asserLlveness as raLed by Lhe Leacher (LhaL ls Lhey parLlclpaLed ln class
dlscusslons Lhey asked quesLlons when lnsLrucLlons were unclear Lhey were comforLable ln leadershlp
poslLlons) and Lhey showed less acLlngouL behavlor 1hey were less shy more lndependenL and had a
hlgher sense of efflcacy Worklngclass boys also showed more poslLlve soclal ad[usLmenL when Lhelr
moLhers were employed and Lhls was Lrue for boLh oneparenL and LwoparenL famllles lor Lhe mlddle
class boys alLhough Lhelr academlc scores were hlgher Lhere was llLLle evldence of soclal ad[usLmenL
beneflLs from Lhelr moLhers employmenL ln facL Lhere was some evldence LhaL Lhose wlLh employed
moLhers showed more acLlngouL behavlor Lhan Lhe sons of fullLlme homemakers
e 1here ls one more resulL from prevlous research whlch was also found ln our sLudy Sons and
daughLers of employed moLhers have less LradlLlonal genderrole aLLlLudes Powever ln our
research we used Lwo dlfferenL measures of genderrole aLLlLudes one Lapped Lhe chllds vlews
abouL wheLher or noL men could do Lhlngs LhaL were LradlLlonally consldered parL of womens
domaln (eg Lake care of chlldren use a sewlng machlne Leach school) Lhe oLher Lapped Lhe
chllds vlew abouL wheLher or noL women were capable of dolng acLlvlLles LhaL were
LradlLlonally consldered parL of Lhe male domaln (eg flx a car cllmb a mounLaln fly a plane)
1he measure conslsLed of a long llsL of acLlvlLles and occupaLlons some of whlch were male
Lyped some female Lyped and some neuLral lor each Lhey were asked Who can? 1hey had
Lo choose as Lhelr answer women men or boLh We Lhen consLrucLed Lwo scales one Lapplng
wheLher Lhey LhoughL only men could do Lhe maleLyped Lhlngs and Lhe oLher measurlng
wheLher Lhey LhoughL only women could do Lhe femaleLyped Lhlngs
Clrls wlLh employed moLhers were more llkely Lhan glrls whose moLhers were fullLlme homemakers Lo
lndlcaLe LhaL women as well as men could do Lhe acLlvlLles LhaL are usually assoclaLed wlLh men LhaL ls
employed moLhers daughLers saw women as more compeLenL ln Lhe LradlLlonally male domaln Lhan Lhe
homemakers daughLers dld 1hls resulL held for glrls ln LwoparenL homes and glrls ln oneparenL
homes lor boys however employmenL sLaLus was noL relaLed Lo Lhe measure of womens compeLence
Lo do male acLlvlLles Cn Lhe oLher hand ln LwoparenL famllles boLh sons and daughLers of employed
moLhers felL LhaL men could do Lhe female acLlvlLles whlle Lhose wlLh fullLlme homemakers dld noL
buL Lhls was Lrue only ln LwoparenL famllles SubsequenL analysls showed LhaL Lhe reason lL was only
found ln Lwo parenL famllles ls LhaL lL was carrled by Lhe facL LhaL ln Lhe Lwo parenL famllles faLhers
wlLh employed wlves were more acLlve ln LradlLlonally female Lasks and ln chlld care 1hus maLernal
employmenL was llnked Lo Lhe less sLereoLyped vlew of whaL men can do because of Lhe effecL of
maLernal employmenL on Lhe faLhers role and ln Lhe absence of a faLher Lhe effecL dld noL occur
@he Iathers o|e
now Lhe faLhers role has long been vlewed as an lmporLanL medlaLor of Lhe llnk beLween Lhe moLhers
employmenL sLaLus and chlld ouLcomes 1he flndlng LhaL when moLhers are employed faLhers are more
acLlve ln household Lasks and chlld care was reporLed ln Lhe 1930s and repeaLedly Lhrough Lhe years
lurLher evldence has been provlded whlch suggesLs LhaL Lhe faLhers rolesharlng ls an effecL of
maLernal employmenL and noL [usL a selecLlve facLor Lven when Lhe researcher conLrols on genderrole
aLLlLudes Lhls effecL ls found and Lhe lncreased lnvolvemenL of faLhers ln household Lasks and chlld care
ls reporLed by moLhers as a change LhaL occurred when Lhey reenLered Lhe labor force Powever Lwo
sLudles one by nan CrouLer aL enn SLaLe and Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy found LhaL Lhe greaLer lnvolvemenL
of faLhers wlLh chlldren ls conflned Lo Lhe funcLlonal lnLeracLlons laLhers ln employed moLher famllles
ln general are noL more acLlve ln lelsure/fun lnLeracLlon Powever Lhere ls an lnLeresLlng gender effecL
faLhers ln slnglewage famllles lnLeracL more wlLh sons Lhan daughLers buL faLhers ln dualwage famllles
lnLeracL wlLh sons and daughLers equally
1he faLhers role was a ma[or varlable ln Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy and a clear llnk was shown Lo daughLers
beLLer academlc performance and Lo Lhelr greaLer sense of efflcacy ln addlLlon alLhough maLernal
employmenL was dlrecLly relaLed Lo daughLers vlews LhaL women are compeLenL ln acLlvlLles generally
seen as male acLlvlLles hlgher faLher lnvolvemenL lncreased Lhls effecL And Lhe vlew LhaL women are
compeLenL was a ma[or llnk Lo glrls sense of efflcacy and LesL scores 1he faLhers hlgher lnvolvemenL ln
chlld care Lhe merglng of roles Lhere was also relaLed dlrecLly Lo boLh boys and glrls LesL scores 1he
amounL of Llme faLhers spenL wlLh chlldren ln lelsure/fun acLlvlLles on Lhe oLher hand showed no
relaLlonshlp Lo LesL scores for elLher boys or glrls
1hus Lhere ls a paLh from Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus Lo Lhe faLhers role Lo Lhe chlldrens
academlc performance ln accommodaLlon Lo Lhe moLhers employmenL faLhers Lake on a larger share
of Lhe household Lasks and chlld care 1helr hlgher parLlclpaLlon ln chlld care operaLes Lo lncrease Lhe
academlc compeLence of boLh boys and glrls buL parLlcularly for glrls We also found a dlrecL llnk from
Lhe moLhers employmenL lLself for glrls across class and marlLal sLaLus When moLhers are employed
glrls vlew women as more compeLenL and Lhls vlew medlaLed Lhe glrls own hlgher sense of efflcacy and
Lhelr academlc performance as raLed by Leachers as well as by Lhe LesL scores
@he Mothers Sense of We||be|ng
1he second aspecL of famlly llfe LhaL ls ofLen seen as llnklng Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus Lo effecLs
on Lhe chlld ls Lhe moLhers sense of wellbelng and numerous sLudles have compared employed
moLhers Lo fullLlme homemakers on varlous lndlces of menLal healLh and llfe saLlsfacLlon MosL of Lhls
research has found a hlgher level of saLlsfacLlon and morale and lower scores on sLress lndlcaLors and
measures of depresslve mood among Lhe employed
8uL whlle Lhe bulk of Lhe research on employmenL sLaLus and moLhers menLal healLh has found hlgher
morale among employed moLhers some lnvesLlgaLors found no slgnlflcanL dlfferences Powever when
you sorL ouL whlch sLudles flnd LhaL employed moLhers have hlgher morale and whlch sLudles flnd no
dlfference lL Lurns ouL LhaL Lhe sLudles LhaL flnd no dlfference were conducLed wlLh mlddleclass
women none of Lhese sLudles flnd Lhe morale of Lhe fullLlme homemakers hlgher ln elLher class We
found none and Lhese same concluslons are reporLed ln oLher revlews 8uL some sLudles have found no
dlfference and all of Lhese were conducLed wlLh mlddleclass moLhers now Lhls class dlfference may
seem sLrange ?ou would Lhlnk LhaL employmenL was more llkely Lo up Lhe moLhers morale ln Lhe
mlddle class because mlddleclass [obs are more lnLeresLlng 8uL Lhe facL ls LhaL Lhe menLal healLh
advanLage of employmenL ls more conslsLenLly found ln worklng class or poverLy samples lor worklng
class women sLudles show LhaL Lhe saLlsfacLlons from employmenL are noL from Lhe [ob per se buL from
Lhe lncreased soclal supporL and sLlmulaLlon provlded by coworkers Lhe marked advanLages LhaL Lhelr
wages brlng Lo Lhelr famllles and Lhe greaLer sense of conLrol Lhey feel over Lhelr llves (ln our sLudy lL
was Lhe Lhlrd employmenL gave Lhem a sense of conLrol over Lhelr llves LhaL was parLlcularly
lmporLanL)
1hls soclal class dlfference ls lmporLanL because Lhe research looklng aL Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus
and chlld ouLcomes has also shown more conslsLenL advanLages of maLernal employmenL for chlldren ln
Lhe worklng and poverLy classes Lhan ln Lhe mlddle class parLlcularly for boys So a vlable hypoLhesls ls
LhaL Lhe greaLer advanLage of maLernal employmenL for worklngclass chlldren ls because of lLs more
poslLlve effecL on Lhe moLhers sense of wellbelng
lurLhermore Lhe posslblllLy LhaL Lhe moLhers wellbelng carrles Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween maLernal
employmenL and chlld ouLcomes ls bolsLered by Lhe facL LhaL Lhere ls a large body of research
demonsLraLlng a poslLlve relaLlonshlp beLween maLernal menLal healLh and boLh more effecLlve
parenLlng and chlldrens cognlLlve and emoLlonal ad[usLmenL
We explored Lhe role of maLernal wellbelng ln Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy and found LhaL employmenL dld
show a poslLlve healLh advanLage ln Lhe worklng class for boLh slngle and marrled moLhers (And ln Lhe
poverLy class) Lmployed moLhers had lower scores on a measure of depresslve mood (Lhe CLSu) and
hlgher scores on a measure of poslLlve morale no relaLlonshlp beLween employmenL sLaLus and elLher
measure was found ln Lhe mlddleclass We also found LhaL ln Lhe worklng class employed moLhers
were less llkely Lhan fullLlme homemakers Lo use elLher auLhorlLarlan or permlsslve parenLlng sLyles and
more llkely Lo use a sLyle called auLhorlLaLlve AuLhorlLaLlve parenLlng refers Lo a paLLern ln whlch Lhe
parenLs exerclse conLrol buL provlde explanaLlons raLher Lhan relylng on power asserLlve conLrols and
harsh dlsclpllne ln addlLlon employed moLhers ln Lhe worklng class lndlcaLed a hlgher frequency of
poslLlve lnLeracLlons wlLh Lhelr chlldren Lhan dld Lhe fullLlme homemakers 1he analysls also lndlcaLed
LhaL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe moLhers employmenL and her parenLlng was carrled by Lhe moLhers
sense of wellbelng lurLhermore Lhe parenLlng varlables were relaLed Lo chlld ouLcomes lor example
Lhe permlsslveness of Lhe marrled worklngclass homemakers was assoclaLed wlLh acLlng ouL behavlor
ln Lhelr sons and auLhorlLarlan conLrol was relaLed Lo problem behavlor ln daughLers
Ch||drear|ng atterns
So Lhls brlngs us Lo Lhe Lhlrd rouLe by whlch Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus can affecL ouLcomes for
schoolaged chlldren Lhrough dlfferences ln chlldrearlng A number of researchers have suggesLed
LhaL Lhe chlldrearlng dlmenslon whlch lncludes encouragemenL of lndependence maLurlLy demands
and auLonomy granLlng ls parLlcularly lmporLanL 1hls ls a dlmenslon LhaL can encompass ln lLs exLreme
overproLecLlon on Lhe one hand and neglecL on Lhe oLher revlous research has presenLed some
evldence LhaL employed moLhers encourage lndependence ln Lhelr chlldren more Lhan nonemployed
moLhers do 1he encouragemenL of lndependence ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe slLuaLlonal demands of Lhe dual
role slnce lL enables Lhe famlly Lo funcLlon more effecLlvely ln Lhe moLhers absence urle
8ronfenbrenner has suggesLed LhaL encouraglng lndependence and granLlng chlldren auLonomy may
have a negaLlve effecL on boys because lL lncreases Lhe lnfluence of Lhe peer group whlch for boys ls
more llkely Lo be counLer Lo adulL sLandards 1he encouragemenL of lndependence and auLonomy ln
glrls on Lhe oLher hand would have a poslLlve effecL slnce Lhey are LradlLlonally glven Loo llLLle
encouragemenL for lndependence
A number of sLudles ln developmenLal psychology have documenLed a paLLern of encouraglng
dependency ln glrls 8everly lagoL for example has conducLed a serles of sLudles of Loddlers based on
behavloral observaLlons whlch demonsLraLe Lhls ln one seL of sLudles she shows LhaL moLhers of
daughLers reward dependency by respondlng Loo qulckly Lo Lhelr blds for help whlle moLhers of boys
are more llkely Lo encourage Lhem Lo work Lhe problem ouL for Lhemselves
Such genderbased dlfferences ln chlldrearlng however are less prevalenL ln employedmoLher famllles
ln Lhe Mlchlgan sLudy we found LhaL across soclal class employed moLhers ln conLrasL wlLh fullLlme
homemakers showed less dlfferenLlaLlon beLween sons and daughLers ln Lhelr dlsclpllne sLyle and ln
Lhelr goals for Lhelr chlldren We also found LhaL employed moLhers compared Lo fullLlme
homemakers were more llkely Lo clLe lndependence as a goal for Lhelr daughLers and less llkely Lo
lndlcaLe LhaL obedlence or Lo be femlnlne was Lhelr goal And moLhers who clLed Lhe goal of
obedlence or Lhe goal Lo be femlnlne were more llkely Lo have daughLers who were shy nonasserLlve
ln Lhe classroom and had a lower sense of efflcacy whlle clLlng Lhe goal of lndependence showed Lhe
opposlLe effecLs
1he lssue of supervlslon and monlLorlng and Lhe concepL of laLch key chlldren ls assoclaLed wlLh
maLernal employmenL buL only a few sLudles have examlned Lhe acLual Lle Lo maLernal employmenL
nan CrouLer aL enn SLaLe wlLh a sample of chlldren from small communlLles and rural areas found no
relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus and how well chlldren were monlLored
Powever she also found LhaL when chlldren were unmonlLored boys wlLh employed moLhers were Lhe
ones llkely Lo show negaLlve effecLs ln conducL and school grades ln our urban sample we found only
one effecL of maLernal employmenL on supervlslon and monlLorlng 8oys ln dualwage worklng class
famllles were more llkely Lo be lefL unsupervlsed and unmonlLored MaLernal employmenL was noL
relaLed Lo supervlslon and monlLorlng ln mlddleclass famllles ln slnglemoLher famllles or for worklng
class glrls 8elng lefL unsupervlsed buL monlLored by phone showed no negaLlve effecLs buL belng lefL
unsupervlsed and unmonlLored showed negaLlve effecLs among lower lncome chlldren
Cnly a llmlLed group of parenLlng varlables have been examlned over Lhe years for Lhelr relaLlonshlp Lo
Lhe moLhers employmenL sLaLus 1he Mlchlgan sLudy was Lhe flrsL Lo conslder a broad range of
parenLlng aLLlLudes and behavlors Lo see lf Lhey provlded a llnk beLween Lhe moLhers employmenL and
chlld ouLcomes l have already menLloned LhaL ln Lhe worklngclass fullLlme homemakers used more
auLhorlLarlan conLrol less auLhorlLaLlve conLrol and more permlsslveness ln addlLlon across class and
marlLal sLaLus fullLlme homemakers used more auLhorlLarlan conLrol and sLronger dlsclpllne and
sLressed obedlence as a goal for Lhelr chlldren 1hese dlfferences ln parenLlng ln Lurn relaLed Lo a
number of chlld ouLcomes lor example Lhe hlgher use of auLhorlLaLlve conLrols by employed moLhers
ln Lhe worklng class a sLyle ln whlch Lhe chlld ls glven reasons and explanaLlons was relaLed Lo Lhelr
chlldrens hlgher academlc performance and Lhe more punlLlve sLyle of Lhe homemakers predlcLed
conducL problems ln school
MoLhers also reporLed Lhe frequencles of Lhelr lnLeracLlons wlLh Lhelr chlldren over Lhe prevlous week
ln Lhe mlddle class Lhe fullLlme homemakers lndlcaLed more frequenL poslLlve and educaLlonal
acLlvlLles wlLh Lhelr chlldren Lhan Lhe employed moLhers buL ln Lhe worklng class more frequenL
poslLlve and educaLlonal acLlvlLles wlLh daughLers were reporLed by Lhe employed moLhers and Lhere
was no dlfference for sons Powever on a measure of how ofLen moLhers expressed overL affecLlon
Loward Lhelr chlldren employed moLhers were hlgher across class and marlLal sLaLus ln addlLlon
employed marrled moLhers held hlgher educaLlonal goals for Lhelr chlldren and Lhls was relaLed Lo
chlldrens LesL scores
now ln Lhese analyses we conLrol for many varlables lncludlng Lhe moLhers educaLlon buL lL ls posslble
LhaL Lhere are some selfselecLlon facLors lnvolved neverLheless 1hus lL ls posslble LhaL moLhers who
elecL Lo sLay home and avold employmenL may be moLhers who are parLlcularly commlLLed Lo
obedlence and LhaL Lhls dlfference may noL only be a funcLlon of employmenL sLaLus buL also a
precursor And slmllarly hlgher educaLlonal goals for chlldren may be a moLlvaLlon for employmenL We
examlned Lhese posslblllLles ln our analyses and Lhe daLa supporLed a dlrecLlon of causallLy from Lhe
moLhers employmenL sLaLus Lo parenLlng sLyles Lo chlld ouLcomes buL Lhere may also be some self
selecLlon lnvolved
Materna| Lmp|oyment and Nonmaterna| Care ur|ng the Lar|y ears
lm golng Lo Lurn now from my focus on schoolaged chlldren Lo dlscuss Lhe research on maLernal
employmenL durlng Lhe chllds lnfancy and Loddler years 1hls has been a Loplc of conslderable lnLeresL
and conLroversy
Whereas mosL of Lhe maLernal employmenL research on older chlldren has looked malnly aL chlld
ouLcomes Lhe research on lnfanLs and preschoolers has looked dlrecLly aL parenLchlld lnLeracLlon 1hls
ls because for lnfanLs and young chlldren valld ouLcome measures are dlfflculL Lo obLaln 1hese sLudles
have looked aL Lhe quanLlLy and quallLy of Lhe moLherchlld lnLeracLlon Lhe home envlronmenL and Lhe
parenLchlld aLLachmenL relaLlonshlp
ln general flndlngs lndlcaLe LhaL fullLlme employed moLhers spend less Llme wlLh Lhelr lnfanLs and
preschoolers Lhan parLLlme and nonemployed moLhers buL Lhls effecL dlmlnlshes wlLh maLernal
educaLlon and wlLh Lhe age of Lhe chlld ln addlLlon Lhe effecL ls also less when Lhe naLure of Lhe
lnLeracLlon ls consldered uaLa lndlcaLe LhaL employed moLhers Lend Lo compensaLe for Lhelr absence ln
Lhe proporLlon of dlrecL lnLeracLlon and ln Lhe amounL of Llme wlLh Lhe chlld durlng nonwork hours and
on weekends Several sLudles LhaL used behavloral observaLlons of moLherlnfanL lnLeracLlon showed
LhaL employed moLhers were more hlghly lnLeracLlve wlLh Lhelr lnfanLs parLlcularly wlLh respecL Lo
verbal sLlmulaLlon Some sLudles have examlned Lhe moLhers senslLlvlLy ln lnLeracLlons wlLh Lhelr
lnfanLs and found no dlfference beLween Lhe employed and nonemployed moLhers
A parLlcularly acLlve area of maLernal employmenL research slnce 190 has lnvolved Lhe comparlson of
dualwage and slnglewage famllles wlLh respecL Lo moLherlnfanL aLLachmenL ln mosL of Lhese sLudles
no slgnlflcanL dlfferences were found Powever ln research by !ay 8elsky (and ln a sLudy by 8arglow and
hls colleagues) alLhough Lhe ma[orlLy of moLherlnfanL aLLachmenLs ln Lhe fullLlme employedmoLher
group was secure Lhe number of lnsecure aLLachmenLs was hlgher when Lhe moLhers were employed
fullLlme lurLhermore ln revlews LhaL comblned sub[ecLs across sLudles fullLlme employed moLhers
were more llkely Lhan parLLlme employed and nonemployed moLhers Lo have lnsecurely aLLached
lnfanLs
1he resulLs showlng an assoclaLlon beLween early maLernal employmenL and moLherlnfanL aLLachmenL
have recelved a greaL deal of aLLenLlon ln Lhe medla A problem wlLh Lhls research however ls LhaL Lhe
measure of aLLachmenL used ls a laboraLory measure called Lhe SLrange SlLuaLlon 1he measure lnvolves
havlng Lhe moLher and Loddler enLer a room furnlshed llke a walLlng room wlLh chlldrens Loys A young
woman comes ln and Lhen Lhe moLher leaves 1here are Lwo maLernal deparLures and reunlons a few
mlnuLes laLer 1hls measure was seL up as a sLrange slLuaLlon Lo observe how Lhe Loddler acLs Loward
Lhe moLher when anxlous AlLhough Lhls measure has proven useful over Lhe years ln predlcLlng
subsequenL chlldhood behavlor lLs valldlLy had noL been esLabllshed for employedmoLher famllles 1he
problem ls LhaL Lhe slLuaLlon may noL be anxleLyproduclng for a chlld who has experlenced regular
nonmaLernal care Lhus Lhe behavlor may noL be a basls on whlch Lo [udge Lhe aLLachmenL relaLlonshlp
ln Lhe sLudles LhaL found more lnsecure aLLachmenL for Lhe chlldren wlLh fullLlme employed moLhers
Lhe Lype of lnsecure aLLachmenL found was whaL ls called Lhe avoldanL paLLern 1he avoldanL lnfanL ls
one who seems Lo be lndependenL 1hls lndependence may be a defense agalnsL anxleLy as lL has been
shown Lo be ln earller research buL lL may also be an approprlaLe behavlor lf Lhe chlld ls noL anxlous ln
Lhe slLuaLlon Lhus dlsLlngulshlng beLween avoldanL lnsecurlLy and lack of anxleLy can be dlfflculL
1he mosL recenL and mosL exLenslve lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhese lssues ls an ongolng sLudy of Lhe effecLs of
nonmaLernal care ln early chlldhood conducLed by Lhe naLlonal lnsLlLuLe of Chlld PealLh and
uevelopmenL 1hls ls a collaboraLlve efforL lnvolvlng mulLlple slLes and a large Leam of promlnenL
researchers uaLa have been presenLed whlch supporL Lhe valldlLy of Lhe SLrange SlLuaLlon measure as
used ln Lhls sLudy ln Lhls sLudy Lhe amounL of nonmaLernal care (wheLher Lhe lnfanL recelved more
Lhan LhlrLy hours a week or less Lhan Len) was noL relaLed Lo Lhe securlLy of Lhe aLLachmenL nor was Lhe
chllds age aL onseL of Lhe moLhers employmenL 1he hlgh quallLy of Lhls lnvesLlgaLlon and Lhe facL LhaL
Lhe consorLlum of lnvesLlgaLors lncluded researchers from boLh sldes of Lhls hlghly pollLlclzed lssue may
have led Lo more preclse codlng operaLlons whlch ellmlnaLed Lhe uncerLalnLles someLlmes lnvolved ln
dlfferenLlaLlng less anxleLy from lnsecureavoldanL aLLachmenL 1he resulLs of Lhls sLudy lndlcaLed LhaL
Lhe quallLy of Lhe moLherchlld lnLeracLlon and parLlcularly her senslLlvlLy Lo Lhe chllds needs affecLs
Lhe securlLy of Lhe aLLachmenL and Lhe amounL of nonmaLernal care does noL nelLher does Lhe
moLhers employmenL sLaLus nor Lhe age of Lhe chlld when Lhe moLher resumed work
1hls lnvesLlgaLlon has been followlng Lhe chlldren slnce lnfancy and Lhelr laLesL reporLs are based on Lhe
daLa obLalned when Lhe chlldren are Lhreeyears old revlous research on Lhe effecLs of day care
suggesLed LhaL alLhough day care experlence was ofLen assoclaLed wlLh hlgher cognlLlve compeLence lL
was also assoclaLed wlLh less compllance and more asserLlveness wlLh peers boLh poslLlve and negaLlve
1he nlCPu sLudy found LhaL on mulLlple measures of Lhe chllds negaLlvlLy and behavlor problems Lhe
ma[or varlables were agaln Lhe moLhers senslLlvlLy and her psychologlcal ad[usLmenL 8oLh hlgher
quallLy of nonmaLernal care and greaLer experlence ln groups wlLh oLher chlldren predlcLed soclally
compeLenL behavlor lL was also Lhe case however LhaL more Llme ln chlld care and less sLable care
predlcLed problemaLlc and noncompllanL behavlor aL 24 monLhs Cn Lhe whole Lhe resulLs of Lhls
lnvesLlgaLlon have lndlcaLed LhaL Lhe home envlronmenL ls Lhe ma[or lnfluence on chlld ouLcomes buL
Lhe quallLy and sLablllLy of Lhe nonmaLernal care does have an effecL
@op of loqe
Conc|us|ons
1wenLy years ago lL would have seemed sLrange Lo glve a Lalk on maLernal employmenL and noL focus
on lL as a soclal problem buL Lhere ls llLLle ln Lhese daLa Lo suggesL lL ls 1he moLhers employmenL sLaLus
does have effecLs on famllles and chlldren buL few of Lhese effecLs are negaLlve ones lndeed mosL
seem poslLlve Lhe hlgher academlc ouLcomes for chlldren beneflLs ln Lhelr behavloral conducL and
soclal ad[usLmenL and Lhe hlgher sense of compeLence and effecLlveness ln daughLers Cn Lhe whole
Lhese research resulLs suggesL LhaL mosL famllles accommodaLe Lo Lhe moLhers employmenL and ln
dolng so provlde a famlly envlronmenL LhaL works well ln LwoparenL famllles Lhe faLhers Lake on a
larger share of Lhe household Lasks and chlld care and Lhls seems Lo have beneflLs for Lhe chlldren ln
Lhe worklng class employed moLhers lndlcaLed a hlgher level of wellbelng Lhan fullLlme homemakers
and Lhls ln Lurn affecLs Lhelr parenLlng ln poslLlve ways Lven ln Lhe mlddleclass where employed
moLhers dld noL show a hlgher level of wellbelng nelLher dld Lhey show a lower one Whlle Lhe quallLy
and sLablllLy of nonmaLernal care for lnfanLs and young chlldren ls lmporLanL Lhe moLhers employmenL
lLself does noL seem Lo have Lhe negaLlve effecLs ofLen proclalmed We are deallng here wlLh a change ln
socleLy and whlle Lhere are ad[usLmenL yeL Lo be made more affordable quallLy day care afLerschool
programs more llberal posLparLum leave pollcles even Lhese are slowly respondlng Lo Lhe reallLles of
arenLhood ln Amerlca Loday
@op of loqe
Pome 1oplcs AuLhors Work Croups Search
CopyrlghL 199 Lols Wladls Poffman
lot tecbolcol osslstooce
llbtoty @ecbooloqy Ctoop
Ceoetol llbtoty 5ystem
uolvetslty of wlscoosloMoJlsoo