Optical Fibers

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. When describing the bending of the wave, we measure angles from the normal to the surface, just as when considering reflection. The angles between the light ray and the normal to the surface in each medium are related to the indices of refraction in those media by Snell's Law. Snells Law governs the behaviour of light-rays as they propagate across a sharp interface between two transparent dielectric media. The law of refraction states that the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant. It also states that the incident and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence and the incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray are coplanar. Snell's Law: the two media.) General form: or, n1sin = n2sin where n is a constant. (The constant is the ratio of the speeds of light in

v as the velocity of light in the respective medium (SI unit ism/s) and n as the refractive index (which is unit less) of the respective medium. Consider a light-ray incident on a plane interface between two transparent dielectric media, labeled medium 1 and 2, as shown in the figure. 1 is the angle subtended between the incident ray and the normal to the interface, and 2 is the angle subtended between the refracted ray and the normal to the interface. The quantities n1 and n2 are termed the refractive indexes of media 1 and 2, respectively. Thus, the law of refraction predicts that a light-ray always deviates more towards the normal in the optically denser medium: i.e., the medium with the higher refractive index. Note that n2 > n1 in the figure.

Fiber Optics
Today ber optics is used in a variety of applications from the medical environment to the broadcasting industry. It is used to transmit voice, television, images and data signals through small exible threads of glass or plastic. The operation of optical fiber is based on the total internal reflection. This is a process that we do not encounter in our everyday lives. When we look in a mirror each morning, we see an image that is created by reflecting perhaps 90% of the light that strikes it. Total internal reflection reflects 100% of the light. The figure below demonstrates the equations involved in this principle.

In the figure, the upper lighter region has higher refractive index than the lower region. The refractive index of the upper region is designated n2 while the lower region refractive index is n1. The figure shows a case where the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle. Note that the angle the light is travelling changes at the interface between the higher refractive index n1 region and the lower refractive index n2 region. As we proceed to the right, the figure shows that, the angle of incidence has increased to the critical angle. At this angle the light ray travels parallel to the interface region. The figure also shows that, the incidence angle has increased to a value greater than the critical angle. In this case 100% of the light reflects at the interface region. Total internal reflection occurs because the light travels at different speeds in different materials. A dimensionless number called the refractive index is used to characterize the different mediums through which the light is travelling. The refractive index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a specific medium (v) to its velocity in a vaccum. (c)

As light passes from one medium with different refractive index, it is bent or refracted. If light passes from a medium with a lower refractive index to one with a higher refractive index, the light bends towards the normal. If the light passes from a higher refractive index to a lower refractive index the light is bent away from the normal. Snells law, in figure 1 determines the amount the light is bent and is given by: n1 sin1= n2 sin2 As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90 o. The angle of incidence that produces and angle of refraction of 90 o is the critical angle. Increasing the angle of incidence past the critical angle results in the total internal reflection. In total internal reflection the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This is the basis for the operation of optical fiber. The critical angle is calculated as follows: = sin-1 (n1/n2)
Where n2 =

Refractive index of the core

n1 = Refractive index of the cladding

The core of an optical fiber has a higher refractive index than the cladding. (n1 > n2), allowing the total internal reflection. Light entering the core of a fiber at the angle sufficient for total internal reflection travels down the core reflecting off the interface between the core and the cladding. Light entering at an angle less than the critical angle is refracted into the cladding and lost.

Bibliography
Snells Law last modified on 5th July 2011, Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell%27s_law Viewed on 21st July 2011 Snells Law The Law of Refraction, http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/courses/m30901a/chu/Fundamentals/snell.htm Viewed on 21st July 2011 Snells Law Refraction of light by Rick Reed, viewed on 21st July 2011 http://interactagram.com/physics/optics/refraction/ Fundamentals of Fiber Optics Emmett Lentilucci, Modified on November 9, 1993 http://www.openoptogenetics.org/images/f/fb/Fundamentals_of_Fiber_Optics.pdf - 21st July 2011 Fiber Optics Physics through Applications Oxford University press 1998, Edited by Jim Jardine 21st July 2011 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Endorsed by University of Cambridge International Examinations, Published in 2007, Tom Duncan and Heather Kennett, Viewed on 21st July 2011 Fiber Optic Reference Guide, David R.Goff, Copyright 1996. Viewed 1st July 2011

Extended Practical Investigation

Controlling Variables Independent variable
Angle of incidence.

Dependent variable
Angle of refraction

Controlled variables
-The refractive index -The position of the Perspex -Same light source -Same protractor and unit -Same piece of Perspex and Glass block

Aim
The aim of this experiment is to find the refractive index of Perspex and a rectangular glass block, using Snells law by shining a ray at a these two materials and drawing the incoming and out coming ray, and then drawing the normal to measure the angles

Hypothesis:
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction will decrease and bend towards the normal because the light ray is passing from a less dense medium to denser medium with a higher refractive index. The Perspex will have a higher refractive index than the glass block.

Equipment:
2 sheets of paper Pins Cork Board Light box Power Supplier Pencil Ruler Protractor

Safety
Never look directly into a light beam. Never point the light beam directly into a persons eye.

Method
1. Pin a sheet of paper on the cork board using pins and center the Perspex on the sheet of paper. 2. With a pencil, mark its position onto the paper: draw a line against the sides at their base. 3. Position the light beam at the edge of the paper, and select an incident angle of approximately 10. 4. Mark the path of the light beam, from the mouth of the light beam and the point of impact on the glass block, with a pencil. 5. Draw a straight line through the marks. 6. Adopt the universal convention of measuring angles of all rays with respect to the local normals to the interfaces, and measure the angle of refraction r by using a protractor and compare it to the angle of incidence i. 7. Calculate (sin i / sin r) to find the refractive index using Snells law. Take the index of refraction of air to be 1.00. 8. Repeat the from steps 3-7 for 20o,30o and 40o and find the refractive indexes. 9. Repeat the whole procedure for the rectangular glass block and find the refractive indexes.

Diagrams

Centering the Perspex

Drawing the normal

Positioning the light ray box at different positions to get an incident angle

Measuring Incident Angles

Glass block with incident rays drawn

Trace of Perspex with incident rays drawn

Trace of glass block with angle of incidences marked

Marking the path of the refracted rays

Marking the path of the emergent ray

Materials used

ruler pencil sheets of paper

protractor

Glass block

Perspex

Pin

Cork board

Power Supplier

Light ray box

The figure above shows how the snells law diagrams actually look like, at the end of the experiment

Critical angle - The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 90 o

The two figures show that the angle of incidence was greater than the critical angle, so the refracted was total internally reflected.

Results Refractive Index for Perspex

i 10o 20o 30o 40o Sin i 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 r 5.0o 9.5o 14.0 o 19.5 o Sin r 0.087 0.165 0.242 0.334

Graph

Refractive Index for Rectangular Glass block

i 10o 20o 30o 40o Sin i 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 r 6.0o 9.5o 14.5 o 20.5 o Sin r 0.104 0.165 0.250 0.350 N = Sin I / Sin r 1.5 2.1 2.0 1.8

Graph

Observations
I observed that light travels from its origin at the light ray box in a straight line, unless it encounters a boundary to the medium. I found out that a ray travelling from a low index of refraction (which in this case is air) to a high index of refraction (Perspex and Glass block) will experience a bending toward the normal. However a ray passing from the glass medium with high refractive index to air which has a low index will experience a bending away from the normal.When the angle of incidence was greater than critical angle, the angle of refraction was 90o. In this case light did not transmit through the glass block or Perspex and as such it was reflected totally.

Analysis Calculations Refractive Indexes of Perspex at different angles

n = sin I / sin r = sin 10 / sin 5 = 2.0 n = sin I / sin r = sin 20 / sin 9.5 = 2.1 n = sin I / sin r = sin 30 / sin 14.0 = 2.1 n = sin I / sin r = sin 30 / sin 14.0 = 1.9

Average Refractive Index = 2.0 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 1.9 / 4 = 2.0 In terms of accuracy, we could consider finding the gradient of the slope by using y = mx + c where, m is the gradient and the refractive index for the material. Therefore, for Perspex, it is 1.554 when the Y-Intercept is 0.1230 and correlation is 1.000.

Refractive Indexes of Rectangular Glass block at different angles

n = sin I / sin r = sin 10 / sin 5 = 1.5 n = sin I / sin r = sin 20 / sin 9.5 = 2.1 n = sin I / sin r = sin 30 / sin 14.0 = 2.1 n = sin I / sin r = sin 40 / sin 20.5 = 1.8

Average Refractive Index = 1.5 + 2.1 + 2.1 +1.8 = 1.9 Just like Perspex, in the glass block, we find the most refractive index by y=mx+c . The gradient is therefore 1.430. It is the refractive index. Y-intercept is 0.1425 and Correlation is 1.000.

Critical Angle of Perspex

= sin-1 (n1/n2) = sin-1 (1/2)
= 30o

Critical Angle of Rectangular Block

= sin-1 (n1/n2)

= sin-1 (1/1.9)
= 31o45

Discussion
The data obtained reveals that there is no clear linear relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. For example, a doubling of the angle of incidence from 40 degrees to 80 degrees does not result in a doubling of the angle of refraction. Thus, a plot of this data would not yield a straight line. If however, when the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction are plotted, the plot is almost a straight line, indicating a linear relationship between the sines of the important angles. If two quantities form a straight line on a graph, then a mathematical relationship can be written in y = mx + b form. From the plot of the sine of the angle of incidence vs. the sine of the angle of refraction we could find the gradient. The gradient of the line indicates the refractive index of the material. In the case of this experiment, the angle of refraction decreases and the angle of refraction decreases because the more dense the material, the slower the speed of light in that material. However, this is not always the case. It actually depends on the denser medium and less dense medium. If the ray is moving from a denser medium to a less dense medium the angle of incidence will be greater than the angle of refraction but if it is from a less dense medium to a denser medium the angle of refraction will be greater than the angle of incidence. So when we find the refractive index, we are meant to flip the formula, thus it will be n = sin r/sin i.

Conclusion
I have learnt that for different materials, the refractive index isnt the same and it varies for different mediums.

Evaluation
The hypothesis is valid, when compared to the published data and it was approximately the same. The published data states that it is 1.489 but in the experiment I got it as 1.554 for Perspex. For the glass block it was almost exactly the same. The published data states that it is 1.42 while I got 1.40. I personally think that my method is much more accurate than the method where we use pins and look through them at a perpendicular eye level to mark the pathway of the refracted ray. I attempted with that particular method first but it was a complete failure because there were so many human errors in the experiment, Parallax error in

particular. For all the reasons mentioned above, I believe that the experimental results I obtained for this method is quite reliable and accurate. There was however a slight problem I had to encounter with, while doing the experiment. While I was moving the Protractor along the normal, the angle kept on changing and the angles were apparently different for different Protractors which were surprising. Therefore, using the same protractor throughout the experiment to measure the angles was advisable. Overall, even though the results were reliable, they are not perfect results there is the discrepancy between an exact value and some approximation to it. A percentage error occurs because the measurement of the data is not precise due to instruments. So, in this case percentage errors for the measurement of angle of incidence, angle of refraction and the refractive indices are calculated. To find the percentage Error we convert the value to a percentage of 100. For example : The Percentage error for angle of incidence of 10o will be % error = 1/10 * 100 = 10 % Angle of incidence/o 10 20 30 40 Percentage Error/ % 10 5 3.33 2.5 Angle of refraction/o 5.0 9.5 14.0 19.5 Percentage Error/ % 20 10.53 7.14 5.13 Refractive Index 1.99 2.07 2.06 1.93 Percentage Error/ % 30 15.53 10.47 7.63

I could have extended the experiment further by trying out the method with different materials and find refractive indices of those materials. I could also try to change the single slit black slide to various other slides of different colours to see if any change occurs in the initial result obtained. During the limited time I had, I was able to do the experiment for 4 angles and the refractive indices were fairly the same though there were slight variations. Therefore, for greater accuracy, I should repeat the whole experiment at least thrice with more angles and get an average of the results. ~ Thank you ~