Composite Materials

4.1 Definition:
The word composite means consisting of two or more distinct parts. Thus a material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases may be considered as composite materials. When the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and the composite properties are noticeably different physical properties then they are said to be composites. Generally metals consists of unwanted impurities or alloying elements, but they must not be called as composites because the constituent phases will have nearly identical properties ,the phases are not generally fibrous in character, and one of the phases is usually present in small fractions. Thus classification of certain materials as composites is often based on cases where significant property changes occur as a result of combination of constituents, and these property changes will be generally be most obvious when one of the phase is in platelet or fibrous form, when the volume fraction is greater than 10%, and when the property of one constituent is much greater (>5 times) than the other. So composites can be considered as materials consisting of two or more chemically distinct constituents, on a macro scale, having a distinct interface separating them whose mechanical properties are superior to those of individual components acting independently.

4.2 Constituents. :
One phase is discontinuous, stiffer and stronger is called reinforcement. Other phase is continuous, less stiffer and weaker is called matrix. Sometimes, a third phase exists between reinforcement and the matrix because of chemical interactions or other processing effects is called interphase which plays an important role in controlling failure mechanisms, fracture toughness. The reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, flakes, or particles, and is embedded in the other phase called the matrix. For example: polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component, but aren't as brittle as ceramics. The phases retain their physical identities on a macroscopic scale, which do not dissolve in to one another completely, but they are perfectly bonded at the interfaces so that they complement each other in the action. These facts indicate that the composite material is physically non-homogenous at macroscopic level. On the other hand the phase of single metallic alloys combine at microscopic level, looses their physical identities and they have mechanical properties, more or less of same order.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES: The applications of composite materials in the field of cryogenic technology is consistently gaining reputation due to following chief advantages: GOOD SPECIFIC STRENGTH GOOD INSULATING PROPERTIES HIGH CORROSION RESISTANCE LONG DURABILITY COST ADVANTAGES. GOOD SPECIFIC STRENGTH: - We know that specific strength is the ratio of strength to unit weight.We know that aluminum is the lightest material, which has high specific strength, so we use it, has aeroplane body. But the composites now developed have specific strength even less than that it is about 40 to 60% less than aluminum. GOOD INSULATING PROPERTIES: When we are dealing with low temperatures the main preventive measure we can follow is controlling flow of heat because refrigeration cost is proportional to the effectiveness of insulation. By using composite materials as supporting members in refrigerated units. We can minimize heat transfer such as using as supports for the super conductivity magnets or panels of refrigerants or walls of tanks etc. HIGH CORROSION RESISTANCE: Comparing to metals these have good corrosion resistance with the floods and with ambient moisture. The first important thing is selecting the correct combination of composites and materials to be stored. If they are chemically stable then the corrosion resistance is very good. LONG DURABILITY: The life of the composite material is highly sufficient for its performance in its applications. The trend is now changing; the conventional materials are replaced by composites, as they are reusable, which is particularly in applications of space shuttles. COST ADVANTAGES: Even it seems costly to manufacture composites material at now. But mass production may leads to provide some cost advantages such that they are economical than conventional metals. HIGH SPECIFIC MODULUS :Specific modulus may be defined as ratio of Youngs Modulus (E) and density (p). The specific modulus is high for composite material which means the rod cross section of graphite/epoxy would only be one third of steel of same strength. This reduction in cross cross sectional area and mass translates to reduced space requirements an lower energy and material costs.

LIMITATIONS :HIGH COST:High cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. For example, a part made of graphite/epoxy composite may cost up to 10 to 15 times the material costs. Improvement in processing and manufacturing techniques will lower these costs in future. Already manufacturing techniques such as SMC(sheet molding compound) and SRIM(structural reinforcement injection molding) are lowering the cost and production time in manufacturing automobile parts. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISATIONS : Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex than of a metal structure. Unlike metals, composite materials are not isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same in all directions. So require more material parameters. In the case of a monolithic material such as steel, one requires only four stiffness and strength constants. REPAIRING CAPABILITY: Repair of composites is not a simple process as compared to metals. Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures may go undetected. MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE: Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture toughness as compared to metals. Metals show an excellent combination of strength and fracture toughness as compared to composites. ALROUND PERFORMANCE:Composites do not necessarily give higher performance in all the properties used for material selection. Six primary material selection parameters are strength, toughness, and formability; join ability, corrosion resistance, and affordability. If the values at the circumference are considered as the normalized required property level for a particular application, certain areas will show values provided by ceramics, metals, and metal-ceramic composites. Clearly, composites show better strength than metals but lower values for other material selection parameters. APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES: Composites are one of the most widely used materials because of their adaptability to different situations and the relative ease of combination with other materials to serve specific purposes and exhibit desirable properties. In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind of composites used because of their huge size. They provide ample scope and receptiveness to design changes, materials and process. The strength-weight ratio is higher then other materials. Their stiffness and cost

effectiveness offered, apart from easy availability of raw materials, make them the obvious choice for applications in surface transportation. In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of component parts with cost-effectiveness. Good reproductively, resilience handled by semi-skilled workers are the basic requirements of a good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced composites may not justify the savings obtained in terms of weight vis--vis vehicle production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been used in racing cars and recently for the safety of cars. Commercial aircraft applications are the most important uses of composites. Aircraft, unlike other vehicles, need to lay greater stress on safety and weight. They are achieved by using materials with high specific properties. A modern civil aircraft must be so designed as to meet the numerous criteria of power and safety. Fiber epoxy composites have been used in aircraft engine. The following are the applications in which our analysis is applicable: INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS: Newer technology for processing of materials include cryogenic processing which increases the fatigue life of tools and processing parts.as the technology is growing the requirement of modern processing techniques is needed to meet objective without the factor of cost. As the materials are subjected to low temperature one must have knowledge of thermal distribution in the materials when subjected to cryogenic temperature. AUTOMATIVE APPLICATIONS: - For increase the performance of the automotive parts which is very much needed in racing cars without increasing dimensions of parts can be achieved by cryogenic processing of these parts. Such as one must have knowledge about temperature distributions in the parts. MEDICAL APPLICATIONS: -Recent trends in material testing apparatus are requiring the low temperatures for some instruments like magnetic resonance imaging etc. such that the panels and structures supporting the low temperature chambers are subjected to thermal loads causing thermal stresses our model assists for the sake of knowledge about that. SUPER CONDUCTIVITY: - Super conductivity is the phenomenon of disappearance of resistance at low temperature which is now on going friend applicable to storage cells, rail transport in modern countries etc.The supporting members are subjected one side by cryogenic temperatures at which super conductivity takes place and the other side it is near to ambient temperature which results thermal stresses. SPACE APPLICATIONS: - The solar panels in the satellites are subjected to one side to high temperature and the other side very low temperature of order 100k which induces a thermal stresses in the panels to have knowledge about the conductivity and temperature distribution we should have the knowledge of transport phenomena.

Classification of composite materials:

Three types of composites are: Particle-reinforced composites/Particulate composites Fiber-reinforced composites Structural composites 1.Particle Reinforced Composites: In this particles of various sizes and shapes or flakes are randomly dispersed within the matrix .It may consist of 1)Nonmetallic particles in nonmetallic matrix Eg : Most common example is concrete where sand and rock are bonded by mix of cement and water that chemically react and harden.; mica in glass composites are used in electrical applications; rubber like particles in brittle polymer. 2) Metallic particles in nonmetallic matrix Eg: Aluminium particles in polyurethane rubber are used in rocket propellants; metal flakes suspended in paint.Eg: Silver flakes suspended in paint can be applied to give good electrical conductivity. 3)Metallic particles in Metallic matrix Eg: Lead particles in copper alloys and steels to increase machinability; lead (natural lubricant) are used in bearing made of copper alloys. 4)Non-metallic particles in Metallic matrix Ceramics suspended in metal matrix form cermets. They can be oxide based or carbide based. Cermets are used as nuclear reactor fuel elements and control rods. Uranium oxide particles in stainless steel is used as fuel element and Boron carbide in stainless steel as control rods.

Figure 1. Examples for particle-reinforced composites. (Spheroidized steel and automobile tire) Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of the matrix, to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to produce inexpensive composites. Reinforces and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed. Other example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer. Another example is spheroidized steel where cementite is transformed into a spherical shape which improves the machinability of the material. Another example for particle-reinforced composite is concrete where the aggregates ( sand and gravel) are the particles and cement is the matrix. Particle reinforced composites support higher tensile, compressive and shear stresses.. Fiber-reinforced Composites: Based on the type and arrangement of fibers, they are of two types. Discontinuous or short fiber composites Continuous fiber composites Discontinuous or short fiber composites It contains short fibers or whiskers as the reinforcing phase. These short fibers can be all oriented along one direction due to which composite materials has anisotropic property ,or randomly oriented due to which composite materials has quasi-isotropic property . Continuous fiber composites It contains long continuous fibers as the reinforcing phase which is more efficient from point of view of stiffness and strength . These long fibers can be

1) all parallel Unidirectional continuous fiber composite 2) Oriented at right angle to each other Cross ply/woven fabric continuous fiber composite. 3) Oriented along several directions Multi directional continuous fiber composite. The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration, and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of fiberreinforced composites. In situations when stress is applied in many directions, discontinuous fibers which are randomly oriented in the matrix material are used. Consideration of orientation and fiber length for a particular composite depends on the level and nature of the applied stress as well as fabrication cost. Production rates for short-fiber composites (both aligned and randomly oriented) are rapid, and intricate shapes can be formed which are not possible with continuous fiber reinforcement Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers. Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material. The strong covalent bonds along the fiber's length gives them a very high modulus in this direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved. Fibers are difficult to process into composites which makes fiber-reinforced composites relatively expensive. Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and therefore most expensive, sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix. Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (or fiberglass) in a thermoset matrix.

Figure 2. Fiber orientation in composites. Based on the matrix used, fiber reinforced composites are classified as 1) Polymer matrix composites/Resin composites 2) Metal matrix composites 3) Ceramic matrix composites 4) Carbon composites Polymer matrix composites : It includes thermosets(epoxy,polyimide,polyester) and thermoplastics(poly-ether-etherketone(PEEK),polysulphone) as matrix.They are used in low temperature applications. Mostly developed of these are epoxies. There are two types of epoxies1)those cured at low temperatures(1200 C).They are used in components exposed to low and moderate temperature variations.Eg: Sporting goods. 2) 1) those cured at high temperatures(1750 C).They are used in high performance components exposed to high temperature variations.Eg: Aircraft structures. Polyimide matrices are used for high temperature applications upto 3700C. Polyester matrix is used in quick curing systems for

commercial products. Thermoplastics are used at temperature upto 4000C.Polymer matrices are reinforced with glass, carbon, Aramid or boron fibers. Metal matrix composites : They are recommended for high temperature applications upto 8000 C. Commonly used metal matrices are Al,Mg and Ti alloys. Their use temperature is limited by their melting point. They are reinforced with boron,carbon or ceramic fibers.

Ceramic matrix composites: It consists of ceramic matrices like silicon carbide,aluminium oxide,glass-ceramic, silicon nitride. It is reinforced with ceramic fibers like silicon carbide,aluminium oxide,glass-ceramic, silicon nitride. They are suited for high temperature applications exceeding 10000C.They are used in combustor and nozzle components.

Carbon composites: It consists of carbon/graphite matrix reinforced with graphite yarn/fabric. It has unique property of high strength at high temperatures coupled with low thermal expansion and low density. It can be used at temperatures upto 26000C.

Structural Composites:
The properties of structural composites depend on: Constituents Geometrical design Common structural composite types are: LAMINATED COMPOSITES: It consists of layers of at least 2 different materials that are bonded together. It combines the best properties of individual materials layers in order to achieve more useful material.

Different types of laminated composites are : a) Bimetals b) Clad metals c) Laminated glass d) Laminated fiber reinforced composites a) Bimetals : They are laminates of two different metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion. Under change in temperature, bimetals deflect by a certain amount and so are useful in temperature measuring devices. b)Clad metals : Cladding of one metal with other is done to obtain the best properties of both. Eg: 1 High strength aluminium alloys do not resist corrosion and pure Al and some Al alloys are very corrosion resistant.But high strength Al alloys covered with corrosion resistant Al alloy is a compoite material which has advantage of both. 2 ..Aluminium wire is lightweight ,but overheats and so it is difficult to connect and Cu wire is expensive but stays cool and can be connected easily. So, Al wire clad with 10% Cu are used as replacement for Cu wires in wiring as they are light weight and connectable, stays cool and is cheaper than Cu wires. c)Laminated glass; Window glass is brittle and is dangerous as it can break into many pieces. A plastic called polyvinylbutryal is very tough, but is flexible and is susceptible to scratching. So, safety glasses are made of polyvinylbutryal sandwiched between two layers of glass. The glass protects the plastic from scratching and gives it stiffness. d)Laminated fiber reinforced composites: In this layers of fiber reinforced material are laminated with the fiber directions of each layer oriented in different directions to give different strength and stiffness in various directions. Eg; Aircraft wind panels,tennis rackets.

Composites Manufacturing:
Unique to the composites industry is the ability to create a product from many different manufacturing processes. There are a wide variety of processes available to the composites manufacturer to produce cost efficient products. Each of the fabrication processes has characteristics that define the type of products to be produced. This advantageous because this expertise allows the manufacturer to provide the best solution for the customer.

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) is a particular useful manufacturing process processes that use liquid resin to impregnate the stationary fibrous preform. During the RTM Process, the preform is placed into the mold cavity, the mold is closed and the resin is injected into the cavity under pressure. The mold with the preform is often put under vacuum so that the vacuum removes all the entrapped air in the preform and speeds up the RTM process. Once the liquid resin fills the mold cavity, it cures, during which the resin hardens due to the formation of polymeric network forming the matrix of the composite, allowing the part to be de-molded. Typically thermoset polymers of Epoxy, Vinyl Ester, Methyl Methacrylate, Polyester or Phenolic are used with fiberglass, carbon fiber Arimid and synthetic fibers reinforcements either individually or in combination with each other. This technique is well known and has been traditionally applied to moderately large parts in various application. It allows one to obtain even very complex neat-shape parts with good surface finish, in many cases at reasonable production rates.The fiber architecture, permeability of the preform and the fabric crimps, resin viscosity, temperature of operation, have an influence on the wetting of the fabric. Careful process design is needed to obtain a repeatable high quality product.

Vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM)

VARTM is a single sided molding process where the dry preform (reinforcement or coring materials) is placed into the mold, a cover (or a vacuum bag) is placed over the top to form a vacuumtight seal. A distribution medium (a mesh) is used and laid on top of the top release fabric to help maintain an even distribution of resin and facilitate the flow of resin through the thickness of the panel. The low viscosity resin typically enters the preform through resin distribution and vacuum distribution lines with the aid of vacuum. In VARTM process, the flow of resin occurs in plane as well as in the transverse directions to the preform. The permeability of the preform, fiber architecture and fabric crimp have an influence on the wetting of the fabric.

image adopted from V System Composites

RTM technology benefits: Considerably lower mold costs for mold are possible; Smooth surface on both sides; Possibility for gelcoat on both sides; Tolerance stable workpieces; Environmentally sound production due to closed mold Dimension: From small to large workpieces Materials Options: Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic. Fibers: Any. woven or stitched into a fabric form. Cores: Not honeycombs

VARTM technology benefits: Applicable to larger, less complex and lower volume part production of composite parts; Simple and low cost tooling; Onsite manufacturing and reparing are practical; High fiber volume panel achievable;

Materials Options: (VARTM) Resins: Any resin with low viscosity, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, Fibers: Any. woven or stitched into a fabric form. Cores: Not honeycombs Typical Applications: VARTM applications including marine, ground transportation and infrastructure parts

Typical Applications: complex aircraft and automotive components, train seats,

Filament Winding The filament winding process is used in the fabrication of tubular composite parts. Typical examples are composite pipe, electrical conduit, and composite tanks. Fiberglass roving strands are impregnated with a liquid thermosetting resin and wrapped onto a rotating mandrel in a specific pattern. When the winding operation is completed, the resin is cured or polymerized and the composite part is removed from the mandrel.

Capital investment is relatively higher compared to open mold processes. The primary expense for an existing filament winder would be the cost of the winding mandrel for a specific application.

Fig 4.3 filament winding Hand layup/spray lay up: Hand layup is an open contact molding in one-sided molds are the lowest-cost and most common processes for making fiberglass composite products and is the most common method of producing composites parts in the U.S. aircraft industry. In a typical open mold application, the mold is first waxed and sprayed with gel coat. It then may be cured in a heated oven at about 120 F. In the spray-up process, after the gel coat cures, catalyzed resin (usually polyester or vinyl ester at 500 cps to 1000 cps viscosity) is sprayed into the mold, along with chopped fiberglass. A chopper gun chops roving (usually E-glass) directly into the resin spray, so that all materials are simultaneously applied to the mold. Using low-styrene and suppressed-styrene resins, fillers and high-volume/low-pressure spray guns or pressure-fed resin roller applicators helps reduce emissions of volatile organic compounds. In hand lay-up processing, fiberglass (typically E-glass) continuous strand mat and/or other fabrics such as woven roving are manually placed in the mold. Each ply is sprayed with Catalyzed resin (1000 to 1500 cps) and the resin is worked into the fiber with brushes and rollers to wet-out and compact the laminate. Fiber content can be increased by up to 50 percent by curing the part in a vacuum bag, using 2 psi to 14 psi vacuum pressure and cure temperatures under 350 F. Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) and infusion molding systems are gaining favor with open-mold processors wanting to cut volatile organic compounds emissions. The applied vacuum compacts the preform and helps the resin to penetrate and wet-out the fiber preform. Fiber content up to 70 percent has been reported.

NANOMATERIALS
Nanomaterials is a field that takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those that have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension,[1] though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer.

Types of Nanomaterials For the purpose of this article, most current nanomaterials could be organized into four types: Carbon Based Materials Metal Based Materials Dendrimers Composites

Carbon Based Materials These nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon, most commonly taking the form of a hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred to as fullerenes, while cylindrical ones are called nanotubes. These particles have many potential applications, including improved films and coatings, stronger and lighter materials, and applications in electronics. Metal Based Materials These nanomaterials include quantum dots, nanogold, nanosilver and metal oxides, such as titanium dioxide. A quantum dot is a closely packed semiconductor crystal comprised of hundreds or thousands of atoms, and whose size is on the order of a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers. Changing the size of quantum dots changes their optical properties. Dendrimers These nanomaterials are nanosized polymers built from branched units. The surface of a dendrimer has numerous chain ends, which can be tailored to perform specific chemical functions. This property could also be useful for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional dendrimers contain interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may be useful for drug delivery.

Composites Composites combine nanoparticles with other nanoparticles or with larger, bulk-type materials. Nanoparticles, such as nanosized clays, are already being added to products ranging from auto parts to packaging materials, to enhance mechanical, thermal, barrier, and flame-retardant properties. Nanoscale in Two Dimensions Two dimensional nanomaterials such as tubes and wires have generated considerable interest among the scientific community in recent years. In particular, their novel electrical and mechanical properties are the subject of intense research. a) Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were first observed by Sumio Iijima in 1991. CNTs are extended tubes of rolled graphene sheets. There are two types of CNT: single-walled (one tube) or multiwalled (several concentric tubes). Both of these are typically a few nanometres in diameter and several micrometres to centimetres long. CNTs have assumed an important role in the context of nanomaterials, because of their novel chemical and physical properties. They are mechanically very strong (their Youngs modulus is over 1 terapascal, making CNTs as stiff as diamond), flexible (about their axis), and can conduct electricity extremely well (the helicity of the graphene sheet determines whether the CNT is a semiconductor or metallic). All of these remarkable properties give CNTs a range of potential applications: for example, in reinforced composites, sensors, nanoelectronics and display devices.

Models of different singlewall nanotubes

CNTs are now available commercially in limited quantities. They can be grown by several techniques. However, the selective and uniform production of CNTs with specific dimensions and physical properties is yet to be achieved. The potential similarity in size and shape between CNTs and asbestos fibres has led to concerns about their safety. Nanoscale in Two Dimensions b) Inorganic Nanotubes Inorganic nanotubes and inorganic fullerene-like materials based on layered compounds such as molybdenum disulphide were discovered shortly after CNTs. They have excellent tribological (lubricating) properties, resistance to shockwave impact, catalytic reactivity, and high capacity for hydrogen and lithium storage, which suggest a range of promising applications. Oxide-based nanotubes (such as titanium dioxide) are being explored for their applications in catalysis, photocatalysis and energy storage. c) Nanowires Nanowires are ultrafine wires or linear arrays of dots, formed by self-assembly. They can be made from a wide range of materials. Semiconductor nanowires made of silicon, gallium nitride and indium phosphide have demonstrated remarkable optical, electronic and magnetic characteristics (for example, silica nanowires can bend light around very tight corners). Nanowires have potential applications in high-density data storage, either as magnetic read heads or as patterned storage media, and electronic and opto-electronic nanodevices, for metallic interconnects of quantum devices and nanodevices. The preparation of these nanowires relies on sophisticated growth techniques, which include selfassembly processes, where atoms arrange themselves naturally on stepped surfaces, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) onto patterned substrates, electroplating or molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). The molecular beams are typically from thermally evaporated elemental sources. d)Nanoparticles Nanoparticles are often defined as particles of less than 100nm in diameter. We classify nanoparticles to be particles less than 100nm in diameter that exhibit new or enhanced sizedependent properties compared with larger particles of the same material. Nanoparticles exist widely in the natural world: for example as the products of photochemical and volcanic activity, and created by plants and algae. They have also been created for thousands of years as products of combustion and food cooking, and more recently from vehicle exhausts. Deliberately manufactured nanoparticles, such as metal oxides, are by comparison in the minority. Nanoparticles are of interest because of the new properties (such as chemical reactivity and optical behaviour) that they exhibit compared with larger particles of the same materials. For example, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide become transparent at the nanoscale, however are able

to absorb and reflect UV light, and have found application in sunscreens. Nanoparticles have a range of potential applications: in the short-term in new cosmetics, textiles and paints; in the longer term, in methods of targeted drug delivery where they could be to used deliver drugs to a specific site in the body. Nanoparticles can also be arranged into layers on surfaces, providing a large surface area and hence enhanced activity, relevant to a range of potential applications such as catalysts. Manufactured nanoparticles are typically not products in their own right, but generally serve as raw materials, ingredients or additives in existing products. Nanoparticles are currently in a small number of consumer products such as cosmetics and their enhanced or novel properties may have implications for their toxicity. For most applications, nanoparticles will be fixed (for example, attached to a surface or within in a composite) although in others they will be free or suspended in fluid. Whether they are fixed or free will have a significant affect on their potential health, safety and environmental impacts.

Unique Properties:
The unique properties of these various types of intentionally produced nanomaterials give them novel electrical, catalytic, magnetic, mechanical, thermal, or imaging features that are highly desirable for applications in commercial, medical, military, and environmental sectors. These materials may also find their way into more complex nanostructures and systems. As new uses for materials with these special properties are identified, the number of products containing such nanomaterials and their possible applications continues to grow. In tandem with surface-area effects, quantum effects can begin to dominate the properties of matter as size is reduced to the nanoscale. These can affect the optical, electrical and magnetic behaviour of materials, particularly as the structure or particle size approaches the smaller end of the nanoscale. Materials that exploit these effects include quantum dots, and quantum well lasers for optoelectronics. For other materials such as crystalline solids, as the size of their structural components decreases, there is much greater interface area within the material; this can greatly affect both mechanical and electrical properties. For example, most metals are made up of small crystalline grains; the boundaries between the grain slow down or arrest the propagation of defects when the material is stressed, thus giving it strength. If these grains can be made very small, or even nanoscale in size, the interface area within the material greatly increases, which enhances its strength. For example, nanocrystalline nickel is as strong as hardened steel. Understanding surfaces and interfaces is a key challenge for those working on nanomaterials, and one where new imaging and analysis instruments are vital.

Current Applications
a) Sunscreens and Cosmetics Nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are currently used in some sunscreens, as they absorb and reflect ultraviolet (UV) rays and yet are transparent to visible light and so are more appealing to the consumer. Nanosized iron oxide is present in some lipsticks as a pigment but it is our understanding that it is not used by the European cosmetics sector. The use of nanoparticles in cosmetics has raised a number of concerns about consumer safety. b) Composites An important use of nanoparticles and nanotubes is in composites, materials that combine one or more separate components and which are designed to exhibit overall the best properties of each component. This multi-functionality applies not only to mechanical properties, but extends to optical, electrical and magnetic ones. Currently, carbon fibres and bundles of multi-walled CNTs are used in polymers to control or enhance conductivity, with applications such as antistatic packaging. The use of individual CNTs in composites is a potential long-term application. A particular type of nanocomposite is where nanoparticles act as fillers in a matrix; for example, carbon black used as a filler to reinforce car tyres. However, particles of carbon black can range from tens to hundreds of nanometres in size, so not all carbon black falls within our definition of nanoparticles.

c) Clays Clays containing naturally occurring nanoparticles have long been important as construction materials and are undergoing continuous improvement. Clay particle based composites containing plastics and nano-sized flakes of clay are also finding applications such as use in car bumpers. d) Coatings and Surfaces Coatings with thickness controlled at the nano- or atomic scale have been in routine production for some time, for example in molecular beam epitaxy or metal oxide chemical vapor depositionfor optoelectonic devices, or in catalytically active and chemically functionalized surfaces. Recently developed applications include the self-cleaning window, which is coated in highly activated titanium dioxide, engineered to be highly hydrophobic (water repellent) and antibacterial, and coatings based on nanoparticulate oxides that catalytically destroy chemical agents. Wear and scratch-resistant hard coatings are significantly improved by nanoscale intermediate layers (or multilayers) between the hard outer layer and the substrate material. The intermediate layers give good bonding and graded matching of elastic and thermal properties, thus improving adhesion. A range of enhanced textiles, such as breathable, waterproof and stainresistant fabrics, have been enabled by the improved control of porosity at the nanoscale and surface roughness in a variety of polymers and inorganics.

e) Tougher and Harder Cutting Tools Cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials, such as tungsten carbide, tantalum carbide and titanium carbide, are more wear and erosion-resistant, and last longer than their conventional (large-grained) counterparts. They are finding applications in the drills used to bore holes in circuit boards.

Short-term Applications (next 5 years) a) Paints Incorporating nanoparticles in paints could improve their performance, for example by making them lighter and giving them different properties. Thinner paint coatings (lightweighting), used for example on aircraft, would reduce their weight, which could be beneficial to the environment. However, the whole life cycle of the aircraft needs to be considered before overall benefits can be claimed. It may also be possible to substantially reduce solvent content of paints, with resulting environmental benefits. New types of foulingresistant marine paint could be developed and are urgently needed as alternatives to tributyl tin (TBT), now that the ecological impacts of TBT have been recognised. Anti-fouling surface treatment is also valuable in process applications such as heat exchange, where it could lead to energy savings. If they can be produced at sufficiently low cost, fouling-resistant coatings could be used in routine duties such as piping for domestic and industrial water systems. It remains speculation whether very effective anti-fouling coatings could reduce the use of biocides, including chlorine. Other novel, and more long-term, applications for nanoparticles might lie in paints that change colour in response to change in temperature or chemical environment, or paints that have reduced infra-red absorptivity and so reduce heat loss. Concerns about the health and environmental impacts of nanoparticles may require the need for the durability and abrasion behaviour of nano-engineered paints and coatings to be addressed, so that abrasion products take the form of coarse or microscopic agglomerates rather than individual nanoparticles. b) Remediation The potential of nanoparticles to react with pollutants in soil and groundwater and transform them into harmless compounds is being researched. In one pilot study the large surface area and high surface reactivity of iron nanoparticles were exploited to transform chlorinated hydrocarbons (some of which are believed to be carcinogens) into less harmful end products in groundwater. It is also hoped that they could be used to transform heavy metals such as lead and mercury from bioavailable forms into insoluble forms. Serious concerns have been raised over the uncontrolled release of nanoparticles into the environment.

c) Fuel Cells Engineered surfaces are essential in fuel cells, where the external surface properties and the pore structure affect performance. The hydrogen used as the immediate fuel in fuel cells may be generated from hydrocarbons by catalytic reforming, usually in a reactor module associated directly with the fuel cell. The potential use of nano-engineered membranes to intensify catalytic processes could enable higher-efficiency, small-scale fuel cells. These could act as distributed sources of electrical power. It may eventually be possible to produce hydrogen locally from sources other than hydrocarbons, which are the feedstocks of current attention. d) Displays The huge market for large area, high brightness, flat-panel displays, as used in television screens and computer monitors, is driving the development of some nanomaterials. Nanocrystalline zinc selenide, zinc sulphide, cadmium sulphide and lead telluride synthesized by solgel techniques (a process for making ceramic and glass materials, involving the transition from a liquid sol phase to a solid gel phase) are candidates for the next generation of light-emitting phosphors. CNTs are being investigated for low voltage field-emission displays; their strength, sharpness, conductivity and inertness make them potentially very efficient and long-lasting emitters. e) Batteries With the growth in portable electronic equipment (mobile phones, navigation devices, laptop computers, remote sensors), there is great demand for lightweight, high-energy density batteries. Nanocrystalline materials synthesized by solgel techniques are candidates for separator plates in batteries because of their foam-like (aerogel) structure, which can hold considerably more energy than conventional ones. Nickelmetal hydride batteries made of nanocrystalline nickel and metal hydrides are envisioned to require less frequent recharging and to last longer because of their large grain boundary (surface) area. f) Fuel Additives Research is underway into the addition of nanoparticulate ceria (cerium oxide) to diesel fuel to improve fuel economy by reducing the degradation of fuel consumption over time. g) Catalysts In general, nanoparticles have a high surface area, and hence provide higher catalytic activity. Nanotechnologies are enabling changes in the degree of control in the production of nanoparticles, and the support structure on which they reside. It is possible to synthesise metal nanoparticles in solution in the presence of a surfactant to form highly ordered monodisperse films of the catalyst nanoparticles on a surface. This allows more uniformity in the size and chemical structure of the catalyst, which in turn leads to greater catalytic activity and the production of fewer byproducts. It may also be possible to engineer specific or selective activity.

These more active and durable catalysts could find early application in cleaning up waste streams. This will be particularly beneficial if it reduces the demand for platinum-group metals, whose use in standard catalytic units is starting to emerge as a problem, given the limited availability of these metals. Longer-term Applications (next 5-15 years) a) Carbon Nanotube Composites CNTs have exceptional mechanical properties, particularly high tensile strength and light weight. An obvious area of application would be in nanotubereinforced composites, with performance beyond current carbon-fibre composites. One current limit to the introduction of CNTs in composites is the problem of structuring the tangle of nanotubes in a well-ordered manner so that use can be made of their strength. Another challenge is generating strong bonding between CNTs and the matrix, to give good overall composite performance and retention during wear or erosion of composites. The surfaces of CNTs are smooth and relatively unreactive, and so tend to slip through the matrix when it is stressed. One approach that is being explored to prevent this slippage is the attachment of chemical side-groups to CNTs, effectively to form anchors. Another limiting factor is the cost of production of CNTs. However, the potential benefits of such light, high strength material in numerous applications for transportation are such that significant further research is likely. b) Lubricants Nanospheres of inorganic materials could be used as lubricants, in essence by acting as nanosized ball bearings. The controlled shape is claimed to make them more durable than conventional solid lubricants and wear additives. Whether the increased financial and resource cost of producing them is offset by the longer service life of lubricants and parts remains to be investigated. It is also claimed that these nanoparticles reduce friction between metal surfaces, particularly at high normal loads. If so, they should find their first applications in highperformance engines and drivers; this could include the energy sector as well as transport. There is a further claim that this type of lubricant is effective even if the metal surfaces are not highly smooth. Again, the benefits of reduced cost and resource input for machining must be compared against production of nanolubricants. In all these applications, the particles would be dispersed in a conventional liquid lubricant; design of the lubricant system must therefore include measures to contain and manage waste Magnetic Materials It has been shown that magnets made of nanocrystalline yttriumsamariumcobalt grains possess unusual magnetic properties due to their extremely large grain interface area (high coercivity can be obtained because magnetization flips cannot easily propagate past the grain boundaries). This could lead to applications in motors, analytical instruments like magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI), used widely in hospitals, and microsensors. Overall magnetisation, however, is currently limited by the ability to align the grains direction of magnetisation. Nanoscale-fabricated magnetic materials also have applications in data storage. Devices such as computer hard disks depend on the ability to magnetize small areas of a spinning disk to record information. If the area required to record one piece of information can be shrunk in the nanoscale (and can be written and read reliably), the storage capacity of the disk can be improved dramatically. In the future, the devices on computer chips which currently operate using flows of electrons could use the magnetic properties of these electrons, called spin, with numerous advantages. Recent advances in novel magnetic materials and their nanofabrication are encouraging in this respect. d) Medical Implants Current medical implants, such as orthopaedic implants and heart valves, are made of titanium and stainless steel alloys, primarily because they are biocompatible. Unfortunately, in some cases these metal alloys may wear out within the lifetime of the patient. Nanocrystalline zirconium oxide (zirconia) is hard, wearresistant, bio-corrosion resistant and bio-compatible. It therefore presents an attractive alternative material for implants. It and other nanoceramics can also be made as strong, light aerogels by solgel techniques. Nanocrystalline silicon carbide is a candidate material for artificial heart valves primarily because of its low weight, high strength and inertness. e) Machinable Ceramics Ceramics are hard, brittle and difficult to machine. However, with a reduction in grain size to the nanoscale, ceramic ductility can be increased. Zirconia, normally a hard, brittle ceramic, has even been rendered superplastic (for example, able to be deformed up to 300% of its original length). Nanocrystalline ceramics, such as silicon nitride and silicon carbide, have been used in such automotive applications as high-strength springs, ball bearings and valve lifters, because they can be easily formed and machined, as well as exhibiting excellent chemical and hightemperature properties. They are also used as components in high-temperature furnaces. Nanocrystalline ceramics can be pressed into complex net shapes and sintered at significantly lower temperatures than conventional ceramics. f) Water Purification Nano-engineered membranes could potentially lead to more energy-efficient water purification processes, notably in desalination by reverse osmosis. Again, these applications would represent incremental improvements in technologies that are already available. They would use fixed nanoparticles, and are therefore distinct from applications that propose to use free nanoparticles.

g) Military Battle Suits Enhanced nanomaterials form the basis of a state-of- the-art battle suit that is being developed by the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT. A short-term development is likely to be energy-absorbing materials that will withstand blast waves; longer-term are those that incorporate sensors to detect or respond to chemical and biological weapons (for example, responsive nanopores that close upon detection of a biological agent). There is speculation that developments could include materials which monitor physiology while a soldier is still on the battlefield, and uniforms with potential medical applications, such as splints for broken bones.