.

3 LAND
Land is the basic resource of any nation, but it is the limiting factor utilized for
various purposes other than cultivation, such as farm houses, cattle shed. wells, channels,
roads, processing yards etc Land is one of the main component of the environment
bestdes water, air. flaura and fauna. Land is required by man for a number of .purposes
such as Agricultural and horticultural food production.
ii) Housing, commerce in relationship to urban and communities.
iii) Industrial sites.
(iv) Transportation including rails, roads, highways etc.
v) Mining
vi) For forests
vii) For recreation and other purposes.
There are numerous problems in the utilization of land. In urban areas where it is
densely populated there is scarcity for land with as in rural areas land is available in
plenty. Some land is protecte for wild life preservation. Some part of land is utilized for
the construction of reservoirs. The disposal of wastes also requires land The changes
from one land use to the other use affects the environment. Sometimes it is positive and
sometimes negative. Land resources are also related to natural disasters such as volcarn
eruptions, earth quakes and landslides. Land also includes waste lands and wetlands.
Wasteland is piece of land which is not capable of producing crops which include the
degraded forest, over irrigated soils, eroded valleys and water logged marshy land.
Wetlands are the parts of aquatic echo systems. In aquatic system water is the main
component and it includes the fresh water pond, lakes, rivers, seas etc. When the depth of
the water does not exceed 6 m, it may be called as wet land echo system. It is estimated
that-the wet land covers about 6% of the worlds land surface.
2.3.1 soil
Soil is the most inherent component of the land.
Soil is a natural formation resulting from the'tfahsformation of surface rocks by the
combination of climate, plant and animal life with aging. Soil may be defined as a natural
body formed at the bundry between the lithosphere and the biosphere by interchains all
facors involved in soil formation, considering both living dead organism. The
composition and the properties of soil are amined relating to the environment. Soil
contains not only minerals but also organic and anorganic compounds. Soil is made of
rock which has been transformed into other layers due to getation and due to various
micro and macro organisms. The soil yer may be divided as
(i) Accumulation of organic and human matters.
(ii) Intermediate between human and parent rocks.
(iii) parent rock weakly altered by soil formation.
(iv) Bed rock (combination of hard and rocky materials) .
 3.2 Physics of Land
The following are the physical properties of soil.
1. Colour 6. Soil air
2. Texture 7. Hygroscopic moisture
3. Porosity 8. Water property of soil
4. Particle size distribution 9. Soil temperature
5. Specific mass of soil 10. Colloidal nature of soil
Colour and Tint
The colour and tint of soil depends on the minerals present in and also depends on the
humus components. Based on the colour the soil it can be classified into following.
1. Black soil, 2. Grey soil
3. Red soil 4. Yellow or laterite soil
The, grey and black colour of soil indicates the different soil contents of humus and it
may also be due to the colour of the parent rock. The red soil indicates the richness of
iron or ferric oxide in the soil. The yellow colour indicates the presence of Hydrated.
compounds such as Ferric hydroxide. In some tropical areas soils arc also found
which indicates the presence of concentration of ferrous compounds such as ferrous
oxide. The soil indicates the presence of calcium carbonate in execss.
The tint of soil is made up of the combination of two colours. Itcan be brown red,
grey black etc.,
2. Texture
Based on the texture of the soil it can be divided in following groups.
1. Clayey soil
(a) Very clayey (i) Clay
(ii) Silly clay
(b) Intermediate (i) Silty heavy loam
(ii) Heavy loam
(c) Sandy clay
2. Loamy Soil
(a) Medium Loamy . (i) Sandy heavy loam
(ii) Loam
(b) Slightly loamy (i) Sandy loam
3. Silty soils
(a) Silty loam
 (b) Silty clay loam
Sandy soils (i). Loamy Sand
(ii) Sand
Soil texture is an important property. Soil texture can be del by the mineralogica! and
chemical composition. As soils densely packed structure and capillary pores, they can
retain quantities of water. They check the passage of water as capilla are smaller m
diameter and they get plugged by swelling.
structure of soil has the unique property of absorbing large quantities nutrient. Sandy
soils arc very poor in nutrients and need organic ertilizers and minerals for better crop
growth. Humus and Humus complexes have better binding properly. Whenever industrial
fluent combines with humus, it act: acts as the exchange capacity sulting in total loss in
it's binding property.
porosity: (P)
porosity P of soil many be defined as the ratio of volume voids to the total volume of
the given soil mass.
p=[d-dv] X 100
here d - Specific mass of soil
dv - Volumetric mass of soil
The porosity of soil depends upon the texture and the gregation of the soil.
'Soil Porosity (by volume) (%)
1. Best soil > 50%
2. Good soil 45 to 50 '
3. Satisfactory soil 40 to 45
4. Unsatisfactory soil 40%
5. Poor soil <30%
Soil porosity determines its moisture holding capacity of the solids. The pores
present in the soil allows the rain water to flow through it for long duration and to retain
the rain water. During the ry Season soil, serves as a reservoir of water for all living
organisms which depend on soil for their water needs. Even during the dry eriods plats
obtain their water requirement through, roots by enetrating deeper into the soil.
4. Particle size distribution
The size of the soil particles determines the quantity movement of water and air in the
soil, because water and air fill the spaces in between the soil particles. Higher the
percentage smaller particles, more the number of pore space (e.g) clayey hence stores
more amount of water and air. In turn soils with land particle size have layer space but the
pores size are larger, water holding capacity of sandy soils is low compared to class soils
 5. Specific mass of soil
It is the ratio between the solid phase of soil alone (with air) to the weight of water in
same volume at 4°C.
where m = Specific mass of soil
m, = wt. of solid phase
m, = wt. of water at 4°C
The specific mass changes with change in the chemi composition of soil and the
mineralogical factors. The specific is lower (2 to 4) on humus soil and it is high on rocky
soils.
6. Soil air
Good aeration of soil is important for maintaining its biologi activities. Good soil
aeration is also helpful for better plant grov Soil contains certain gases such as
1. Carbon dioxide -68%
2. Oxygen 0.3 to 1%
3. Ammonia <9.1%
4. Methane <0.05%
7. Hygroscopic moisture (water)
The amount of water in soil depends upon the relative humidity of the atmospheric
and soil air.The hygroscopic moisture in soil ['depends mainly on the following factors.
(i) humus content
(ii) chemical composition
(iii) texture .
The hygroscopic moisture of soil depends upon the absorptive capacity of the soil.
The value is generally about 0.5% to 1% in tropical soils. '
8. Water property of. soils
This represents the water capacity and the water permeability of soils. The water
capacity is the amount of water that can be retained by the capillaries when the soil is
saturated with water from beneath. It is the maximum quantity of water which the soil
can retain within itself.
The permeability of water is the capacity of soil to allow water to pass through it. The
permeability of soil depends on swelling, aggregation and texture. Higher the
permeability of water, the more distinct is the soil structure for a same texture of the soil.
The capillarity of soil reflects the energy for retaining water.
9. Soil Temperature
The change in temperature, changes the properties of the soil. The colour, moisture,
absorbtion and water content of the soil varies with the temperature variations.
 10. Colloidal nature of soils
The particles size ranging between 0.2 p to 0.001 p are termed as colloidal particles.
Based on the colloidal nature of soil, it can be classified into three groups.

Type Particle diameter

Pre colloidal 1 p to 0.2

Colloidal 0.2 p to 0.001µ

Molecular solutions Close to 0.001 µ

Colloids are charged particles and they can be divided into the groups namely
electronegative particles, and clcciroposite particles. Electronegative particles consists of
clay minerals, hum acid and complexes of bivalent and trivalent ions with silica.
Electropositive soils include hydroxides of iron and Aluminiua Exchange reaction
and retaining capacity of soil depend upon the charges
2.3.2 Chemistry of Land
The chemical composition of soil is very diversified art depends upon the
chemical composition of rock. Generally following chemicals are found in the soil.
Table 2.4 The Average content of elements in soils

Chemical Element Avg%by wt of soil

Oxygen 49

Silicon 33

Aluminium 7.13

Iron 3,8

Carbon 2.00

Calcium 1.37

Potassium 1.3,

Sodium 0.6

Magnesium 0.6
 Sulphur 0.08

Nitrogen 0.10

In many soils of arid regions certain water soluble saltsso found

1. Sodium chloride (Nacl)
2. Magnesium Sulphate (Mg S04)
3. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
4. Magnesium Bicarbonate MiUHCO3)2
5. Calcium chloride CaCl2
6. Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)
7. Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3
8. Sodium Nitrate (NaNo3)
9. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4
10. Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)
11. Calcium Bicarbonate Ca(HC03)2
12. Magnesium Chloride (Mgcl2)
Of the above salts all the salts are dissolvable in water except CaCa3, MgC03 and
CaSO4
Chromium
Chromium affects the soil fertility and cultivation. It also inhibits the enzymatic
activities, reduce the growth of plants and affects the food chain. The chromium is
present in soil due to the entry of industrial wastes from tanneries.s
Sodium
High sodium content of the effluent cause severe physical impairment of soil like
disease in the capillary para space moisture holding capacity and permeability of soil.
pH of soil
pH of good soils should be about 7, but due to the discharge of effluents into the
land, the pH of soil increases orAcidity or Alkalinity of soil
Soils are characterized by the following PH values
pH Range Soil
3 to 4.5 strong acid soils
4.5 to 5.5 acid soils
5.5 to 6.5 weak acid soils
6.5 to 7 neutral soils
 7 to 7.5 weak alkaline soils
7.5 to 8.5 alkaline soils
8.5 to 13 strong alkaline soils
pH value of soil is of much importance as it regulates cert* properties of soils. If pH
is below 7 the composition of cation reve hydrogen and aluminium, the fraction of which
increases with decreasing pH. If the pH of soil is above 7, the soils arc saturats with
magnesium and calcium.
2.3.3 Biology of land
After a long process of weathering and disintegration of rook they arc changed into
following types of soils such as sand, si clay and grovel. A large variety of living
organisms occur in the soil. They are algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, insects, reptile
rodents, plants, animal.
The inorganic materials are derived from the parent rock an the organic materials are
produced by the living organisms duri the life time as well as after their death. These
organic matt serves as the source of energy for all living organisms in the so The humus
which is a partially decomposed organic matter give the soil loose texture. Because of
this loose texture, the soil capable of storing water and nutrients in its pores and also betti
air circulation lakes place. The nutrients stored in the soil a regenerated regularly by
decay, composition and mineralisations the organic matter, deposits by living organisms.
Bacteria Algae and Fungi
These are very important in the life of plants and in turn animals because the
atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by the Nitrogen fixing bacterias"and blue green algaes:
Certain bacteria and fungi use the liirbteins and amino acids in. the dead organ for their
own consumption and in turn releases the excess ammonia or ammonium 'Ions''- The
Nitrifying bacteria present in the soil oxidises this ammonia'to. nitrite. The other bactcrias
present oxidises nitrites,to Nitrates which is another form of nitrogen which can be easily
absorbed by the plants. This enhances the plant growth in the soil.
Insects Helminths and Rodents
These microbes are useful to produce growth producing substances. These
microorganisms along with other organics matter binds the soil particles in crumbs or
aggregates which prevents the Lexcessive leaching and erosion.
Animals
-The Burrowing animals creates innumerable passages in the soil which helps in the
exchange of gases.
Earthworms
These are found in all types of soils provided there is sufficient moisture and food in
it. They occur in forests, grasslands, gardens, plant nurseries and green houses. The main
activity of earthworm in soil involves the ingestion of soil, mixing of different soil
components and production of sub surface castings. Earthworms consumes the soil
organic matter and convert it into humus with in a short period of time and thereby
increases the soil fertility. Therefore they are called as nature's plaughman. Thus the soil
is continuously turned over and over again by these earthworms and the amount brought
to the surface is considerable. The earth worm casts contains nutrients in available form
and thus helps in promoting the plant growth.
Vermicompositing
Vermicomposting is a process of convening the organic was materials into valuable
vermicompost by culturing the earthwarms known as vermiculture. When other
traditional process composting is compared, vermicomposting takes the advantage the
biological and physiological characteristics of earthworms, the activities and qualities to
enhance the aerobic microbiologie decomposition of organic materials.
Composition of organic part and Microorganism
The organic matter of the soil contains bulk of water and the following substances.
I. Proteins 2. Carbohydrates
3. Lignin 4. Lipids
5. Waxes 6. Resins
7. Tannins 8. Organic acids
The organic part varies from 0.5 to 25 tonnes/hectares depending upon the type of
vegetation, climate and soil formation The humus are the dark colloidal substances
impregnating the mineral part of the soil, giving a dark colour to its upper surface The
humus substances makes the soil more fertile. The humus formed by the organic
materials enrich the soils with bases and nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous.
.They regulate the acidity of the soil and mineral content and the organomineral
compounds of iron.
The following types of micro organisms are found in soil.
1.Bacteria 2. Fungi
3. Algae 4. Actinomycetes
5. Protozoa
The microorganisms present in soil can be broadly divided into