Carotenoids

Life presents us with a kaleidoscope of colors. From the green, green

grass of home to a forest's ruddy autumn hues, we are surrounded by living
color. Living things obtain their colors, with few exceptions, from natural
pigments. In addition to their role in coloration, natural pigments carry out a
variety of important biological functions. Among the most common and most
important natural pigments are the carotenoids.

Carotenoids are a class of natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants,

algae, and photosynthetic bacteria, where they play a critical role in the
photosynthetic process. They also occur in some non-photosynthetic bacteria,
yeasts, and molds, where they may carry out a protective function against
damage by light and oxygen. Although animals appear to be incapable of
synthesizing carotenoids, many animals incorporate carotenoids from their diet.
Within animals, carotenoids provide bright coloration, serve as antioxidants, and
can be a source for vitamin A activity (Ong and Tee 1992; Britton et al. 1995).

Carotenoids are responsible for many of the red, orange, and yellow hues of
plant leaves, fruits, and flowers, as well as the colors of some birds, insects, fish,
and crustaceans. Some familiar examples of carotenoid coloration are the
oranges of carrots and citrus fruits, the reds of peppers and tomatoes, and the
pinks of flamingoes and salmon (Pfander 1992). Some 600 different carotenoids
are known to occur naturally (Ong and Tee 1992), and new carotenoids continue
to be identified (Mercadante 1999).

Carotenoids are defined by their chemical structure. The majority carotenoids are
derived from a 40-carbon polyene chain, which could be considered the
backbone of the molecule (Fig. 1). This chain may be terminated by cyclic end-
groups (rings) and may be complemented with oxygen-containing functional
groups. The hydrocarbon carotenoids are known as carotenes, while oxygenated
derivatives of these hydrocarbons are known as xanthophylls. Beta-carotene, the
principal carotenoid in carrots, is a familiar carotene, while lutein, the major
yellow pigment of marigold petals, is a common xanthophyll (Fig. 1).

The structure of a carotenoid ultimately determines what potential biological

function(s) that pigment may have. The distinctive pattern of alternating single
and double bonds in the polyene backbone of carotenoids is what allows them to
absorb excess energy from other molecules, while the nature of the specific end
groups on carotenoids may influence their polarity. The former may account for
the antioxidant properties of biological carotenoids, while the latter may explain
the differences in the ways that individual carotenoids interact with biological
membranes (Britton 1995).

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What do carotenoids do?

In human beings, carotenoids can serve several important functions. The most
widely studied and well-understood nutritional role for carotenoids is their
provitamin A activity. Deficiency of vitamin A is a major cause of premature death
in developing nations, particularly among children. Vitamin A, which has many
vital systemic functions in humans, can be produced within the body from certain
carotenoids, notably beta-carotene (Britton et al. 1995). Dietary beta-carotene is
obtained from a number of fruits and vegetables, such as carrots, spinach,
peaches, apricots, and sweet potatoes (Mangels et al. 1993). Other provitamin A
carotenoids include alpha-carotene (found in carrots, pumpkin, and red and
yellow peppers) and cryptoxanthin (from oranges, tangerines, peaches,
nectarines, and papayas).

Carotenoids also play an important potential role in human health by

acting as biological antioxidants, protecting cells and tissues from the damaging
effects of free radicals and singlet oxygen. Lycopene, the hydrocarbon carotenoid
that gives tomatoes their red color, is particularly effective at quenching the
destructive potential of singlet oxygen (Di Mascio et al. 1989). Lutein and
zeaxanthin, xanthophylls found in corn and in leafy greens such as kale and
spinach, are believed to function as protective antioxidants in the macular region
of the human retina (Snodderly 1995). Astaxanthin, a xanthophyll found in
salmon, shrimp, and other seafoods, is another naturally occurring xanthophyll
with potent antioxidant properties (Di Mascio et al. 1991). Other health benefits of
carotenoids that may be related to their antioxidative potential include
enhancement of immune system function (Bendich 1989), protection from
sunburn (Matthews-Roth, 1990), and inhibition of the development of certain
types of cancers (Nishino 1998).

Bioflavonoids are reported to have numerous health benefits. They are the
natural pigments in fruits and vegetables. There have been many scientific
reports about bioflavonoids but none have produced firm reports that confirm this
statement. Researchers have reported over eight hundred different bioflavonoids.
Most of these are the yellow pigments found in citrus fruit as well as other fruits
and vegetables, these are referred to as flavonoids.

Bioflavonoids are also referred to as vitamin P, a name that nutrition

scientists object to because it has not been proved that they are essential to
human nutrition and health. Many researchers are studying bioflavonoids and
many reports have been given about their possible functions. Some researchers
believe that bioflavonoids help maintain capillaries. Capillaries are microscopic
blood vessels that allow the oxygen, hormones, nutrients, and antibodies to pass
from the body’s bloodstream to individual cells. If a capillary’s walls are too fragile
they will allow blood to drain out of the vessels and into the cells. The result of

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this is easy bruising, brain and retinal hemorrhages, bleeding gums and other
abnormalities.

Bioflavonoids also in recent studies have been shown to help the blood
clot, this alone can be helpful in treating phlebitis and other clotting disorders.
Many bioflavonoids prevent the cellular damage caused by free radicals; these
are unstable molecules that are formed when the body burns oxygen. Some
bioflavonoids are used as food preservatives to prevent fats from oxidation.
Some reports show bioflavonoids are useful in enhancing the antioxidant action
of certain nutrients.

Bioflavonoids and vitamin C are found in many of the same foods and the
body metabolizes both of these in the same manner. Researchers have
discovered that some of the functions that vitamin C is credited with is actually
from the bioflavonoids. Since they work so close together numerous reports have
stated that vitamin C and many bioflavonoids need each other to produce the
effects that they have on the immune system.

All these uses of bioflavonoids are the main reason that they are
accredited with the use they have at preventing many heart diseases. Many
laboratory studies show how bioflavonoids stop or slow the growth of malignant
cells, they also help protect against cancer-causing substances invading the
heart and blood cells. Bioflavonoids also act as natural antibiotics for the human
body. Some bioflavonoids destroy certain bacteria that are found in foods, this
prevents food spoilage and protects humans from food-borne infections.

Bioflavonoids are under study for many medical uses such as prevention
of easy bruising and many other bleeding abnormalities. Rutin, which is a
bioflavonoids that is found in wheat leaves and some other plants, are being
studied for reducing tissue damage. All these and many others bioflavonoidsare
available as nutritional supplements.

The Recommended Dietary Allowance for bioflavonoids has not been established
at this time, but studies show that if a diet contains enough fruits and vegetables
can prevent all heart disease and many cancer related diseases. Foods that are
high in bioflavonoids include apricots, blackberries, black currants, broccoli,
cantaloupes, cherries, grapefruits, grapes, oranges and lemons.