Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

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Determination of unidirectional heat transfer coecient during unsteady-state solidication at metal castingchill interface
Hac Mehmet Sahin
a

a,*

, Kadir Kocatepe a, Ramazan Kaykc b, Nes et Akar

Gazi Universitesi, Teknik Egitim Fakultesi, Teknikokullar, Ankara 06503, Turkey b Sakarya Universitesi, Teknik Egitim Fakultesi, Sakarya, Turkey Received 9 October 2004; accepted 30 March 2005 Available online 11 May 2005

Abstract In this study, the interfacial heat transfer coecient (IHTC) for vertically upward unidirectional solidication of a eutectic AlSi casting on water cooled copper and steel chills was measured during solidication. A nite dierence method (FDM) was used for solution of the inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP). Six computer guided thermocouples were connected with the chill and casting, and the time temperature data were recorded automatically. The thermocouples were placed, located symmetrically, at 5 mm, 37.5 mm and 75 mm from the interface. As the lateral surfaces are very well heat isolated, the unidirectional solidication process starts vertically upward at the interface surface. The measured time temperature data les were used by a FDM using an explicit technique. A heat ow computer program has been written to estimate the transient metalchill IHTC in the IHCP. The experimental and calculated temperatures have shown excellent agreement. The IHTC during vertically upward unidirectional solidication of an AlSi casting on copper and steel chills have varied between about 199.5 kW/m2 K and 6.5 5 kW/m2 K, respectively. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Castingmold interface; Heat transfer coecient; AlSi eutectic

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 312 223 0347; fax: +90 312 212 4304. E-mail address: mesahin@gazi.edu.tr (H.M. Sahin).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.03.021

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Nomenclature _ q q000 h TC TM T t x k C M l L Greek q Dt Dx heat ux, W/m2 heat generation rate per unit volume, W/m3 interfacial heat transfer coecient, W/m2 K temperature of casting surface, K temperature of mold (chill) surface, K temperature, K time, s distance, m thermal conductivity, W/m K specic heat capacity, J/kg K sub-region number latent heat, J/kg length, m symbols density of material, kg/m3 time interval distance interval

Subscript m node point Superscript p time denoted

1. Introduction The subject of metalchill interfacial heat transfer, because of its important inuence on the solidication rate of metal castings, has been investigated by several previous studies. Some researchers have studied the heat transfer mechanism of castings to nd the inuencing factors on the IHTC as well as the macroheat transfer values. In these previous works, the IHTC has been dependent on many factors including the presence and thickness of surface coatings, casting surface orientation and casting size, chill or mold material, applied pressure, alloy type and composition, liquid alloy surface tension, mold and chill preheat, alloy superheat and chill surface roughness [111]. The eects of the direction of gravity in relation to the interface have been examined by investigation with the chill placed on the bottom, top or side of the mold [1]. An exact estimation of the heat transfer during the liquid alloy solidication in a casting mold depends on determination of the boundary conditions during the solidication, properties of the mold, properties of the casting alloy temperature distribution in the casting. During the solidication, these parameters are changing as a function of temperature and time. For the purpose of

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accurate modeling of solidication processes, it is required that correct boundary conditions should be set up [1214]. Estimation of the heat transfer coecient in a metal castingchill interface is usually calculated from timetemperature data measured during the solidication of a unidirectional chilled experimental casting. The casting alloy and chill material used for experimental casting are, generally, made of some materials and alloys on which accurate knowledge of their thermophysical behavior is known, such as aluminum, copper, iron and steal [15,16]. Heat transfer coecients dier depending on the dierent experimental conditions and casting alloys used [4]. Reviewing the literature, it has been found that there are basically two methods to measure the IHTC [17,18]. One is to measure the size of the gap formed between the metal casting and the chill and correlate this gap size with the heat transfer coecient [1921]. The other method is to conduct temperature measurements in the casting and in the chill at several designated locations and use an inverse method to derive the IHTC [1,5,14]. Some researchers have studied the problem of measuring the transient metalchill IHTC during unidirectional solidication. These studies show that the heat transfer coecient becomes a high value in the initial stage of solidication and then declines to a low steady value because the casting contracts from the chill surface, creating an interfacial gap [1,12,17,22,23]. It has been found that the heat transfer coecients have higher values when solidication is vertically upward than when solidication is either vertically downward or horizontal [1]. The loss of heat when a metal rst comes into contact with the mold is regulated not only by the heat storage capacity of the mold material but also by the heat transfer conditions within the metal itself and particularly at the metalchill interface. Santos determined that the solid bodies are only in contact at isolated points, and the actual area of contact is only a small fraction of the nominal area [12]. Various processing parameters and their eect on the IHTC have been examined by several researchers. In the literature, several researchers have studied the problem of determining the IHTC at the metalchill interface for solidifying aluminum alloys in copper, steel or cast iron molds and have provided some widely divergent values. These values have been reported from as high as 20 kW/m2 K to less than 1 kW/m2 K [1,10,2435]. The objective of our work is to determine the metalchill IHTC during the unidirectional solidication vertically upward of a cylindrical AlSi alloy casting on the water cooled surface of copper and steel chills and to compare the IHTC of the copper and steel chills. In the course of the work, a heat ow computer program has been written to estimate the transient metalchill IHTC in the IHCP.

2. Experimental procedure The schematic representation of the experimental setup connected to the data logger and analysis system, the casting arrangement and the position of the thermocouples used in the unidirectional solidication experiments is shown in Fig. 1. Two groups of experiments for evaluation of the IHTC are conducted for a liquid alloy (AlSi) on water cooled steel and copper chills at the Faculty of Technology in Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. Liquid metal is cast in a ceramic mold made of an alumina-silicate refractory tube of length 290 mm, internal diameter 28 mm and wall

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Fig. 1. Schematic view of casting arrangement and position of the thermocouples in mold wall and metal.

thickness 10 mm. The refractory tube is imbedded in ceramic wool of 20 mm thickness for improved lateral heat isolation. The cylindrical chill (copper or steel) of length 90 mm is inserted into a cylindrical mold as shown in Fig. 1. Six chromel-alumel thermocouples were centered at the common cylindrical axes of the chill and casting in the radial direction (see Fig. 1). They are placed symmetrically and located at 5 mm, 37.5 mm and 75 mm from the castingchill interface. All thermocouples were connected by cables to a data logger interfaced with a computer. The thermophysical properties of the casting and chill materials selected for our experiments are summarized in Table 1 [36,37]. The experiments are performed with an AlSi alloy, a eutectic composition, having a very narrow freezing range. For benchmarking purposes, copper and low carbon steel metals are used for the chill body material because of their very well known thermophysical behavior. The vertical solidication apparatus is designed to permit heat extraction only through the water cooled bottom. The lateral surfaces are very well heat isolated, so that the unidirectional solidication process starts vertically upward at the interface surface.

Table 1 Thermophysical properties using input data to computer program during the calculation of the IHTC [36,37] Materials H13 Steel chill Copper chill Al%13Si (solida) Al%13Si (liquidb) C, J/kg K 435.37 + 0,2 T 351 + 0.11069 T 1180 1200 q, kg/m3 7866.86 0.3174 T 9095.11 0.46292 T 2682.54 0.2969 T 2613.27 0.2414 T k, W/m K 25 416.51 0.05874 T 149.2 + 0.019667 T 0.865 T 648.75

Thermophysical properties as a function of temperature (T) in Kelvin. a Solidus temperature 849 K. b Liquidus temperature 850 K.

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The alloy was melted in an electric resistance oven until the molten metal alloy reached a predetermined temperature (980 K), above their melting temperature of 849 K, and then cooled to room temperature in the mold. Calibrated thermocouples were used. Six computer guided thermocouples were connected with the chill and casting, and the time temperature data were recorded automatically. The data from the thermocouples, read in the chill and casting are used to plot the time-dependent experimental temperature proles. The measured timetemperature data les were used to nd the correct boundary conditions as well as to correlate the temperatures derived from the FDM using an explicit technique, which was incorporated in the heat ow computer program written to estimate the transient metalchill IHTC, as explained in Chapter 3. The ow chart shown in Fig. 2 gives an overview of the solution procedure.

3. Determination of heat transfer coecient In our study, the IHTC during the solidication process is calculated by solving the IHCP using a FDM. Experiments are conducted to determine the unknown temperatures and the heat ux at the interface between the casting and chill. The timetemperature data are reproduced to be used to evaluate the boundary conditions. The heat ux across the metalchill interface can be described by a macroscopic average metal chill IHTC (h). One can write h _ q T C T M 1

_ where q is the average heat ux across the metalchill interface in W/m2 and TC and TM are the calculated interface temperatures of the casting metal surface and the chill surface, respectively. The heat ux for both the casting and chill interfaces were calculated from the temperature gradient (DT = Tm Tm1) at the surface and sub-surface nodes as follows: _ q k DT Dx 2

where k is the thermal conductivity of the casting or chill materials, W/m K. Then, the macroscopic average IHTC (h) was calculated from Eq. (1). 3.1. Mathematical formulation of heat transfer coecient 3.1.1. Heat ow in the chill With adequate insulation of the chill and casting chamber, the heat ow through the casting can be reasonably approximated as a one dimensional heat transfer problem. Unsteady state (transient) conduction heat transfer in a one dimensional body can be described by o2 T x; t 1 oT x; t ox2 a ot 0 6 x 6 L; t > 0 3

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H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

Fig. 2. Flow chart for the determination of the IHTC at metal castingchill interface.

H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

25

where T is the temperature, t is the time and x is the Cartesian coordinate. The term a is the thermal diusivity of the conducting material, a k qc 4

where k is the thermal conductivity, q is the density and c is the specic heat capacity. 3.1.2. Heat ow in the casting When treating the casting heat ow, the governing equation is similar to Eq. (3), but the term q000 is included on the left hand side of Eq. (3). We can write the heat transfer equation for solidifying metals as below. o2 T x; t oT x; t 5 q000 qc 2 ox ot The term q000 on the left hand side of Eq. (5) is a heat source term, which is incorporated to account for the latent heat of solidication, given by k ofs 6 ot where l is the latent heat of fusion and fs is the solid fraction in the casting. The fs term is determined as below, Eq. (7). Tf T 7 fs Tf Tl q000 ql The term
dfs dt

in Eq. (6) can be related to temperature as follows 8

ofs ofs oT ot oT ot Substitution of Eq. (8) into Eq. (6) gives ofs oT oT ot Substitution of Eq. (9) into Eq. (5) gives q000 ql o2 T ofs oT oT ql qc 2 ox ot oT ot This equation can be rearranged as   o2 T ofs oT k 2 q cl ox oT ot k

10

11

One can dene c0 c l ofs as an apparent specic heat during the solidication. Then, Eq. (11) oT can be written as o2 T x; t qc0 oT x; t ox2 ot k 12

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3.1.3. Finite dierence formulation Analytical methods may be used, in certain cases, to evaluate exact mathematical solutions to steady, one or two dimensional conduction problems. However, these solutions can be generated for an assortment of simple geometries and boundary conditions, and they are well documented in the literature. On the other hand, analytical solutions to transient problems are restricted to simple geometries and boundary conditions. In this respect, in many cases, the geometry and boundary conditions preclude the use of analytical techniques and recourse must be made to FDM. Some researchers developed a numerical model based on a FDM for simulating solidication behavior [3840]. In the present work, this problem has been approached in one dimensional geometry for a region with a nite dimension L shown in Fig. 3 as follows: The region (0 6 x 6 L) is divided into M equal size meshes. L 13 Dx M m subscripts are used to designate the x location of the discrete nodal points in Fig. 3. Besides being discretized in space, the problem must also be discretized in time. The integer p is introduced for this purpose: t pDt 14 The nite dierence approximation to the time derivatives of Eq. (3) and the same type of Eq. (12) is expressed as  p1 p oT   % Tm Tm 15 ot m Dt The superscript p is used to denote the time dependence of T, and the time derivative is expressed in terms of the dierence in temperatures associated with the new (p + 1) and the previous (p) time steps. Eqs. (3) and (12) are solved using an explicit FDM for the chill and casting by
p p Tp m1 T m1 2T m

Dx2

p1 p 1 T m T m a Dt

16

which can be rearranged as,

Fig. 3. Finite dierence node points in one-dimensional conduction.

H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

p T p1 T p 1 2Fo FoT p m m m1 T m1

27

17

where Fo is a nite dierence form of the Fourier number, Fo aDt Dx2 18

Eq. (17) is explicit because the unknown nodal temperatures for the new time are determined exclusively by the known nodal temperatures at the previous time. Hence, calculation of the unknown temperatures is straightforward. Since the temperature of each interior node is known at t = 0 (p = 0) from the prescribed initial conditions, the calculation begins at t = Dt (p = 1), where Eq. (17) is applied to each interior node to determine its temperature. With the temperatures known for t = Dt, the appropriate nite dierence equation is then applied at each node to nd the temperatures at t = 2Dt (p = 2). In this way, the transient temperature distribution is obtained by marching out in time, using intervals of Dt. The accuracy of the nite dierence solution may be improved by decreasing the values of Dx and Dt. Of course, the number of interior nodal points that must be considered increases with smaller mesh interval width Dx, and the number of time intervals required to carry the solution to a prescribed nal time increases with decreasing time interval Dt. Hence, the computation time increases with ner resolutions Dx and Dt. Eq. (17) must be written for both the casting and the chill elements, separately. For convergence of the calculation, the element size and time step are to be chosen under consideration of 1 19 2 The terms in Eq. (18), Dx and Dt, refer to the space and time increments used in the calculations. In this work, the dierential elements are selected as Dx = 0.5 mm and, consequently, Dt 6 0.0017 s for both the casting and the chill, complying with Fo 6 0.5. Fo 6 3.2. Boundary conditions and solution In the present work, the initial temperature and boundary conditions are chosen as follows: T x; 0 T i x T x1 ; t T m T x1 ; t T m t0 x1 L; t P 0 x1 L; t P 0 20 21 22

where the temperatures used for the boundary conditions, Ti, Tm and Tm, are obtained during the experiments, measured in two symmetrically located thermocouples in the chill and casting at L = 75 mm from the metalchill interface. The rst temperatures recorded by the thermocouples placed, symmetrically, 75 mm from the metal castingchill interface were used as initial temperatures, Eq. (20), at t = 0 in the casting and chill, respectively. The temperatures from these thermocouples were also used as boundary conditions at later times in the nite dierence calculations, Eqs. (21) and (22), respectively. The boundary conditions at the interface were obtained by assuming uniform surface temperatures

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over the surfaces of the casting and chill. The temperatures are read from the thermocouples every 0.5 s, dened as the time period of measurements. The calculated temperatures, 5 mm from the interface in the casting and the chill, respectively, were compared with the measured temperatures obtained at the same points. For this purpose, the actual location of the thermocouple between two adjacent nodes was determined, and the temperature was interpolated linearly between them. The supposed surface temperatures at the casting and chill interface were then modied, and the nite dierence calculation for the previous 0.5 s time interval was repeated. The accuracy of the numerical simulations has been set to agree by 0.1 K with the measured temperatures for the points at the 5 mm symmetrical distances from the interface in the casting and the chill. In this way, a reliable temperature eld has been determined that gave the surface temperatures of the casting and the chill at the interface within the selected accuracy of 0.1 K.

4. Results and discussions Temperatures were experimentally measured in six locations: in the chill and casting, symmetrically at 5 mm, 37.5 mm and 75 mm from the castingchill interface, respectively. They are shown in Fig. 4 together with the calculated temperatures following from the numerical simulation in the chill (TM) and casting (TC) interface of the eutectic AlSi casting and the water cooled steel chill. Fig. 5 shows the same data for the eutectic AlSi casting and the water cooled copper chill. The variations of the temperature eld in the course of the experiments can be followed for both the steel and copper chill, in Figs. 4 and 5, and are in good agreement with the thermophysical laws. In order to check the precision attained by the FDM, the calculated temperatures in the casting at a point 37.5 mm from the castingchill interface were compared with the temperatures measured at this point in a period of 0.5 s.

1000 900 6 5 4

Temperature [K]

800 700 600 500 1 400 300 200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TM TC 3 2

Time [s]

Fig. 4. Experimental and calculated temperatures response at six locations in eutectic AlSi casting and water cooled steel chill.

H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

1000 900 800

29

TC

5 4

Temperature[ K]

700 600 500 400 300 200 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Time [s]

TM

Fig. 5. Experimental and calculated temperatures at six locations in eutectic AlSi casting and water cooled copper chill.

The measured and calculated temperatures in the mid-points (37.5 mm) from the interface in the chill and casting are monitored to control the reliability of the correlation between the measurements and the numerical calculation. In the chill mid-point, where only heat conduction governs, the agreement of the measurements and calculations is excellent, with less than 12 K dierence, considering the accuracy limits of the thermocouples employed. On the other hand, the phase changing events in the casting complicate the calculation of temperatures. In the literature, temperature dierences < 20 K between the measurements and numerical calculation in the casting are accepted [3]. In the present study, good agreement between the measurements and numerical calculation has been attained. Figs. 6 and 7 show the calculated and measured temperatures in the middle of the eutectic AlSi casting over the water cooled steel and copper chills, respectively. The right ordinates in these gures indicate the temperature dierence between the calculation and measurement. In the casting mid-point, the calculated and measured temperatures have overlapped over the solidus time, and in the liquidus time, the temperature dierence has not exceeded 16 K and 14 K with the steel and copper chills, respectively. Figs. 6 and 7 demonstrate clearly the high reliability and accuracy of our calculations for determination of the time varying temperature elds in the chill and casting. 4.1. Cooling curves and heat transfer coecient After the determination of the temperature eld, the heat transfer between the casting and chill has been calculated with the help of Eq. (2) and is shown in Fig. 8 for the copper and steel chills. Then, the IHTC has been evaluated with the help of Eq. (1). The time dependent variation of the IHTC is shown in Fig. 9, from the initial moment of the casting process until a quasi-stationary situation is reached, and can be distinguished in mainly three stages.

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H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

1000 18 16 900
Calculation

14 12

800
Measurement

10 8
T

700 6 4 2 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 600

600

Time [s]

Fig. 6. Calculated and measured temperatures in the middle of the eutectic AlSi casting over the water cooled steel chill. (Right ordinate indicates the temperature dierence between calculation and measurement.)

1000

16 14

900

12
Measurement

10
T

800

8 6 4

700

Calculation

600

2 0

500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

-2 350

Time [s]

Fig. 7. Calculated and measured temperatures in the middle of the eutectic AlSi casting over the water cooled copper chill. (Right ordinate indicates the temperature dierence between calculation and measurement.)

4.1.1. First stage Liquid is poured in the mold. In the very early 1020 s, a suciently high liquid column is not yet formed so that this phase should be completely ignored. In the rst stage, while the metal is completely liquid and has perfect contact with the chill surface, the heat transfer coefcient reaches its maximum value of about 19 kW/m2 K for the copper chill and 6.5 kW/m2 K for the steel chill. Our calculated IHTC values are very similar to those in the literature for

Temperature Difference, T [K]

Temperature [K]

Temperature Difference, T [K]

Temperature [K]

H.M. Sahin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1934

3000 2500

31

q [KW/m2]

2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 100 200 300 400

Cupper Chill Steel Chill

Time [s]

Fig. 8. Calculated heat ux between casting and chill.

18000 15000
Stage I

Stage III

Cupper Chill

h [W/m2K]

12000 9000 6000 3000 0 0

Stage II

Steel Chill

Stage I

Stage II

Stage III

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time [s]

Fig. 9. Calculated heat transfer coecients IHTC.

solidifying aluminum alloys in copper and steel molds [10,26,30,31]. No skin formation of solid metal on the chill surface will occur due to the turbulences during the molten metal pouring phase into the mold. When pouring is stopped, the turbulences die out. A thin stable skin of solidied metal is formed on the chill because the chill extracts heat from the molten metal. The interface is pressed against the chill by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid metal. Then, the IHTC for the copper chill decreased sharply for a short time. The rst stage lasts only up to 30 s because of the high heat conductance of the copper chill. However, it lasts up to 120 s for the steel chill of lower heat conductance, in which time the IHTC decreased gradually with time. The eect of hydrostatic pressure decreases with the increasing of the solid skin thickness. In the rst stage, some parameters, such as the wettability of the liquid on the chill surface, the amount of melt super heat, surface roughness, mold temperature, pouring momentum of melt, thermal conductivity of chill, hydrostatic pressure and turbulence of melt, aect the heat transfer coecient.

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4.1.2. Second stage After formation of an adequate solid metal on the chill surface, the perfect contact between the chill and the solidied casting no longer exists because of contraction of the solidied casting. In addition, the thermal conductivity of the liquid is much higher than that of the solid. However, the decreasing of the IHTC on the copper chill proceeds continuously due to the remaining intimate contact and its high conductivity until solidication is completed at 135 s. Fig. 9 shows the IHTC on the steel chill in the second stage tended to remain at constant values, approximately 6 kW/m2 K during solidication of the casting, until 310 s because the heat extraction rate by the steel chill is not as high as that of the copper chill and the temperature dierences between the solid metal and chill surfaces (TC TM) decrease in time. It can be seen in Figs. 4 and 5 for the steel and copper chills, respectively. Solidication orientation, thermal conductivity and surface roughness of the chill are the most important parameters of the heat transfer coecient in this stage. 4.1.3. Third stage After solidication of the metal in the mold on the copper chill is completed, the IHTC continues to decrease to lower values due to the high conductivity of copper. On the other hand, the IHTC on the steel chill remains at constant values. The eect of the solidied casting contraction might be balanced by the thermal expansion of the steel chill that might produced a constant contact pressure between the casting and chill surfaces.

5. Conclusions Our calculated results have shown that the applied model for determination of the metal castingchill IHTC in one dimensional heat ow is achieved successfully, and the following conclusions can be summarized as follows: 1. A satisfactory FDM to evaluate the IHTC at the AlSi eutectic metal casting at both the copper and steel chill interfaces has been achieved for one dimensional heat ow. 2. The numerical calculated and experimental temperature values have shown excellent agreement and, consequently, a high reliability grade for the IHTC. 3. The IHTC values during the vertically upward unidirectional solidication of a eutectic Al Si casting have varied between about 199.5 kW/m2 K and 6.55 kW/m2 K on copper and steel chills, respectively. These values have shown good agreement with those in the literature. 4. The results have shown that the receding of the casting from both the copper and steel chill surfaces does not occur during the solidication. 5. The IHTC could be aected mainly by the contact position and area between the casting and chill surfaces roughness. Future investigation should, therefore, take these eects into consideration.

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Acknowledgment This work is supported by the research fund of the Gazi University, Projects #: 07/2002-08.

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