PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

PANIPAT THERMAL POWER PLANT

Submitted By

Name: Rahul Poriya Roll No: 0703064

Under The Guidance Of Er. Santosh Kumar Gupta, XEN/TRG C&I Unit-3 (Panipat Thermal Power Station)

Submitted To

Department Of Electronics And Communication. Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University Of Science And Technology. JULY 2011

PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

PANIPAT THERMAL POWER PLANT

Under The Guidance Of Er. Santosh Kumar Gupta, XEN/TRG C&I Unit-3 (Panipat Thermal Power Station)

Submitted By: Rahul Poriya 0703064

Submitted To: Rajeshwar Dass Assistant Proff. (ECE Deptt.) D.C.R.U.S.T., Murthal

Department Of Electronics And Communication. Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University Of Science And Technology.

CERTIFICATE

PREFACE

Training work is a major part of our course. It is a period in which we are introduced to the industrial environment or in other words we can say that industrial training is provided for the familiarization with the industrial environment, with the increased automation in the industries to increase their production.

The object of this training work is to raise the level of performance in one or more of its aspects and this may be achieved by teaching new trends, by imbuing an individual with new attitudes, motives & other personality characteristics.

Practical training is an important part of theoretical studies. It covers all that remains in the classroom i.e. without it our studies remains ineffective & Incomplete. Also it explores a student to an invaluable treasure of experience.

Also it is a well known fact that practical training plays a very important role in future building of an individual. Only gaining theoretical knowledge is just not sufficient for sure success in life, practical training is must & I have been given an opportunity to gain practical experience at PANIPAT THERMAL POWER PLANT . I avail this instance in a very satisfactory manner & think it will be very beneficial for me in building my future.

ii

DECLARATION
I hereby certify that this Training report entitled Practical Training Report On Panipat Thermal Power Plant is honestly my own work under the guidance of Er. Santosh Kumar Gupta. I am fully aware that I have quoted some statements and ideas from various sources, and they are properly acknowledged in the text.

The work presented here in this training report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree of this or any other Institute/University.

Rahul Poriya 0703064 7th Semester ECE Department

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Inspiration and guidance are invaluable in all aspect of life, especially when it is academic. I acknowledge my gratitude to all those who has given me timely help me in completing my training report. I am highly obliged to Mr. S.C. Vasishtha (Chief Engineer/PTPS-2, HPGCL) for allowing us to join PTPS, Panipat as a trainee. I also want to express deep sense and gratitude to Er. AMOD JINDAL, XEN (C & I -III) & Er. SHISH PAL SINGH, AEE (C & I -III) for his personal efforts in taking me to sites, explaining the working of power plant Turbine, Generator & its aux. his valuable guidance during my training at Panipat Thermal Power Station. At last but not the least my special thanks to Er. Santosh Gupta, XEN (Training Division) for providing necessary documents information and help in writing the report.

Rahul Poriya 0703064 7th Semester ECE Department

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Description
Capacity Of P.T.P.S.
Power Generated By P.T.P.S.1 Performance Of P.T.P.S.1 Power Generated By P.T.P.S.2 Performance Of P.T.P.S.2 General Working Of Thermal Power Station

Page No.
2 3 4 4 5 8 13 17 18 23 25 25 25 40 42 44 50 52 55 55
58 60 61 63 64 64 68

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1

Boiler A View of Turbine Steam To Mechanical Power A View Of Deaerator Cooling Tower Base of cooling tower with falling water Cooling Tower system Visual Display Unit Unit Control Proportional Control Concept of C&I In Thermal Power Station
Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages

Venturimeters Control Valves

U Shaped Manometer Relays Fuse Liquid In Glass Thermometer Ultra Violet Sensor Thermocouple Summary of thermal power plant

CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE PREFACE DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF FIGURES 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction To P.T.P.S. 1.2 Salient Aspects of P.T.P.S.1 1.3 Salient Aspects of P.T.P.S.2 1 2 4

i ii iii iv v

2. Inputs Of Thermal Power Plant

2.1 Water 2.2 Fuel Oil 2.3 Coal 6 6 7

3. General Working Of Thermal Power Station

3.1 Description For Boiler 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 Coal Cycle Oil Cycle Air & Flue Gas Cycle 10 11 11 14 14 24 26 26 27 27 29 vi

3.2 Boiler Furnace and Steam Drum 3.3 Electric Generator 3.4 Cooling Tower as a flue gas stack 3.5 Electric Motor 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 AC Motor Synchronous Motor Induction Motor

3.6 Transformer

4 Instrumentation In Thermal Plants

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Power Station instrumentation 4.3 Types Of Instruments 4.3.1 4.3.2 Indicator Recorders 32 32 33 33 34 34 31 31

4.4 Presentation of information 4.5 Coding of instruments 4.6 Selection Criteria of instruments 4.7 Concept of instrument in Thermal Power Station 4.8 Power Station instrumentation 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8.3 4.8.4 4.8.5 4.8.6 4.8.7 Temperature Measuring instruments Pressure Measuring instruments Level Measurement Flow Measurement Analytical instruments Data Acquisition and Data Logging Visual Display Unit (V.D.U.)

35 36 37 38 38 39 39

5 AUTOMATIC CONTROL
5.1 Introduction 5.2 AUTOMATION: the benefits 5.3 Control System Scheme 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 Proportional Control Integral Control Derivative Control Combination Of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control 43 45 45 46 46 41 42

5.4 Requirement of Control System

vii

6 Various Labs For Control And Instrumentation

6.1 Manometry Lab 6.2 Protection and Interlocking Lab 6.2.1 6.2.2 Relay Fuses 56 58 58 60 61 61 64

6.3 Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation Lab (TSI) 6.4 Pyrometry Lab 6.5 Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS)

7 Summary

67

8 Reference

70

viii

CHAPTER NO-1 ORGANISATION: AN INTRODUCTION

Thermal Power Stations require a number of equipments performing a number of complex processes with the ultimate aim to convert chemical energy of coal or oil to electrical energy. This involves the generation of steam in the boiler by burning coal and/or oil. The steam in turn drives the turbine. The generator coupled with the turbine produces electricity which is stepped up with the help of transformers and is fed into grid station through transmission lines.

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF P.T.P.S.:

Haryana Power Sector comprises four wholly State-owned Corporations viz. HPGCL, HVPNL, UHBVNL and DHBVNL which after unbundling of the HSEB in 1998 are responsible for power generation, transmission, distribution and trading in the State. The State power sector was restructured on August 14, 1998. The Haryana State Electricity Board (HSEB) was recognized initially into two State-owned Corporations namely Haryana Vidyut Prasaran Nigam Ltd. (HVPN) and Haryana Power Generation Corporation Ltd. (HPGCL). HPGCL was made responsible for operation and maintenance of States own power generating stations. HVPNL was entrusted the power transmission and distribution functions. The demand of Haryana is increasing exponentially @ more than 14 % per year on account of industrialization and more consumption on agriculture sector and also because of being part of National Capital Region. Panipat Thermal Power Station (PTPS) has a total installed generation capacity of 1367.8 MW comprising of four Units of 110 MW each( unit1 unrated to 117.8 MW during R&M) , two Units of 210 MW each and two Units of 250 MW each. As all the balance of plant facilities viz. Coal Handling Plant, Ash Handling Plant, Cooling towers, C.W. System are separate for 4x110 MW Unit 1 to 4 and are completely independent from Units 5 to 8. Keeping this in view and in order to improve the performance of the Plant and to have a better control, a need was felt to bifurcate PTPS into two Thermal Power Station i.e. PTPS-1, comprising of 4x110MW Units 1 to 4 and PTPS-2 comprising of 210MW /250MW Units 5 to 8.In this regard the Board of Directors in its 54th meeting held on 29.03.07, approved the proposal of bifurcation of Panipat Thermal Power Station, Panipat into two Thermal Power Stations i.e. PTPS-1, comprising of 4x110MW Units I 1

to IV and PTPS-2 comprising of 210MW / 250MW Units V to VIII. The matter was subsequently taken up with Central Electricity Authority (CEA), New Delhi for according approval of Government of India (Ministry of Power) regarding bifurcation of PTPS. CEA, New Delhi vide letter dated 16.10.07 have conveyed their acceptance to HPGCL proposal of bifurcation of Panipat Thermal Power Station into two Thermal Power Stations namely PTPS-1 and PTPS-2.

Panipat Thermal Power Station:-

Name and Address

Stage

Units

Capacity Date commissioning

of

Panipat Thermal Power Station, Village Assan, Jind road, Panipat. Phone: 0180-2561573 Fax: 0180-2566806

Stage-I

Unit-I Unit-II

117.8 MW 01.11.1979 110 MW 110 MW 110 MW 210 MW 210 MW 250 MW 250 MW 27.03.1980 01.11.1985 11.01.1987 28.03.1989 31.03.2001 28.09.2004 28.01.2005

Stage-II

Unit-III Unit-IV

Stage-III Stage-IV Stage-V Stage-VI

Unit-V Unit-VI Unit-VII Unit-VIII

Fig.No.1.1 (Capacity Of P.T.P.S.)

1.2 Salient Aspects Of P.T.P.S.1 In order to improve the performance of all the 4X110 MW Units of PTPS-1which are quite old and of obsolete technology, the Renovation & Modernization of these units has been started with the following objectives: To extend the life of the Units by 15 to 20 years To restore original rated capacity of the units. To improve Plant availability/load factor. To enhance operational efficiency and safety 2

To remove ash pollution and to meet up environmental standards. The R&M of Unit-1 & 2 has already been done by M/s BHEL which are now running at full capacity. The process of R&M of the Units 3 &4 is under consideration and shall be carried out shortly. With the completion of R&M, these old Units are expected to generate maximum cost effective electricity for the State of Haryana.

Year

Generation (MU)
2800.2 2377.6 2226.8 2566.6 2296.3

Plant Load Factor (%) PTPS-1

72.45 61.69 57.77 66.59 59.41

All

India

(110

MW

Group)
53.6 42.9 52.8 55.8 55.4

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08

Fig. No.1.2 (Power Generated By P.T.P.S.1)

Performance Of P.T.P.S.1

Fig.No.1.3 (Performance Of P.T.P.S.1)

1.3 Salient Aspects Of P.T.P.S.2: Panipat Thermal Power Station-2 (PTPS-2) has a total installed generation capacity of 920 MW comprising of two Units of 210 MW each and two Units of 250 MW each. PTPS-2 Generation (MU) 3149.1 3379.0 5908.9 7341.5 94.71 7564.9 Plant Load Factor (%) All India PTPS-2 (210 (Unit 5&6) Group) 85.59 79.4 80.14 85.75 91.48 79.8 79.2 82.4 83.0

Year

MW

PTPS-2 (Unit 7&8) 63.57 90.78 92.70

All India (250 Group) 86.5 90.2 87.7 93.7 88.8

MW

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08

Fig. No .1.4 (Power Generated By P.T.P.S.2)

Fig. No. 1.6 (Performance Of P.T.P.S.2) 4

CHAPTER NO-2 INPUTS OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

There are three major inputs or raw materials required for the type of thermal power station. These are: 1. WATER. 2. FUEL OIL. 3. COAL. 1. WATER: The raw water required for the thermal power station has been taken from WESTERN YAMUNA CANAL through a channel. This water is lifted by RAW WATER PUMPS and is fed into CLARIFIERS to remove the turbidity of the water. The clean water is stored in CLEAR WELLS, from there it is sent to WATER TREATMENT PLANTS, COOLING WATER SYSTEMS and SERVICE WATER SYSTEMS. The water in the WATER TREATMENT PLANT is FILTERED and DEMINERALISED. The filtered water is sent to PLANT and COLONY through plant and colony potable pumps. The DEMINERALISED WATER (D.M water) is stored in bulk storage tanks for use in boiler and turbine. The cooling water for condensation of steam is circulated with the help of CONDENSATE WATER (C.W) PUMPS through COOLING TOWERS. The hot water from the outlet of the condenser is sprayed in the cooling towers to reduce its temperature. Some part of it is used in cooling various auxiliaries in plant through BEARING COOLING WATER PUMPS. 2. FUEL OIL In this power house, three types of fuel oil are used, for preheating and at low load of the boiler due to less problems faced in ignition of oil rather than coal. These three types are: 1. HIGH SPEED DIESEL OIL. 2. HEAVY FURNANCE OIL. 3. LOW SULPHER HEAVY STOCK.

The high speed diesel oil reaches Power Station by LORRY TANKERS. The oil is decanted through pumps and is stored in BULK STORAGE TANKS. The H.F.O & L.S.H.S comes to site through rail tankers. As this oil is viscous, it is heated with steam and decanted with pumps. The oil is stored in bulk storage tanks with steam heating coils. H.F.O & L.S.H.S is burnt in the furnace of Boiler after atomizing with steam.

3. COAL: The coal reaches the Power Station in RAILWAY WAGONS. The daily consumption of coal in STAGE-I&II is about 3000 M Tonnes & for Stage-III, it is about 2500 M Tonnes. The

unloading of coal from railway wagons is done mechanically by tilting the wagon by WAGGON TIPPLER. The coal is then sent to COAL CRUSHER by conveyor belts. The crushed coal (about 20 mm) is sent either to coal mill bunkers or storage yard. The coal is also transported to coal bunkers from storage yard through conveyor belts when the coal wagons are not available. The crushed coal stock for 15 days to 1 month is kept in coal stock yard. The coal from the mill bunkers goes to coal mills through RAW COAL FEEDERS where it is further pulverized to powder form & is then transported to the furnace of the boiler with the help of PRESURED AIR from PRIMARY AIR (P.A.) FANS. In PTPS direct pressurized pulverized fuel firing system has been used. On an average, the daily consumption of coal at PTPS, Panipat and FTPS, Faridabad is around 21,500 MT and 2800 MT respectively, with all the Units running at rated capacity.

CHAPTER NO-3
GENERAL WORKING OF THERAM POWEER STATION:

Fig no. 3.1 (General Working Of Thermal Power Station)

There are basically three main units of a thermal power plant: 1. Steam Generator or Boiler 2. Steam Turbine 3. Electric Generator

Coal is conveyed from an external stack and ground to a very fine powder by large metal spheres in the pulverized fuel mill. There it is mixed with preheated air driven by the forced draught fan. The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is separated from any remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the drum into the pendant super heater where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to around 200 bar and 540C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The steam is piped to the high pressure turbine, the first of a threestage turbine process. A steam governor valve allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set-point following. The steam is exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature, is returned to the boiler re heater. The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate pressure turbine, and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set. The exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with cold water (pumped in from the cooling tower) in the condenser, where it condenses rapidly back into water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the condenser chest. The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump through a deaerator, and prewar med, first in a feed heater powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economizer, before being returned to the boiler drum. The cooling water from the condenser is sprayed inside a cooling tower, creating a highly visible plume of water vapor, before being pumped back to the condenser in cooling water cycle. The three turbine sets are sometimes coupled on the same shaft as the three-phase electrical generator which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV). This is stepped up by the unit transformed to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically 250-500 kV) and is sent out onto the three-phase transmission system. Exhaust gas from the boiler is drawn by the induced draft fan through an electrostatic precipitator and is then vented through the chimney stack.

3.1 Description For Boiler:

The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 ft (15 m) on a side and 130 ft (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (60 mm) in diameter.

3.1.1.Coal Cycle
Fuel Preparation System In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizes may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders. Fuel Firing System and Igniter System From the pulverized coal bin, coal is blown by hot air through the furnace coal burners at an angle which imparts a swirling motion to the powdered coal to enhance mixing of the coal powder with the incoming preheated combustion air and thus to enhance the combustion. The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. To provide sufficient combustion temperature in the furnace before igniting the powdered coal, the furnace temperature is raised by first burning some light fuel oil or processed natural gas (by using auxiliary burners and igniters provide for that purpose). Air Path External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air pre heater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall. The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases are handled by the ID fan, fine dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid atmospheric pollution. This is an environmental limitation prescribed by law, and additionally minimizes erosion of the ID fan. Bottom Ash Collection and Disposal At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has been provided for collection of the bottom ash from the bottom of the furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site.

3.1.2. OIL CYCLE In the oil cycle the oil is pumped and enters the boiler from four corners at three elevations. Oil guns are used which sprays the oil in atomized form along with steam so that it catches fire instantly. At each elevation and each corner there are separate igniters which ignite the fuel oil. There are flame sensors which sense the flame and send the information to the control room. 3.1.3. AIR & FLUE GAS CYCLE: For the proper combustion to take place in the boiler right amount of Oxygen or air is needed in the boiler. The air is provided to the furnace in two ways- PRIMARY AIR & SECONDARY AIR. Primary air is provided by P.A. fans and enters the boiler along with powdered coal from the mills. While the secondary air is pumped through FORCED DRAFT FANS better known as F.D Fans which are also two in numbers A&B. The outlet of F.D fans combine and are again divided into two which goes to Steam coiled Air pre heaters (S.C.A.P.H) A&B where its temperature is raised by utilizing the heat of waste steam. Then it goes to Air Pre heater-A&B where secondary air is heated further utilizing the heat of flue gases. The temperature of air is raised to improve the efficiency of the unit & for proper combustion in the furnace. Then this air is fed to the furnace. From the combustion chamber the flue gases travel to the upper portion of the boiler and give a portion of heat to the PLATIUM SUPER HEATER. Further up it comes in contact with the REHEATER and heats the steam which is inside the tubes of reheated. Then it travels horizontally and comes in contact with FINAL SUPER HEATER. After imparting the heat to the steam in super heater flue gases go downward to the ECONOMIZER to heat the cold water pumped by the BOILER FEED PUMPS (B.F.P.). These all are enclosed in the furnace. After leaving the furnace the flue gases go to the Air Heaters where more heat of the flue gases is extracted to heat primary and secondary air. Then it goes to the ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS (E.S.P.) Stage A&B where the suspended ash from the flue gases is removed by passing the flue gas between charged plates. Then, it comes the INDUCED DRAFT FAN (I.D. Fan) which sucks air from E.S.P. and releases it to the atmosphere through chimney. The pressure inside the boiler is kept suitably below the atmospheric pressure with the help of I.D. Fans so that the flame does not spread out of the openings of boiler and cause explosion. Further very low pressure in the boiler is also not desirable because it will lead to the Quenching of flame.

10

Fig No.3.2 (BOILER)

11

3.2 Boiler Furnace and Steam Drum: Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel. The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down the down comers to the lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has an internal device that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super heater coils.

STEAM WATER CYCLE

The most complex of all the cycles is the steam & water cycle. Steam is the working substance in the turbines in all the thermal and nuclear power plants. As there is very high temperature and pressure inside the boiler, initially water has to be pumped to a very high pressure. Water has also to be heated to a suitably high temperature before putting it inside the boiler so that cold water does not cause any problem. Initially cold water is slightly heated in low pressure heaters. Then it is pumped to a very high pressure of about 200 Kg/Cm2 by BOILER FEED PUMPS- A & B. After this it is further heated in high pressure heaters by taking the heat from the high 12

pressure steam coming from various auxiliaries and/or turbines. Then this water goes to the economizer where its temperature is further raised by the flue gases. This hot water then goes to the BOILER DRUM. In the boiler drum there is very high temperature and pressure. It contains a saturated mixture of boiling water and steam which are in equilibrium. The water level in the boiler is maintained between certain limit. From here relatively cold water goes down to the water header situated at the bottom, due to difference in density. Then this cold water rises gradually in the tubes of the boiler on being heated. The tubes are in the form of water walls. These tubes combine at the top in the hot water header. From here the hot water and steam mixture comes back to the boiler drum completing the small loop. From the boiler drum hot steam goes to PLATIUM SUPER HEATER situated in the upper portion of the boiler. Here the temperature of the steam is increased. Then it goes to the FINAL SUPER HEATER.

3.3 ELECTRIC GENERATOR:

The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated. Barring Gear (or Turning Gear) Barring gear is the term used for the mechanism provided for rotation of the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed (about one revolution per minute) after unit stoppages for any reason. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the turbine steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine starts slowing or "coasting down". When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This deflection is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, thus making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore warps or bends by millionths of inches, only detectable by monitoring eccentricity meters. 13

Condenser The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non condensable air into the closed loop must be prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning. Feed water Heater A Ranking cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed water heater. In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapor to liquid. The heat content (btu) in the steam is referred to as Enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feed water heater. The feed water heating equipment then raises the temperature of the water by utilizing extraction steam from various stages of the turbine. Super heater As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The areas known as super heater and reheater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves of the high pressure turbine.

14

3.3.1Steam Turbine:
THE turbine is a three cylinder machine with HIGH PRESSURE (H.P), INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE (I.P) & LOW PRESSURE (L.P) casings taking efficiency into the account .The turbine speed is controlled by HYDRO DYNAMIC GOVERNING SYSTEM.

Fig No. 3.3 (A view of Turbine) The three turbines are on the same shaft which is coupled with GENERATOR

3.3.2 GENERATORS
.

The generator is equipped with D.C EXCITATION SYSTEM. The steam from the final super heater comes by MAIN STEAM LINE to the H.P turbine. After doing work in the H.P Turbine its Temperature is reduced. It is sent back to the boiler by COLD REHEAT LINE to the REHEATER. Here its temperature is increased and is sent to the I.P turbine through HOT REHEAT LINE. After doing work in the I.P turbine steam directly enters L.P turbine. The pressure of L.P turbine is maintained very low in order to reduce the condensation point of 15

steam. The outlet of L.P turbine is connected with condenser. In the condenser, arrangement is made to cool the steam to water. This is done by using cold water which is made to flow in tubes. This secondary water which is not very pure gains heat from steam & becomes hot. This secondary water is sent to the cooling towers to cool it down so that it may be reused for cooling. The water thus formed in the condenser is sucked by CONDENSATE WATER PUMPS (C.W. PUMPS) and is sent to deaerator.

Fig. No. 3.4 (Steam to Mechanical Power)

16

The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from the shaft of the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore a generator is actually a rotating mechanical energy converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is converted by means of a rotating magnetic field produced by direct current in the copper winding of the rotor or field, which generates three-phase alternating currents and voltages in the copper winding of the stator (armature). The stator winding is connected to terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system for delivery of the output power to the system. The class of generator under consideration is steam turbine-driven generators, commonly called turbo generators. These machines are generally used in nuclear and fossil fueled power plants, co-generation plants, and combustion turbine units. They range from relatively small machines of a few Megawatts (MW) to very large generators with ratings up to 1900 MW. The generators particular to this category are of the two- and four-pole design employing round-rotors, with rotational operating speeds of 3600 and 1800 rpm in North America, parts of Japan, and Asia (3000 and 1500 rpm in Europe, Africa, Australia, Asia, and South America). At Panipat Thermal Power Station 3000 rpm, 50 Hz generators are used of capacities 210 MW and 95 MW. As the system load demands more active power from the generator, more steam (or fuel in a combustion turbine) needs to be admitted to the turbine to increase power output. Hence more energy is transmitted to the generator from the turbine, in the form of a torque. This torque is mechanical in nature, but electromagnetically coupled to the power system through the generator. The higher the power output, the higher the torque between turbine and generator. The power output of the generator generally follows the load demand from the system. Therefore the voltages and currents in the generator are continually changing based on the load demand. The generator design must be able to cope with large and fast load changes, which show up inside the machine as changes in mechanical forces and temperatures. The design must therefore incorporate electrical current-carrying materials (i.e., copper), magnetic flux-carrying materials (i.e., highly permeable steels), insulating materials (i.e., organic), structural members (i.e., steel and organic), and cooling media (i.e., gases and liquids), all working together under the operating conditions of a turbo generator. Since the turbo generator is a synchronous machine, it operates at one very specific speed to produce a constant system frequency of 50 Hz, depending on the frequency of the grid to which it is connected. As a synchronous machine, a turbine generator employs a 17

steady magnetic flux passing radially across an air gap that exists between the rotor and the stator. (The term air gap) is commonly used for air- and gas-cooled machines)

STATOR The stator winding is made up of insulated copper conductor bars that are distributed around the inside diameter of the stator core, commonly called the stator bore, in equally spaced slots in the core to ensure symmetrical flux linkage with the field produced by the rotor. Each slot contains two conductor bars, one on top of the other. These are generally referred to as top and bottom bars. Top bars are the ones nearest the slot opening (just under the wedge) and the bottom bars are the ones at the slot bottom. The core area between slots is generally called a core tooth. The stator winding is then divided into three phases, which are almost always wyes connected. Wyes connection is done to allow a neural grounding point and for relay protection of the winding. The three phases are connected to create symmetry between them in the 360 degree arc of the stator bore. The distribution of the winding is done in such a way as to produce a 120 degree difference in voltage peaks from one phase to the other, hence the term three-phase voltage. Each of the three phases may have one or more parallel circuits within the phase. The parallels can be connected in series or parallel, or a combination of both if it is a four-pole generator. This will be discussed in the next section. The parallels in all of the phases are essentially equal on average, in their performance in the machine. Therefore, they each see equal voltage and current, magnitudes and phase angles, when averaged over one alternating cycle. ROTOR The rotor winding is installed in the slots machined in the forging main body and is distributed symmetrically around the rotor between the poles. The winding itself is made up of many turns of copper to form the entire series connected winding. All of the turns associated with a single slot are generally called a coil. The coils are wound into the winding slots in the forging, concentrically in corresponding positions on opposite sides of a pole. The series connection essentially creates a single multi-turn coil overall, that develops the total ampere-turns of the rotor (which is the total current flowing in the rotor winding times the total number of turns). There are numerous copper-winding designs employed in generator rotors, but all rotor windings function basically in the same way. They are configured differently for different methods of heat 18

removal during operation. In addition almost all large turbo generators have directly cooled copper windings by air or hydrogen cooling gas. Cooling passages are provided within the conductors themselves to eliminate the temperature drop across the ground insulation and preserve the life of the insulation material. In an axially cooled winding, the gas passes through axial passages in the conductors, being fed from both ends, and exhausted to the air gap at the axial center of the rotor. In other designs, radial passages in the stack of conductors are fed from sub slots machined along the length of the rotor at the bottom of each slot. In the air gap pickup method, the cooling gas is picked up from the air gap, and cooling is accomplished over a relatively short length of the rotor, and then discharged back to the air gap. The cooling of the end-regions of the winding varies from design to design, as much as that of the slot section. In smaller turbine generators the indirect cooling method is used (similar to indirectly cooled stator windings), where the heat is removed by conduction through the ground insulation to the rotor body. The winding is held in place in the slots by wedges, in a similar manner as the stator windings. The difference is that the rotor winding loading on the wedges is far greater due to centrifugal forces at speed. The wedges therefore are subjected to a tremendous static load from these forces and bending stresses because of the rotation effects. The wedges in the rotor are not generally a tight fit in order to accommodate the axial thermal expansion of the rotor winding during operation.

BEARINGS All turbo generators require bearings to rotate freely with minimal friction and vibration. The main rotor body must be supported by a bearing at each end of the generator for this purpose. In some cases where the rotor shaft is very long at the excitation end of the machine to accommodate the slip/collector rings, a steady bearing is installed outboard of the slip collector rings. This ensures that the excitation end of the rotor shaft does not create a wobble that transmits through the shaft and stimulates excessive vibration in the overall generator rotor or the turbo generator line.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS All large generators require auxiliary systems to handle such things as lubricating oil for the rotor bearings, hydrogen cooling apparatus, hydrogen sealing oil, de-mineralized water for stator 19

winding cooling, and excitation systems for field-current application. Not all generators require all these systems and the requirement depends on the size and nature of the machine. For instance, air cooled turbo generators do not require hydrogen for cooling and therefore no sealing oil as well. On the other hand, large generators with high outputs, generally above 400 MVA, have water-cooled stator windings, hydrogen for cooling the stator core and rotor, seal oil to contain the hydrogen cooling gas under high pressure, lubricating oil for the bearings, and of course, an excitation system for field current. There are five major auxiliary systems that may be used in a generator. They are given as follows: 1. Lubricating Oil System 2. Hydrogen Cooling System 3. Seal Oil System 4. Stator Cooling Water System 5. Excitation System PROTECTION The protection system of any modern electric power grid is the most crucial function in the system. Protection is a system because it comprises discrete devices (relays, communication means, etc.) and an algorithm that establishes a coordinated method of operation among the protective devices. This is termed coordination. Thus, for a protective system to operate correctly, both the settings of the individual relays and the coordination among them must be right. Wrong settings might result in no protection to the protected equipment and systems, and improper coordination might result in unwarranted loss of production. The key function of any protective system is to minimize the possibility of physical damage to equipment due to a fault anywhere in the system or from abnormal operation of the equipment (over speed, under voltage, etc.). However, the most critical function of any protective scheme is to safeguard those persons who operate the equipment that produces, transmits, and utilizes electricity. Protective systems are inherently different from other systems in a power plant (or for that matter any other place where electric power is present). They are called to operate seldom, and when they are, it is crucial they do so flawlessly. One problem that arises from protective systems being activated not often is that they are sometimes overlooked. This is a recipe for disaster. The most common 20

reason for catastrophic failure of equipment in power systems is failure to operate or missoperation of protective systems.

Deaerator

Fig No. 3.5 (A view of Deaerator)

A suitable water level is maintained in the hot well of condenser. Water or steam leakages from the system are compensated by the makeup water, line from storage tanks which are connected to the condenser. The pressure inside condenser is automatically maintained less then atmospheric pressure and large volume of steam condense here to form small volume of water. In the Deaerator the water is sprayed to small droplets & the air dissolved in it is removed so that it may not cause trouble at high temperatures in the Boiler. Moreover, the water level which is 21

maintained constant in the Deaerator also acts as a constant water head for the BOILER FEED PUMPS. Water from Deaerator goes to the Boiler feed pumps after the heated by L.P. Heaters. Thus the water cycle in the boiler is completed and water is ready for another new cycle. This is a continuous and repetitive process.

The major steam parameters for boilers under 4*110MW and 1*210 MW are as under:

110 MW ----MAIN STEAM TEMPERATURE (Degree centigrade) MAIN STEAM PRESSURE (Kg/Cm2) STEAM FLOW (MT/hr) The major parameters for turbine and generator (TG) are: SPEED (RPM) 3000 375 138 540

210 MW -----540

155

680

GENERATING VOLTAGE (KV)

11 for 4x110 MW 15.75 for 1x210 MW

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3.4 Cooling tower as a flue gas stack:

Fig No. 3.6 (Cooling Tower)

Fig No.3.7 (Base of a cooling tower with falling water) At some modern power stations, equipped with flue gas purification like the Power Station, Panipat cooling tower is also used as a flue gas stack (industrial chimney). At plants without flue gas purification, problems with corrosion may occur. Wet cooling tower material balance:

Fig. No. 3.8 (Cooling Tower System)

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Quantitatively, the material balance around a wet, evaporative cooling tower system is governed by the operational variables of makeup flue rate, evaporation windage losses, draw-off rate, and the concentration cycles.

C D E W X XM XC

= Circulating water in m/h = Draw-off water in m/h = Evaporated water in m/h = Windage loss of water in m/h = Concentration in ppmw(of any completely soluble salts usually chlorides) = Concentration of chlorides in make-up water (M), in ppmw = Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C), in ppmw

Cycles = Cycles of concentration = XC / XM (dimensionless) = parts per million by weight ppmw

In the above sketch, water pumped from the tower basin is the cooling water routed through the process coolers and condensers in an industrial facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the hot process streams which need to be cooled or condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the top of the cooling tower and trickles downward over the fill material inside the tower. As it trickles down, it contacts ambient air rising up through the tower either by natural draft or by forced draft using large fans in the tower. That contact causes a small amount of the water to be lost as windage (W) and some of the water (E) to evaporate. The heat required to evaporate the water is derived from the water itself, which cools the water back to the original basin water temperature and the water is then ready to recalculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved salts behind in the bulk of the water which has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is

24

drawn off (D) for disposal. Fresh water makeup (M) is supplied to the tower basin to compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-off water.

3.5 ELECTRIC MOTORS:

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse process that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some electric and hybrid automobiles often performs both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with dynamic brakes. Categorization of Electric Motors The classic division of electric motors has been that of Direct Current (DC) types vs. Alternating Current (AC) types. The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation of. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control. There is a clearer distinction between a synchronous motor and asynchronous types. In the synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or current (e.g. permanent magnet motors). In contrast, an asynchronous motor is designed to slip; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip in order to generate torque. At Panipat Thermal Power Station, Haryana, mostly AC motors are employed for various purposes. We had to study the two types of AC Motors viz. Synchronous Motors and Induction Motor. The motors have been explained further. 3.5.1 AC Motor: An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first is the synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a sub multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or a by a permanent magnet. The second type is the induction motor, which 25

turns slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current.

3.5.2 Synchronous Motor: A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip in order to produce torque. Sometimes a synchronous motor is used, not to drive a load, but to improve the power factor on the local grid it's connected to. It does this by providing reactive power to or consuming reactive power from the grid. In this case the synchronous motor is called a Synchronous condenser. Electrical power plants almost always use synchronous generators because it's very important to keep the frequency constant at which the generator is connected. Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors: Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied. Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, e.g. Stepper motors. They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor windings. Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus). 3.5.3 Induction Motor: An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an AC motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes

26

called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives. Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, lack of brushes (which are needed in most DC Motors) and thanks to modern power electronics the ability to control the speed of the motor. Construction The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current that induces a magnetic field in the conductor. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6 etc). There are two types of rotor: 1. Squirrel-cage rotor 2. Slip ring rotor The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are connected through a ring at each end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics. The motor's phase type is one of two types: 1. Single-phase induction motor 2. 3-phase induction motor

Principle of Operation The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is that in the latter a current is supplied onto the rotor. This then creates a magnetic field which, through magnetic interaction, links to the rotating magnetic field in the stator which in turn causes the rotor to turn. It is called synchronous because at steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. By way of contrast, the induction motor does not have any direct supply onto the rotor; instead, a secondary current is induced in the rotor. To achieve this, stator windings are arranged around the rotor so that when energized with a polyphase supply they create a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor. This

27

changing magnetic field pattern can induce currents in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the stator and the rotor will turn. However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor and the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else the magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re-induced and then the rotor continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It has no unit and the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor to the speed of the rotating field. Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.

3.6 TRANSFORMERS Transformer is a static electronic device which is used for the transmission of electrical energy at constant frequency through magnetic coupling. Principle When voltage is applied to primary of the transformer, a magnetic flux sets up, the voltage is induced in primary winding by self induction. This flux also links with the secondary of the transformer & a voltage is induced in the secondary winding by mutual inductance. Construction Two types of constructions are mainly employed in the transformer construction. The transformer core is made of laminated silicon steel lamination to avoid eddy current & hysteresis losses. a. Core type construction:- In this type the core is made of two vertical limbs & two horizontal yokes. The primary winding is wounded over the yoke & the secondary winding is wounded over it. Two windings form a concentrated winding. b. Shell type construction: - In shell type construction the core consists of three limbs & two horizontal yokes. The LV & HV windings are placed alternately on the central limb & form sandwiched winding. It is not easy to dismantle shell type winding for repair and core type winding offers more natural cooling.

28

Insulation The winding is dipped into varnish to provide insulation. The transformer oil used for cooling also provides insulation for the winding. Two type of insulation are mainly employed:a. Major insulation b. Minor insulation Transformer AccessoriesThe following accessories are associated with the transformer a. OIL RESERVER b. BREATHER c. BUCHHOLTZ RELAY d. MARSHALLING BOX e. RADIATOR AND FAN

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CHAPTER-4 INSTRUMENTATION IN THERMAL PLANTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Thermal Power Stations employ a great number of equipments performing number of complex processes the ultimate aim being the conversion of chemical energy into Electricity. In order to have stable generating conditions, always a balance is maintained between the Heat in-put and Electricity output plus losses. But the balance is frequently disturbed due to (i) grid disturbance external to the process and machines, (ii) the troubles in the process itself or (iii) the trouble in the equipments. When the balance is disturbed, all the process variables deviate from their normal valves thus creating the necessity for the following:I. Instruments : To measure and indicate the amount of deviations.

II.

Automatic Control: To correct the deviation and bring back the system to normal.

III.

Annunciation

To warn about the

excessive deviations, if any.

IV.

Protection

To isolate the equipments process from dangerous operating

conditions caused due to such excessive deviations.

4.2.

POWER STATION INSTRUMENTATION:

The proportionate cost of instrumentation during seventies was about 2.3 to 2.5% of the total cost of boiler, turbine and their Auxiliaries. When the unit size were 60/100MW turbine But this has become about 7% when the unit size has become 210MW and is expected to reach about 1012% of even higher in the near future for the same capacity units. This increase in instrumentation cost is due to

30

Increase in installed capacity making the units to operate at higher parameter for economic reasons. New innovations, improvements, modernization of instruments and equipments. Expected change in the duty cycles of the boiler and turbine facilitating two shift operation, quick run up etc. Improved awareness among the personnel about the utility of the instruments. 4.3 TYPE OF INSTRUMENTS: The emphasis is only on the process instrumentation measuring the physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, level flow etc. The other type of instruments is the electrical instruments, measuring electrical quantities such as current, voltage etc. The different type of instruments normally in use is given below: 4.3..1 INDICATORS

Indicators are of two categories local indicators are self contained, self operative and are mounted at site. The remote indicators are used for telemeter purposes and mounted in the centralized control room or control panel. The indicators both local and remote are sometimes provided with signaling contacts where ever required. The remote indicators depend upon electricity, electronics, pneumatic or hydraulic system for their operation and accordingly they are named. The indicators can be classified as analogue or digital on the basis of final display of the reading. Indicators are available for single point measurement or can be connected to a number of points through a selectors switch or automatic scanner system. This multipoint system considerably reduces the number of instruments without affecting the measurements much.

4.3..2

RECORDERS

Recorders are necessary where ever the operating history is required for analyzing the trends and for any future case studies or efficiency purposes. Recorders can be of single point measuring a single parameter or multipoint measuring a number of parameters by a single instrument. Multipoint recorders are again categorized as multipoint continuous recorders/multipoint dot recorders. The multipoint dot recorders select the point one after the other in sequence where as the continuous recorders measure simultaneously all the points.

31

4.4 PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION Enormous amount of information measured and received from the various parts of the plants/process are to be presented to the operators giving appropriate importance to each one. In order to have an easy and effective presentation, the informations are generally grouped into the following three groups. 4.4.1 Vital information which are required by operators at all times for the safe operation of the plant. These informations are presented through single point indicator recorder, placed on the front panels. Main stream pressure, temperature condenser level, vacuum, drum, furnace pressure etc. are some such parameter. 4.4.2 The second group of informations are generally not vital under the normal operation of the plant. But they become vital whenever some sections of the plant start malfunctioning. Such needs are met through multipoint indicators/recorders placed in the front panels. Temperature and draft across the flue gas path bearing temperatures of the motors of fans etc. are some such examples. The last group of informations are not required by the operators but for the occasional

4.4.3

need of the efficiency engineers. These informations are given by recorders mounted on back panels or local panels. D.M. makes up quantity, fuel oil flow quantities etc. are some examples.

4.5. CODING OF INSTRUMENTS In order to distinguish the parameters required from the other instantly, coding for shape of instrument face is being adopted. This is a useful practice and invariably finds place in power stations. However coding may vary as per the practices of the organization. A general approach could be as below:

Level instruments

Horizontal edgewise Horizontal edgewise Circular. 32

Temperature instruments Pressure instruments

4.6. SELECTION CRITERIA OF INSTRUMENTS Instrument engineers are required to work in close association with the system design requirement as well as the equipment design requirement in selecting instruments and sensing systems. After deciding the capacity of the Thermal Power station the designs of boiler turbine and auxiliary equipments such as mills, pumps, fans deaerator, feed heaters etc. are taken up. Based on the design of the main and auxiliary equipments, the parameters values for efficient and economic operation at determined load are specified. The instruments and system design engineers decide the location for the measurement of various parameters such as level, pressure, flow differential pressure, temperature and other parameters based on the system design and layout conditions. Then the instruments engineers select the appropriate instruments influenced by the following factors: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) Required accuracy of measurement Range of measurement The form of final data display required Process media Cost Calibration and repair facilities required/available Layout restrictions Maintenance requirements/availability

4.7. CONCEPT OF INSTRUMENT IN THERMAL POWER STATION The concepts of instrumentation are that: Instruments should be independent for their working. The total instrumentation should be inter-dependent to each other in assessing the process condition. Instrumentations should be sufficient to provide adequate informations to the operators for : a) Cold start of the unit b) Warm/hot start of the unit

33

c) Shut down both planned and emergency shutdown.

4.8 POWER STATION INSTRUMENTATION

The process conditions and the equipment conditions are to be assessed by the operators from the informations received from the various instruments. The instruments and range vary widely as per the process media. The following section deals with these instruments. The inter dependence and inter relations of these instrument play very significant role in the stability and the efficiency of the heat balance. 4.8.1 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Accurate measurement of temperature is required to assess the material fatigue, heat balance, heat transfer etc. The measurement ranges varies from ambient temperatures where as air inlet to F.D fan is measured, to 2300 to 1400 degree centigrade inside the furnace zone. Temperature measurement is to be made in many medias such as, water/steam, oil (Fuel oil and lubricating oil), air, flue gases, hydrogen gas, metal temperatures of bearing, turbine top and bottom, generator winding and cores, SD.H. tube metal etc. Filled system thermometry such as mercury in glass, mercury in steel, vapor filled or gas filled are used for local indication of temperature, bimetallic thermometers can also be used for local indication. The selection of thermometer depends upon the range of the temperatures to be measured. These instruments are available with electrical contacts for setting up annunciation and protection system wherever required.

Resistance thermometers or thermocouples are used as primary sensors in remote measurement of temperature depending upon the range. Resistance thermometers are of platinum and copper resistance type. Platinum resistance thermometers are calibrated to have resistance value of either 46 ohms or 100 ohms at 0 degree centigrade. While copper resistance thermometers have a value 53 ohms at 0 degree centigrade. The secondary instruments used in conjunction are cross coil indicators or electronic bridges. These instruments indicate temperature by measuring the value of resistance which changes with the change in temperature. Resistance thermometers are used generally up to 300 degree centigrade. Above 300 degree centigrade, thermocouples are used as primary sensors. The common type of thermocouples used in thermal power plant is 34

Chromel-Alumel or Chromel-copel type depending upon the temperature. Iron-Constantan is another thermocouple in use. The secondary instruments used in thermocouple sensors are pyrometric mill volt meters or electronic potentiometers. Null balance method is used for the very accurate measurement of mill volts generated by thermocouples sensing the process temperature. The electronic bridges and potentiometers can be either indicators or indicator cum recorders with alarm protection contacts and with remote transmission facilities.

4.8.2 PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The pressure measurement in Thermal Power Station ranges from 1 Kg/Cm2 (nearly) at condenser to hydraulic test pressure of the boiler. Here again many medias exist such as steam/water, lubricating oil, fuel oil, air, flue gases, hydrogen etc. For local indication of pressure, mainly two types of pressure gauges are employed in the plant. 1. Bourdon Type 2. Diaphragm Type

1. BOURDEN TYPE GAUGES: These gauges are employed for the measurement of higher pressure. These gauges are employed for the measurement of higher pressure Burdon gauges measure the difference between the system pressure inside the tube and atmospheric pressure. It relies on the deformation of a bent hollow tube of suitable material which, when subjected to the pressure to be measured on the inside (and atmospheric pressure on the outside), tends to unbend. His moves a pointer through a suitable gear-and- lever mechanism against a calibrated scale.

2. DIAPHRAM TYPE GUAGES:In such gauges, there is a diaphragm which expends or contracts as pressure increase or decreases which in turn is converted to angular movement of the pointer and is shown on the scale. Diaphragm gauges are more sensitive than the former type of gauges and so these are used to measure low pressure. In addition to these gauges there are U types.

35

If Z is the difference in heights of fluid columns in the two limbs of the U tube (fig b-1 and b-2) and d the density of the fluid and g the acceleration due to gravity, then from the elementary principle of hydrostatics, the gauge pressure Pg is given by Pg = Z.d.g. N/m2

The pressure measured by any type of pressure gauge is known as gauge pressure and the pressure relative to a perfect vacuum is called absolute pressure. Absolute Pressure= Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

Remote measurements of pressure are done by transmitters either electronic or pneumatic coupled with a secondary instrument indicator/ recorder. Many varieties of transmitters are in use. In these transmitters the mechanical movement of sensing elements such as bourdon, bellows, diaphragm etc. due to the pressure, causes an electrical property to change such as current. Voltage, resistance capacitance, reluctance inductance etc. which is utilized as a measure of pressure in the secondary instruments. The secondary instruments are either indicators or

recorders which may incorporate signally contacts.

4.8.3. LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Level measurement is generally carried out as differential pressure measurement. In power stations, level measurement in open tanks such as D.M. storage tank and fuel oil and lub oil tanks and is closed tanks such as deaerator, condenser hot well, boiler drum and L.P. & H.P. heaters are to make. Gauge glasses and floats are used for local indication of levels and the transmitters used for measuring the differential pressures are used along with the secondary instruments for remote level measurements. The measurement of boiler drum level poses many problems because of varying pressure and temperatures and many computations and corrections are to be made in order to get correct levels. A recent development in this area is the `HYDRA STEP'. Though it is very costly but it improves the accuracy and reliability of this measurement. Other problem area is the solid level measurement where the coal bunker levels and dust collector hopper level are required. In both these cases continuous level measurement is not possible. However fairly reliable and accurate provisions are available to indicate the extreme levels on 36

either directions (low or high). The nucleonic level gauges or the capacitance and resistance type sensors serve in this area very well.

4.8.4. FLOW MEASUREMENT Flow measurement of solids, liquids, liquids and gases are required in Thermal Power Stations. Though the liquid flow measurements are made very accurately, the gas flow measurement cannot be done accurately whereas steam flow measurement requires density correction under varying pressures. The air and flue gas flow measurement suffer accuracy and reliability due to variation in pressure, temperature, duct leakage, dust accumulation etc. The solid flow measurement is very difficult and only a rough idea is arrived at about the P.F. flow through differential means. In power stations flow measurements are based on differential Principles. Differential Pressure is created by placing suitable throttling devices in the flow path of the fluids in the pipes/ducts. The throttling devices are suitably selected depending upon the media, flow quantity etc. from among orifice, venture, flow nozzle ball tube etc. The differential pressure developed across such sensing devices in proportional to the square of the flow quantity. The differential pressure is measured by the devices discussed in 8 with additional square root extraction facilities.

4.8.5 ANALYTICAL INSTRTUMENTS Apart from the above there are few quantity measurements necessary in thermal power generating plants of high capacities. These include feed water quality measuring instruments

such as conductivity PH dissolved oxygen, and sodium instruments, steam quality measuring instruments such as conductivity, silica and HP analyzers. The combustion quality is assessed by the measurement of the percentage of oxygen, carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide in the flue gases. The purity of hydrogen inside in the generator housing is measured by utilizing the thermal conducting capacity of the hydrogen gas. The water and steam purity is measured as the electrolytic conductivity by electronic bridge method in which one arm from the electrodes of conductivity cell dipped into the medium. The volume percentages of oxygen in combustion gases are made utilizing the paramagnetic properties of oxygen. The carbon mono oxide percentage is measured by the `ABSORPTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION' 37

Principle. Both these gas analyzers require elaborate sampling and sample conditioning system resulting in poor reliability and availability of these measurements. Recent developments in these fields have brought out on line `in situ' instruments for these two parameters where the problem of sampling is dispensed with. The `ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS' as the above instruments are called had been the neglected lot so far in the power stations. But now the authorities seem to think their importance for the process.

4.8.6. DATA ACQUISITION AND DATA LOGGING The conventional central control room is rather a cumbersome system. Large number of instrument must be observed to know what is happening inside the plant. The Data Acquisition simplifies this job by collecting all the measurements transmitted from the process, converting them into digital term and storing in the memory bank. The periodic loggings of parameter by the operators are dispensed with after the introduction of data acquisition system which prints out the periodic conditions on predetermined time intervals. All the important measurements at one time are printed along a row. Data loggers thus reduce the use of graphical recorders. Since data logging gives too many measurements at a time, it cannot be easily digested by the control staff. Now data reduction systems are finding their use where only the process quantity deviated from normal value is shown.

4.8.7 VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (V.D.U.) Visual display units go along with the data acquisition system. In V.D.U. pre-selected schemes, flow paths with parameters, running alarm conditions etc. can be brought on color television tubes on demands. This gives the life picture of the happening inside the plant making the operation easy and effective.

Fig no. 4.1 (VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT) 38

TESTING AND CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GUAGES: 1) Comparison method 2) Dead weight method

1. COMPARISION METHOD In this method inside the tubes there is oil. There are two outlets on the tube, on one outlet, master gauge (accurate) is applied and on the other end the gauge to be checked or calibrated is applied. Valve No.1 and 2 are opened. Oil from chamber connected to valve 1(Chamber 1 say) goes to chamber connected to valve 2 (say chamber 2). Now tighten the valve 1 so that on tightening valve the oil should not reenter chamber 1 rather goes to the two gauges. Now valve 2 is steadily tightened so that the pressure shown by both the gauges should be exactly equal. In this way the gauge can be checked or calibrated. 2. DEAD WEIGHT METHOD This method is more accurate than the former one. The basic principle of its working is almost same as that of former one. Here instead of employing a master gauge, we use weights placed on a pan. The master gauge may be wrong but weights are always correct so this is more accurate method.

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CHAPTER-5 AUTOMATIC CONTROL

POWER PLANT CONTROL

UNIT CONTROL

BOILER

TURBINE

GENERATOR

Fig No. 5.1 (UNIT CONTROL)

5.1

Introduction

The word automation is widely used today in relation to various types of applications, such as office automation, plant or process automation. This subsection presents the application of a control system for the automation of a process / plant, such as a power station. In this last application, the automation actively controls the plant during the three main phases of operation: plant start-up, power generation in stable or put During plant start-up and shut-down, sequence controllers as well as long range modulating controllers in or out of operation every piece of the plant, at the correct time and in coordinated modes, taking into account safety as well as overstressing limits. During stable generation of power, the modulating portion of the automation system keeps the actual generated power value within the limits of the desired load demand. During major load changes, the automation system automatically redefines new set points and switches ON or OFF process pieces, to automatically bring the individual processes in an optimally coordinated way 40

to the new desired load demand. This load transfer is executed according to pre- programmed adaptively controlled load gradients and in a safe way. 5.2 AUTOMATION: THE BENEFITS The main benefits of plant automation are to increase overall plant availability and efficiency. The increase of these two factors is achieved through a series of features summarized as follows: Optimization of house load consumption during plant start- up, shut-down and operation, via: Faster plant start-up through elimination of control errors creating delays. Faster sequence of control actions compared to manual ones. Even a well- trained operator crew would probably not be able to bring the plant to full load in the same time without considerable risks. Co-ordination of house load to the generated power output.

Ensure and maintain plant operation, even in case of disturbances in the control system, via: Coordinated ON / OFF and modulating control switchover capability from a sub process to a redundant one. Prevent sub-process and process tripping chain reaction following a process component trip. Reduce plant / process shutdown time for repair and maintenance as well as repair costs, via: Protection of individual process components against overstress (in a stable or unstable plant operation). Bringing processes in a safe stage of operation, where process components are protected against overstress

5.3 Control System Scheme

An automatic control scheme compares a control condition value with a desired value and automatically corrects any deviation. There are three basic types of controls and they are as follows: 1. PROPORTIONAL 2. INTEGERAL 3. DERIVATIVE 41

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

MEASUREMENT CLOSE-LOOP CONTROL PROTECTION

MONITORING

OPEN-LOOP CONTROL

Fig no. 5.2 (Proportional Control)

5.3.1 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL This type of control is used where the deviation is not very large or the deviation is not sudden. The control gives a change in regulator position which is directly proportional to a change in conditions. The regulator position is directly related to the deviation and for every controlled condition value there is a regulator position which is dependent upon the control sensitivity. The regulator takes up a position tending to reduce the deviation, the amount of excursion from its initial setting being dependent upon the sensitivity setting. If the deviation is increasing rapidly the regulator will apply the correction rapidly. The regulator position resulting from a deviation of the variable from a desired value depends upon the position it occupies when there is no deviation. The range of values of the variable. Scale of the instrument to move the regulator through its full travel. The desired value indicator is normally set between 50% & 75% scaled range position, with the proportional band balanced 42

equally on the either side. The regulator movement is tied rigidly in proportion to the deviations of the measuring index from the desired value. If the load changes, the measuring index will move away from the desired value and the regulator will move proportionally in an attempt to correct for this deviation. If the deviation is within the range of the regulator, the regulator will assume a new position and the measured value will again be under control but at a different value. The amount by which the controlled condition deviates from the desired value is the offset, and it depends on the amount of load change and the proportional band setting. To correct the offset condition the relative positions of the desired value and the proportional band must be altered, without changing the value of the proportional band. This is affected by resetting the desired value indicator by an amount equal and opposite to the offset. The measured variable will then return to, and be controlled at the desired value. The desired value indicator will no longer be displaying the true desired value. As a high proportional sensitivity (narrow proportional band) enables the regulator to move a large amount for a very small deviation, it is possible to reduce the offset to negligible amount if a sufficiently small proportional band is permissible. Normally, the proportional band must be made wide to avoid hunting or instability, so as alternative method of deviating offset must sometimes be used (proportional plus integral control). Another effect of increasing the proportional band is to increase the period of cycling, so that the initial deviation becomes larger. The offset also becomes larger and it is, therefore, important that the proportional band of a controller be set to the very minimum that is consistent with stable recovery. Proportional control is used where Load changes are small Offset can be tolerated The process reaction rate is such as to permit a narrow P.O. since this reduces the amount of offset.

43

5.3.2 INTEGERAL CONTROL With Integral Control the controller is only at rest when the controlled condition is at the desired value. The regulator moves, when there is a deviation, in a direction which applies correction and continues to move until either the extreme regulator position is reached or the variable returns to the desired value. The speed of movement of the regulator is directly proportional to the amount of deviation, and can be adjusted to give any required speed per unit deviation. This adjustment is known as Integral Action Time adjustment. The speed of regulator movement is related to the amount of deviation and not, as in proportional control, to the rate of deviation. For certain integral action time sensitivity the speed of travel of the regulator for a one unit deviation is half the speed of travel for a two unit deviator. The term "integral" is derived from the mathematical consideration of this type of control. Integral calculus considers the sum of an infinite number of small increments; the actual regulator position at any instant is dependent on the amount of deviation and the time for which the deviation has been maintained. Integral control can be used in a system but dead-time results in a sustained hunting unless the sensitivity is drastically reduced. The system's main attribute is that the regulator position is not rigidly tied to the set point. Therefore, if used with proportional control, integral control provides automatic elimination of offset. Integral action is used where Offset must be eliminated Integral saturation due to sustained deviation is not objectionable

5.3.3 DERIVATIVE CONTROL Using this control the regulator is not influenced by the desired value but moves in accordance with the direction and with rate of change of the deviation. If the change in the variable is a sudden step movement, its rate of change is infinitely fast and the regulator travels (moves) gradually at a constant rate, the regulator will move by an amount proportional to that rate and then stop until the rate of change of deviation alters. Derivative control is not used alone but normally in conjunction with proportional or proportional plus integral control. Derivative action is used where Large transfer of distance velocity logs is present. It is necessary to minimize the amount of deviation caused by plant load changes. 44

5.3.4 COMBINATION OF PROPORTIONAL, INTEGERAL AND DERIVATIVE CONTROL The combination of proportional and integral control provides automatic elimination of the offset. When a deviation occurs, the regulator moves under proportional control by an amount proportional to the deviation. The regulator then continues to move under integral control at a constant rate towards its extreme position. The combined integral and proportional wave lags behind the proportional wave by a value of less than 90 degrees and is dependent upon the relative sensitivities. Therefore, a more stable form of control is provided. The integral function is derived from the proportional function. The time required for the integral action to increase the control output to the regulator, by an amount equal to the output change caused by the proportional action, is termed the Integral Action Time. This assumes that the deviation remains constant. The integral sensitivity can be adjusted to give either a fast or a slow return to the desired value after a change in load has resulted in an offset. The period of oscillation will become progressively longer as the integral sensitivity is increased; the integral action time is decreased. The integral derivative action gives the regulator a slight offset movement because the rate of change is low. As the change progresses at a constant rate the derivative action remains constant. The remaining regulator movement will now be controlled by the combined proportional and integral action. The proportional action is linear and is a mirror image of the deviation response; the integral action continually increases the speed of the regulator towards its extreme travel as the amount of deviation increases.

5.4 REQUIREMENT OF CONTROL SYSTEM A control system, to be effective, must satisfy the following requirements. It must be possible o measures the condition to be controlled, preferably by the standard application of a proven instrument. The regulator must be capable of handling the plant under all load conditions and at all probable desired value settings, preferably with a little range to spare; if the system is continually out ranging the regulator, satisfactory control will be impossible. The measuring point must be as close as possible to the regulator in order to minimize lags.

45

SENSITIVITY ADJUSTMENT Two major requirement of an automatically controlled plant are: The variable must be returned to the desired value as quickly as possible after a disturbance. The control system must be stable and show no tendency to hunt. These two conditions are incompatible since an increase in sensitivity improves one at the expense of the other. Sensitivity is normally adjusted to give as fat a return to stable control as possible without causing overshoot and a tendency to `hunt' about the set point. In the combination of proportional and derivative control, the derivative function is derived from the proportional function and not

directly from the deviation. The effect is the same since the speed of the proportional action is in turn related to the rate of change of deviation. The derivative function is not only dependent on its own sensitivity adjustment but also on the proportional sensitivity. The derivative wave leads the proportional wave by 90 degree and for a combination of proportional plus derivative control the load is less than 90 degrees, dependent upon the relative sensitivities. For controller having both proportional and derivative functions, the regulator output by an amount equal to the output change caused by the derivative action is termed, the Derivative Action Time (fig. 2.9). This assumes that the deviation is changing at a constant rate. The proportional plus integral plus derivative control is used when close control is required on a plant that is liable to sudden or large fluctuations, or to serve plant or instrument legs. Then a step change occurs in the variable, the regulator moves rapidly to its extreme position due to derivative action because the variable is changing at its maximum speed. When the change in the variable stabilizes at this new position but extreme position again, in an attempt to return the measured variable to its set point. Following gradual deviation of the measured variable the each method of control previously described has its particular advantages regarding sensitivity requirements, and these may be summarized as follows: Proportional control is a stable system but does not necessarily ensure that the measured variable is always at the desired value under various load conditions. Integral control always returns the measured variable to the desired value, but tends to make the control loop less stable and the inherent frequency of plant oscillation lower. Derivative control tends to make some control loops more stable (this depends upon the plant characteristics) and increases the inherent frequency of plant oscillation. It is not concerned, however, with the absolute value of the controlled variable. 46

Thus, the overall sensitivity of particular method or combination or methods becomes a compromise between stability and the requirement of returning to the desired value quickly. The relative sensitivities of the methods employed in a combined system are derived by compromises to achieve the best results.

Guidelines for the settings of P I and D actions cannot be given to any accuracy, because prop, band depends upon the range of controller as well as plant characteristics.

The following however, gives a rough (very) guideline for the required setting for controller modes. Control ------Flow Level Temp. Analytical Pressure Prop. Band ---- ---High (250%) Low Low High Low Int. action ------------Past (Sec.) Cap. dependent Cap. dependent Usually slow (min) Usually slow (min) Derivation -----------Never rarely usually sometimes sometimes.

47

Concept Of C&I In Thermal Power Station

Fig no. 5.3 (Concept of C & I in Thermal Power Station) The control and automation system used here is a micro based intelligent multiplexing system. This system, designed on a modular basis, allows to tighten the scope of control hardware to the particular control strategy and operating requirements of the process regardless of the type and extent of process to control provides system uniformity and integrity for: Signal conditioning and transmission Modulating controls

CONTROL AND MONITORING MECHANISMS:

There are basically two types of Problems faced in a Power Plant Metallurgical Mechanical

Mechanical Problem can be related to Turbines that is the max speed permissible for a turbine is 3000 rpm, so speed should be monitored and maintained at that level

48

Metallurgical Problem can be view as the max Inlet Temperature for Turbine is 1060 C so temperature should be below the limit. Monitoring of all the parameters is necessary for the safety of both: Employees Machines

So the Parameters to be monitored are: Speed Temperature Current Voltage Pressure Eccentricity Flow of Gases Vacuum Pressure Valves Level Vibration

PRESSURE MONITORING: Pressure can be monitored by three types of basic mechanisms Switches Gauges Transmitter type

For gauges we use Bourdon tubes: The Bourdon Tube is a non liquid pressure measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static pressure measurements are needed. A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other end, as shown schematically below.

49

Fig No. 5.4 (Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages)

Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most use diaphragms or capsules). When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reprocating pump, an orfice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin. Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of 2% of span, and a special highprecision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale. For Switches pressure switches are used and they can be used for digital means of monitoring as switch being ON is referred as high and being OFF is as low. All the monitored data is converted to either Current or Voltage parameter. Bourdon pressure gauge- is an oval section tube . its one end is fixed. It is provided with the pointer to indicate the pressure on a calibrated scale. It is of 2 types: Spiral type - it is used for low pressure measurement. Helical type - it is used for high pressure measurement.

The Plant standard for current and voltage are as under Voltage : 0 10 Volts range Current : 4 20 milliAmperes

50

We use 4mA as the lower value so as to check for disturbances and wire breaks. Accuracy of such systems is very high. ACCURACY: + - 0.1 % The whole system used is SCADA based. Programmable Logic Circuits (PLCs) are used in the process as they are the heard of instrumentation.

ROTAMETERS: A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float', actually a shaped weight, inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity. Drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed squared only. A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area results in increase in flow speed and drag force, so the float will be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the rotameter is cone shaped (widens), the area around the float through which the medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float may be diagonally grooved and partially colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This shows if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some manufacturers use a different standard. Note that the "float" does not actually float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow. Advantages

A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate. A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.

51

It is occasionally misspelled as 'rotameter'. It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect. A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is not.

For Digital measurements Flap system is used.

For Analog measurements we can use the following methods: Flow meters Venurimeters / Orifice meters Turbines Mass flow meters ( oil level ) Ultrasonic Flow meters Magnetic Flow meter ( water level )

Selection of flow meter depends upon the purpose, accuracy and liquid to be measured so different types of meters used. Turbines are the simplest of all. They work on the principle that on each rotation of the turbine a pulse is generated and that pulse is counted to get the flow rate.

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VENTURIMETERS:

Fig No.5.5 (VENTURIMETERS) Referring to the diagram, using Bernoulli's equation in the special case of incompressible fluids (such as the approximation of a water jet), the theoretical pressure drop at the constriction would be given by (/2)(v2 2 - v1 2). And we know that rate of flow is given by: Flow = k (D.P) Where DP is Differential Pressure or the Pressure Drop.

CONTROL VALVES

Fig no. 5.6 (CONTROL VALVES) A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids, slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various

passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately. Valves are used in a variety of applications including industrial, military, commercial, residential, transportation. Plumbing valves are the most obvious in everyday life, but 53

many more are used. Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in steam engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a controlled way, like in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major role in engine cycle control. Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the handle is turned a quarter of a full turn (90) between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. Valves can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water. So there are basically three types of valves that are used in power industries besides the handle valves. They are: Pneumatic Valves Pneumatically controlling valves are valves that control the flow of pressurized air. Another medium such as water (hydraulics) or electricity, for example, may be used to control the valves. they are air or gas controlled which is compressed to turn or move them. In some cases, the valves are operated manually rather than automatically. Hydraulic valves they utilize oil in place of Air as oil has better compression. Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering disciplines, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid fluid dynamics, control flow

circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.

Motorized valves these valves are controlled by electric motors. Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. 54

CHAPTER-6 VARIOUS LABS FOR CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

This division basically calibrates various instruments and table care of any faults that occur in any of the auxiliaries in the plant. It has the following labs. Manometry lab Protection and interlocking lab Pyrometry lab Turbo supervisory instrument (TSI) lab Furnace safety supervisory instrument (FSSS) lab Electronics lab This department is the brain of the plant because from relay to transmitter followed by the electronics computation chipsets and recorders and lastly the controlling circuitry, all fall under their responsibility. 6.1 MANOMETRY LAB Various instruments used in this lab areTransmitter- it is used for pressure measurement of gas liquid. Its working principle is that the input pressure is converted into electrostatic capacitance and from there it is conditioned and amplified. It gives an output of 4 to 20mA DC. Manometer- it is to be which is best in the U-shaped it is filled with liquid. This device corresponds to a difference in the pressure across the 2 limits. A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used 1. Simple Manometer 55

2. Micromanometer 3. Differential manometer 4. Inverted differential manometer

Fig no. 6.1 (U SHAPED MANOMETER) A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hg. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa P0 = hg. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure to the right) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P0 + hg. If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured. Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences well above the vapour pressure of water, water is commonly used (and "inches of water" is a common pressure unit). Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of the type of gas being measured and have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response. When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa) 56

6.2 PROTECTION AND INTERLOCKING LAB:

PROTECTION AND INTERLOCKING SYSTEMS 1. High tension control circuit - for high tension systems, the control system are excited by separate DC supply. For the starting, the circuit condition should be in series with the starting of equipment to energize it because if even a single condition is not true, then the system will not start. 2. Low tension control circuit - For this type of circuits, the control circuit are directly excited by 0.415 kV AC supply. The same circuit achieves both excitation and tripping. Here the tripping coil is provided for emergency tripping if the interconnection is failed.

INTERLOCKING
It is basically interconnecting two or more equipments so that if equipment fails, other can performs the task. This type of inter dependence is also created, so that the equipments connected together are started and shut down in a specific sequence to avoid damage for protection of equipment tripping are provided for all the equipments. Tripping can be considered as the series of instructions connected through OR gate. When a fault occurs and one of the tripping is satisfied a signal is send to the relay, which trips the circuit. The main equipments of this lab are relay and circuit breakers. Some of the instruments used for the protection are:-

6.2.1. RELAY - It is protective device. It can detect wrong condition in electrical circuits. By constant measuring the electrical quantities flowing under normal and faulty conditions. Some of the electrical quantities are voltage, current, phase angle and velocity. A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of 57

contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB. When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. It is of two types:a. Current type relay b. Potential relay

Fig No.6.2 (RELAYS)

58

6.2.2 FUSES - A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit. The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum, or alloys to provide stable and predictable characteristics. The fuse ideally would carry its rated current indefinitely, and melt quickly on a small excess. The element must not be damaged by minor harmless surges of current, and must not oxidize or change its behavior after possibly years of service. The fuse element may be surrounded by air, or by materials intended to speed the quenching of the arc. Silica sand or non-conducting liquids may be used. It is short piece of metal inserted in the circuit which melt when a heavy current flow through it. Usually silver is used as fuse material. A. The coefficient of expansion of silver is very small B. The conductivity of silver is unimpaired by surge of the current that produces temperature near the map. C. It has low specific heat.

Fig No.6.3 (FUSE) 59

6.3 TURBINE SUPERVISORY INSTRUMENTATION LAB (TSI)

1. TURBINE SPEED:The speed of the turbine is to be kept constant so that frequency of the generator electricity is close to 50 Hz. The indicator of the speed gives us a remote indication of the speed when barring gear rotates the rotor. 2. AXIAL SHIFTDuring the rotation of the turbine at high speeds where there is the wearing down of bearing there is an axial shift. Depending on the bearings which have become worn the thrust collar is either on working pad or surge pad. The position of the thrust collar is given respect to working pads. 3. SHAFT ECCENTRICITYEccentricity is the deviation of the mass centre from the geometrical centre of the bearing case. It usually occurs in the rotor where there is shut down. If it becomes large then there will be lot of vibration which can be dangerous. To measure the eccentricity a passive and the active magnetic reluctance type transducer in combination with bridge ckt. 4. BEARING VIBRATIONThis is one of the most vital parameters of the turbine and it has to be monitored vibration is the to and fro motion of the machine under the influence of oscillatory forces caused by unbalanced masses in the rotating system.

6.4 PYROMETRY LAB:

This lab consists of various temperature measuring instruments. Various devices used are:1. LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER- Mercury in glass thermometer boils at 340C which limits the range of temperature that can be measured. It is an L shaped thermometer, which is designed to reach all inaccessible places. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube, which varies according to the heat given to it. To increase the sensitivity, there is usually a bulb 60

of mercury at the end of the thermometer which contains most of the mercury; expansion and contraction of this volume of mercury is then amplified in the much narrower bore of the tube. The space above the mercury may be filled with nitrogen or it may be less than atmospheric pressure, which is normally known as a vacuum.

Fig No. 6.4 (Liquid In Glass Thermometer)

2.ULTRA VIOLET SENSOR- this device is used in furnace and it measures the intensity of ultra violet rays there and according to the wave generated a signal of the order mV is generated which directly indicates the temperature in the furnace. UV Sensor is a precision instrument that detects ultraviolet (UV) radiation at wavelengths of 290 to 390 nanometers. The UV Sensor is comprised of the following components: ShieldThe outer shell shields the sensor body from thermal radiation and provides a path for convection cooling of the body, minimizing heating of the sensor interior. It provides a cutoff ring for cosine response, a level indicator, and fins to aid in aligning the sensor with the suns rays. Sensor BodyHouses the following components: DiffuserProvides, with gasket, a weather-tight seal and excellent cosine response. FilterProvides the Erythema Action spectral response. Encased in multiple hardoxide coatings, the filter is stable in the presence of heat and humidity. DetectorContains a semiconductor diode that, with the filter, responds to radiation 61

only in the specified wavelengths. AmplifierConverts the detector current into a 0 to +2.5V signal.

Fig No. 6.5 (Ultra Violet Sensor)

THERMOCOUPLE-

Fig. No.6.6 (THERMOCOUPLE MEASURING CIRCUIT) 62

Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a heat gradient into electricity. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy and system errors of less than one degree Celcius(c) can be difficult to achieve. It works on principle of seeback effect. Two different metals are joined to form a junction and then change in temperature causes potential difference which can be measure through voltmeter and converted into corresponding temperature scale using transducers. BTPS uses nickel chrome thermocouple. It has a maximum range of 1600C. To measure the temperature inside boiler, these thermocouples are inserted into boiler, while on other end temperature is measured. For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output voltage increases almost linearly with the temperature difference (T) over a bounded range of temperatures. For precise measurements or measurements outside of the linear temperature range, non-linearity must be corrected. The nonlinear relationship between the temperature difference (T) and the output voltage (mV) of a thermocouple can be approximated by a

6.5 FURNACE SAFEGUARD SUPERVISORY SYSTEM (FSSS)

FSSS as a contrast to combustion control. It is an independent and discrete digital logic system specially meant for safety and protection during starting shut down, low load and emergency conditions. It does not take part in regular station, operation a sin the case with combustion, control which, sends out continuous analogous signal to maintain combustion rate at optimum value to match the demand of the boilers. FSSS is also called as Burner Management System (BMS). It is a microprocessor based programmable logic controller of proven design incorporating all protection facilities required for such system. Main objective of FSSS is to ensure safety of the boiler. 63

The 95 MW boilers are indirect type boilers. Fire takes place in front and in rear side. Thats why its called front and rear type boiler. The 210 MW boilers are direct type boilers (which means that HSD is in direct contact with coal) firing takes place from the corner. Thus it is also known as corner type boiler.

6.5.1 IGNITER SYSTEM Igniter system is an automatic system, it takes the charge from 110kv and this spark is brought in front of the oil guns, which spray aerated HSD on the coal for coal combustion. There is a 5 minute delay cycle before igniting, this is to evacuate or burn the HSD. This method is known as PURGING.

6.5.2 PRESSURE SWITCH Pressure switches are the devices that make or break a circuit. When pressure is applied, the switch under the switch gets pressed which is attached to a relay that makes or break the circuit. Time delay can also be included in sensing the pressure with the help of pressure valves. Examples of pressure valves: 1. Manual valves (tap) 2. Motorized valves (actuator) works on motor action 3. Pneumatic valve (actuator) _ works due to pressure of compressed air 4. Hydraulic valve

6.5.3 FUNCTIONS OF FSSS The furnace safeguard supervisory system has been designed to provide increased safety , reliability , flexibility and overall performances of the boiler. It consist the following:a. Furnace purge supervision:-To interlock for scanner purge airflow drum level and all fuel. b. Secondary air damper control: - To automatically maintain wind box furnace differential, regulate air to the fuel compartment and control the secondary air dampers. c. Igniter control supervision: - To interlock for igniter flame, furnace purge , ignition fuel pressure and igniter tip value position.

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d. Heavy oil control and supervision: - To remote and manual start/stop. It includes interlocks for heavy oil pressure and temperature, oil gun value positions igniter, energy atomizing differential and local maintenance switches. e. Mill and feed control and supervision:- which has automatic operation from a single operator start/stop switch for each mill. Individual switches are also provided for the operator to control each mill. f. Flame scanner intelligence and checking: - it includes automatic checking of each scanner, scanner counting network and scanner cabinet. g. Overall boiler flame failure protection: - which during light up and low load operations. h. Boiler trip protection: - which shut down all fuel in the following events 1. Both emergency trip buttons pushed 2. Loss of all fuel 3. Turbine trip 4. Air flow less than minimum preset value (during start-up only) 5. Tripping of FD or ID fans.

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CHAPTER-7 SUMMARY:

Fig No. 7.1 (Summary of thermal power plant) 1. Cooling tower 2. Cooling water pump 3. Transmission line (3-phase) 4. Unit transformer (3-phase) 5. Electric generator (3-phase) 6. Low pressure turbine 7. Boiler feed pump 8. Condenser 9. Intermediate pressure turbine 10. Steam governor valve 11. High pressure turbine 66

12. Deaerator 13. Feed heater 14. Coal conveyor 15. Coal hopper 16. Pulverized fuel mill 17. Boiler drum 18. Ash hopper 19. Super heater 20. Forced draught fan 21. Reheater 22. Air intake 23. Economizer 24. Air preheater 25. Precipitator 26. Induced draught fan 27. Chimney Stack

Description:
In a typical coal-fired thermal power plant Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to a very fine powder by large metal spheres in the pulverized fuel mill (16). There it is mixed with preheated air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20).

The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is separated from any remaining water.

The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the drum into the pendant super heater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to around 200 bar and 570C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The steam is piped to the high-pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine process.

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A steam governor valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set point following. The steam is exhausted from the high-pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature, is returned to the boiler re heater (21).

The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate pressure turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set (6).

The exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with cold water (pumped in from the cooling tower) in the condenser (8), where it condenses rapidly back into water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the condenser chest.

The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump (7) through a deaerator (12), and prewar med first in a feed heater (13) powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economizer (23), before being returned to the boiler drum.

The cooling water from the condenser is sprayed inside a cooling tower (1), creating a highly visible plume of water vapor, before being pumped back to the condenser (8) in cooling water cycle.

The three turbine sets are coupled on the same shaft as the three-phase electrical generator (5) which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV).

This is stepped up by the unit transformer (4) to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically 250-500 kV) and is sent out onto the three-phase transmission system (3).

Exhaust gas from the boiler is drawn by the induced draft fan (26) through an electrostatic precipitator (25) and is then vented through the chimney stack (27)

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REFERENCES
WWW.WIKIPEDIA.ORG WWW.HPGCL.GOV.IN Thermal Power Plant Simulation And Control by Damian Flynn Thermal Power Station by Fredric P Miller, Agnes F Vandome Power-plant control and instrumentation: the control of boilers and HRSG systems By David Lindsley, Institution of Electrical Engineers

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