M. A.

Mehrabian

HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS OF CROSS FLOW OF AIR OVER A CIRCULAR TUBE IN ISOLATION AND/OR IN A TUBE BANK
M. A. Mehrabian *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, P. O. Box 76169-133, Kerman, Iran

1. INTRODUCTION Circular tube banks are probably the most common heat transfer surfaces, particularly in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The fluid flow is ideally normal to the tubes. The most usual tube arrays are staggered and inline, although other arrangements are possible. The flow converges in the inter-tube spaces inside a bank and forms a highly turbulent flow over the inner tubes. The recirculation region in the rear of an inner tube is smaller than in a single tube. The situation is governed by the relative pitches and the bank geometry. The more compact a bank is, the larger is the difference from the single-tube situation. Some differences depend on the number of longitudinal rows because of the inlet-outlet effects [1]. The fluid flow inside a staggered bank may by compared to periodically narrowing and widening channels such as those formed between corrugated plates in plate heat exchangers. Flow inside inline banks approaches that in straight channels, and the mean velocity distribution in the minimum inter-tube space of a transverse row is highly influenced by the relative pitches. The leading tubes induce vertical flow and a variable velocity distribution around the inner tubes. At low Re, the inside flow is predominantly laminar with large vortices in the recirculation regions. Their effect on the front parts of inner tubes is eliminated by viscous forces and negative pressure gradients. Laminar boundary layers are still formed on the inner tubes which separate and form recirculation regions in the rear. This pattern may be called a predominantly laminar flow and is observed at Re<1000. Significant changes are introduced at higher values of Re. The inter-tube flow becomes vortical and highly turbulent. On inner tubes, in spite of high turbulence, laminar boundary layers are still observed [2]. A negative pressure gradient on the front part of an inner tube causes an acceleration of the flow. The boundary layer is thin and changes but little with the distance from the stagnation point. Both the intensity of turbulence and its generation in the inter-tube spaces are governed by the bank geometry and Re. With shorter transverse pitches, the velocity fluctuations become more intensive. The turbulence level of the main flow can influence fluid dynamics only over the first and second rows. A tube bank acts as a turbulizing grid and establishes a specific level of turbulence. Highly turbulent transient flows are observed on inner tubes in the inter-tube spaces. In most banks, steady state flow begins on the third row. On an inner tube, the distributions of pressure and velocity are very different from that on a single tube [3].

* Tel: +98(341)2111763, Fax: +98(341)2114049 Email: ma_mehrabian@yahoo.com

Key words: Heat transfer; Pressure drop; Cross flow; Horizontal tubes; Tube bank; Forced convection; Drag coefficient.
Paper Received 24 June 2005; Revised 4 December 2006; Accepted 18 March 2007

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The average heat transfer from banks of smooth tubes is generally determined by [5]:
Nu = cRe m Pr n ( Pr / Prw ) p .

(1)

Studies in the ranges of Pr from 1 to 10 000 and Re from 1 to 2 106 suggest a constant exponent of Pr, which is n=0.36 for the subcritical flow regime and n=0.40 for the supercritical regime at low Prandtl numbers (0.2 Pr 1). The subcritical, critical, and supercritical regimes for a tube bank are defined the same way as for a single tube, namely Re<2105, 2105<Re<6105, and Re>6105 respectively. The exponent of the ratio Pr/Prw can safely be approximated with a constant value of p=0.25. The effect of bank arrangement on the average heat transfer varies with Re. In the low range of Re ( 50), the heat transfer from a tube in the leading row actually coincides with the single tube and inner tube values. In the higher range of Re (>50), heat transfer rates from inner tubes are higher than those from the leading row because of increased turbulence due to the leading rows acting as turbulizers. In most banks, steady state heat transfer is established from the third or the fourth row on. A comparison of heat transfer coefficients at the leading rows and at the inner rows illustrates the heat transfer augmentation in banks due to higher turbulence [4]. The correlating equations representing the average heat transfer from inline banks and staggered banks in cross flow are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The uncertainty of the results is within 15%. The Pr range covered by the correlations listed in Table 1 and Table 2 is from 0.7 to 5000 [5]. Table 1. Heat Transfer Correlations for Inline Tube Banks when N>16 [5] Recommended Correlations
Nu = 0.9Re 0.4Pr 0.36 (Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.52Re 0.5Pr 0.36 ( Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.27 Re 0.63Pr 0.36 (Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.033Re 0.8Pr 0.4 (Pr / Prw )0.25

Range of Reynolds number 100102 102103 1032105 21052106

Table 2. Heat Transfer Correlations for Staggered Tube Banks when N>16 [5] Recommended Correlations
Nu = 1.04Re 0.4Pr 0.36 (Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.71Re 0.5Pr 0.36 ( Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.35(X t / X l )0.25 Re 0.6Pr 0.36 (Pr / Prw )0.25 Nu = 0.031(X t / X l )0.2 Re 0.8Pr 0.36 (Pr / Prw )0.25

Range of Reynolds number 1005102 5102103 1032105 21052106

In a general correlation, a correction for the number of tube rows should be introduced because the shorter the bank, the lower the average heat transfer. The influence of the number of tube rows becomes negligible only for N>16 as found from [5]. The pressure drop in tube banks is related to the drag coefficient according to the following equation [6]:
P = N R 1 V 2 2

(2)

In in-line tube banks and in staggered banks with the narrowest cross-section at right angles to the direction of flow ( 2b 2a + 1 ), the number of main resistances to flow NR is the same as the number of tube rows N. In staggered banks

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with the narrowest cross-section in the diagonals ( 2b < 2a + 1 ), the number of main resistances to flow NR is equal to N1. The drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number (Re), and the lateral (a) and longitudinal (b) spacing ratios as defined in the nomenclature. A complete survey of empirical correlations for in-line and staggered tube banks in isothermal flow as well as in temperature dependent flow are presented in [6]. The allowance for the number of tube rows in both isothermal and temperature dependent flows are made in empirical correlations [6]. The purpose of this paper is to conduct an experimental technique to directly calculate the heat transfer coefficient between a cylindrical copper element and the air flowing past it in a specially designed test rig composed of a transparent working section exposed to forced convection of air provided by a centrifugal fan. The experimental procedure also permits calculation of the pressure loss coefficient, representing the pressure drop imposed on the flow by each successive row of tubes expressed as a proportion of the velocity head. 2. EQUIPMENT DETAILS The test rig is composed of a draw-through wind tunnel having a square cross-section of 12.5 12.5 cm being set horizontally. The main part of the rig is the working section with spaces provided for the tubes. The schematic diagram of the test apparatus is shown in Figure 1. One of the spaces is occupied by an element consisting of a tube of pure copper approximately 10 cm long carried between two extension rods of a fabric-based plastic compound. The element is heated by withdrawing it from the working section and placing it in a cylindrical electric heater. The heater is supplied with current at a low voltage from a rectifier and raises the temperature of the element to a maximum of about 80oC. The element temperature is indicated by a copperconstantan thermocouple potentiometer, which records the temperature difference between the hot junction embedded in the element and a cold junction in the air stream at the inlet of the working section. The initial temperature of the air is indicated by a mercury-in-glass thermometer at the air inlet. The geometric layout of the tube bank is staggered with four rows of five tubes. The tube diameter, transverse pitch and horizontal pitch are 12.5 mm, 25 mm and 18.75 mm respectively.

INCLINED MANOMETER

TOTAL HEAD TUBE

PERSPEX WORKING SECTION

ELEMENT

FAN
ELECTRIC HEATER

ENLARGED SECTION OF THE ELEMENT

PEN RECORDER OR THERMOCOUPLE POTENTIOMETER

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the test apparatus The apparatus includes a centrifugal fan driven by a 1 hp electric motor and having its inlet connected to the working section. Air enters the test section by way of a bell-mouth. After the working section, a transition piece leads to the fan

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inlet and carries a honeycomb flow straightener intended to prevent the transmission of swirl from the fan back into the working section. The fan discharges to a graduated throttle valve by means of which the air velocity through the apparatus may be regulated. To permit exploration of the flow pattern upstream of the tube bank, a total head tube is provided, and this may be traversed in a direction perpendicular both to the air flow and to the axes of the element. Five traversing stations are provided at 2.5 cm centers, permitting a complete survey of the cross section. In addition, a traversing position is provided downstream of the tube bank, permitting investigation of the flow pattern in the wake. Associated static tappings are provided so that the velocity head may be recorded by means of the manometer. The velocity distribution upstream of the tube bank is sensibly constant and may be established by a single measurement of the static wall pressure downstream of bell-mouth. When all the tube elements are in position, the static pressure drop across the four tube rows is about four times the velocity head, and once the relation between velocity head and pressure drop has been established, it is preferable to observe the pressure drop rather than the velocity head as an indication of the air velocity past the tube bank. Pressure differences and velocity heads in the apparatus reach a maximum of about 75 mm water gauge. The inclined manometer provided has a range of this magnitude, for greater precision an electronic micro-monometer, available as an extra, may be used. The thermocouple in the copper element is made of copper and constantan wires. The temperature characteristic of the thermocouple is approximately linear within the range 050oC temperature difference and may be related linearly to the voltage measured by a digital voltmeter. 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The experimental technique developed in this paper produces the cooling curves for the heated element under various flow conditions regulated by the throttle valve while the fan is in operation. The apparatus is set up with the heated element in any desired position. The manometer is connected to the total head tube, which is located in the centre upstream position, with the tube itself on the horizontal centerline of the working section and facing upstream. The other leg of the manometer is connected to the static tapping at the upstream end of the working section. The thermocouple potentiometer is standardized in accordance with the instructions provided with the instrument. The velocity head upstream of the working section is in fact equal to the pressure drop between the atmosphere and the upstream static pressure tapping. Once this has been established, the depression at the static tapping may be employed as a measure of H1. Readings of the thermocouple (air inlet temperature) and the manometer (velocity head upstream of the working section) are recorded. The element is removed from the working section and inserted in the heater. When the temperature of the element reaches 60 to 70oC, corresponding to a thermocouple voltage of about 2.4 mV, the element is removed from the heater and replaced in the working section. The potentiometer is set to a reading rather lower than that corresponding to the temperature of the element. At the same time, the galvanometer needle is observed and a stop watch is started when the needle passes through the zero position. The potentiometer is re-set to a lower value and the stop watch reading is started when the galvanometer needle again passes the zero mark. The above operation is repeated for a series of diminishing potentiometer readings; the resulting information enables a cooling curve to be plotted. The cooling curves are plotted for a range of different air velocities and also with the element in each of the four ranks of tube bank and in isolation. The relation between upstream velocity head and pressure drop across the tube bank is determined when all the tubes are in position. The velocity distribution upstream of the working section, and also at various positions in the wake, is explored by means of the total head tube. 4. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND PROBLEM FORMULATION It is assumed that the heat generated in the cylindrical copper element is transferred to the air flowing past it. However, a certain amount of heat is conducted from the element into the plastic extension pieces. The extent of this effect may be determined by making comparative tests using copper elements of identical diameter but varying lengths. From these tests, the equivalent additional surface area represented by the plastic extensions may be calculated and allowed for by making an addition to the true length of the element to give an effective length to be used in the calculations.

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It is further assumed that temperature gradients within the element are negligible (lumped system analysis), so that the thermocouple embedded at the centre gives a true indication of the effective surface temperature. The justification for this assumption is that the Biot number is very small (Bi < 0.1) The rate of heat transfer from the element to the air stream is given by:
q = hA (T T a )

(3)

The temperature drop dT in a period of time dt is given by:

qdt = mCdT

(4)

Combining Equations (3) and (4) and eliminating q gives:

hA dT = 1 dt T T a mC

(5)

where A is replaced by A1 to allow for the tube plastic extensions. Integrating between T and To corresponding to t=t and t=0 gives:
T Ta hA1 ln = t. T0 Ta mC

(6)

Equation 6 suggests that a plot of ln T Ta against t should yield a straight line of slope
T0 Ta

M =

hA1 mC

(7)

and, since the other factors in this expression are known, the heat transfer coefficient h may be calculated. The heat transfer coefficient is related to the slope M of this line by the following expression:
h= mC M . A1

(8)

A semi-logarithmic plot of rate of cooling gives the slope M and thus a knowledge of the thermal capacity and surface area of the copper element permits a direct calculation of the average heat transfer coefficient between the copper element and the air flowing past it. The geometrical and physical properties of the copper element are given in Table 3. Table 3. Geometrical and Physical Properties of the Copper Element Diameter (d) Length (L) Effective length (L1) Surface area (A) Effective surface area (A1) Specific heat (C) Mass (m) 0.01242 m 0.0951 m 0.1035 m 0.00371 m2 0.00404 m2 380 J/kg.K 0.1093 kg

When a gas of density and pressure P is expanding freely from rest under the influence of a sufficiently small pressure difference (as in the present case), for compressibility to be neglected, the Bernouli equation reads:
1 W 2 = 98.1H , 2

(9)

where, W is the velocity developed by the gas and H is the velocity head measured in centimeters of water, since: 1 cm H2O = 98.1 N/m2 .

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The air density at pressure Pa and temperature Ta is given by:

a =

Pa , RT a

(10)

where the air constant R is 287 J/kg.K. Combining Equations (9) and (10) gives:
W = 237.3 H Ta . Pa

(11)

Equation (11) may be used for calculating local velocities upstream of the element, substituting H1 and V1 for H and W respectively. It may alternatively be used for calculating local velocities downstream of the element, substituting H2 and V2 for H and W respectively. The effective velocity through a bank of tubes is based on the minimum flow area. When all the tubes are present, this minimum area occurs in a transverse plane including a row of 5 tubes. Since the tubes have a diameter of 1.25 cm and the width of the working section is 12.5 cm, the effective area is one half that of the working section, and therefore the effective velocity is twice the velocity upstream of working section. When a single element is being studied in isolation, the minimum flow area is 9/10 of the full working section area, and therefore the effective velocity is 10/9 of the velocity upstream of working section 5. THERMAL RESULTS In a particular test, the element occupied the center position in the first row of tubes and the apparatus was running at different throttle openings. The observations of rate of cooling were recorded. Typical sets of data corresponding to maximum and minimum air velocities (throttle opening 100% and 10% respectively) are listed in Table 4. Table 4. Data of Rate of Cooling Corresponding to Maximum and Minimum Air Velocities when the Copper Element Occupies the Center Position in the First Row of Tubes Thermocouple mV 2 1.7 1.4 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 TTa (oC) 48.78 41.46 34.15 26.83 19.51 14.63 9.76 4.88

ln

T Ta T0 Ta
0

Time at max. velocity (s) 0 10 22 37 56 74 100 144

Time at min. velocity (s) 0 30 65 108 169 225 303 452

0.1626 0.3565 0.5978 0.9164 1.2042 1.6090 2.3022

To evaluate M, ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) is plotted against t. Based on the data collected in Table 4, ToTa=48.78 oC and the values of ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) are calculated at each time step. The results are inserted in the third column of Table 4. The plot of ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) against t, corresponding to the two sets of data is shown in Figure 2, from which the slope may be measured: M100=1.6102 and M10=5.2103 As an alternative to plotting these points and estimating the best fit straight line, it may be found convenient to calculate the mean slope as follows:
M = ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) . t

(12)

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Equation (12) results in:

M 100 =
7.1487 = 1.6137 102 443

M 10 =

7.1487 = 5.2875 103 . 1352

Having M, the heat transfer coefficient may be deduced using Equation (8), provided the geometrical and physical properties of the copper element are known. This information is given in Table 3. Applying the geometrical and physical properties of the copper element into Equation (8) gives: h100=157.096 W/m2.K h10=51.474 W/m2.K Consequently, the Nusselt numbers corresponding to the above heat transfer coefficients are calculated, provided the thermal conductivity of air stream is known. The initial temperature of the air is measured using the mercury-in-glass thermometer located at the inlet of the test section. This temperature is recorded as 19oC, giving the thermal conductivity of atmospheric air to be 0.02566 W/m.K. Thus the Nusselt number becomes: Nu100=77 Nu10=24.91. A complete set of tests may be taken with the heated element in each of the four ranks of tubes and with ten different throttle openings. The results of such a test are shown in Figure 3 as a plot of Nusselt number against Reynolds number. It is observed that the heat transfer coefficient increases, though at a diminishing rate, in successive rows of tubes. This is caused by the increasing level of turbulence as the air passes through the tube bank.

Figure 3. Relationship between Nu and Re for cross flow of air past the tube bank Figure 4 shows the results of a similar experiment made in this case with the heated element in isolation in the centre of the front rank. The experimental results from which this figure is plotted are given in Table 5. The second column in Table 5 is the velocity head upstream the single element measured by the inclined manometer in cm H2O. The third column is the velocity upstream the working section calculated using Equation (11). The fourth column is the mean velocity past the single element based on the minimum flow area. The fifth column is the Reynolds number calculated at different mean air velocities. The sixth column is the slope of cooling curve at different throttle openings measured from the plot of ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) against t or calculated using Equation (12). The data of cooling curves at different throttle openings are not included. The seventh column is the mean heat transfer coefficient calculated using Equation (8). The eighth column is the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient (Nusselt number). The physical properties of air for the above calculations are included in Table 6.

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A standard correlation for forced convection heat transfer of air normal to a single tube [7] is:
Nu = 0.24Re0.6

The above correlation is plotted in Figure 4 using the same Reynolds numbers as listed in Table 5 to see how it compares with experimental data.

Figure 4. Comparison of experimental results with predictions of a standard correlation for a single tube Table 5. Data Corresponding to Different Throttle Openings when the Heated Element is in Isolation in the Center of Front Row Throttle opening % 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 H1 (cm H2O) 3.05 2.45 2.00 1.50 1.05 0.70 0.45 0.25 0.12 0.035 V1 (m/s) 22.43 20.10 18.16 15.73 13.16 10.74 8.61 6.42 4.45 2.40 V (m/s) 24.9 22.3 20.2 17.5 14.6 11.9 9.6 7.1 4.9 2.67
Re =

V d

M102 1.908 1.821 1.720 1.605 1.416 1.238 1.080 0.9049 0.730 0.545

h (W/m2K) 196.15 187.21 176.82 165.00 145.57 127.27 111.03 93.03 75.05 56.03

Nu 94.1 89.8 84.9 76.9 69.9 61.2 53.3 44.7 36.0 26.9

20063 17975 16321 14100 11800 9633 7743 5734 3930 2157

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Table 6. Physical Properties of Air Used in the Single Tube Experiment Temperature (Ta) Pressure (Pa) Dynamic viscosity () Thermal conductivity (k) Specific mass () 6. HYDRODYNAMIC RESULTS An experiment is conducted with all the tubes in position to establish the relationship between the velocity head H1 upstream of the working section and the static pressure drop H3 across the tube bank. The result of such a test is plotted in Figure 5. 295 K 100 700 Pa 1.8210-5 kg/m.s 0.0259 W/m.K 1.195 kg/m3

H1 (cm H2O)

H3 (cm H2O)

Figure 5. Upstream velocity head against pressure drop across the tube bank It should be noted that the velocity head upstream of the working section is in fact equal to the pressure difference between atmosphere and the upstream static pressure,
H 1 = Pa P1 .

The same relation holds downstream of the working section,

H 2 = Pa P2 .

The static pressure drop across the tube bank is then,

H 3 = P1 P2 = H 2 H 1 .

The velocity upstream (H1) and downstream (H2) the tube bank are measured at different throttle openings using the inclined manometer and the corresponding static pressure drop across the tube bank is evaluated according to the above equation. The results are then plotted in Figure 5. A further analysis is accomplished to show the velocity distribution downstream of the four rows of tubes (V2). Local velocities downstream of the tube bank may be calculated using Equation (11), substituting H2 and V2 for H and W respectively. The values of H2 are measured at 100% throttle opening and different local points downstream of the tube bank, using the portable inclined manometer. The result of such investigation is illustrated as a plot of V2 against the horizontal distance between two consecutive tubes, as shown in Figure 6. The figure shows that at 12.5 mm above the bottom of working section in the inter-tube space, the air velocity reaches its maximum value.
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24

20

16 V 2(m/s)

12

4 8 12 16 20 24 Horizontal distance between two consecutive tubes (mm)

Figure 6. Velocity distribution downstream of the tube bank between two consecutive tubes 7. DISCUSSION An experimental technique is developed to study the thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of cross flow of air past tube banks. Cooling curves are produced for a range of different air velocities and also with the element in each of the four rows of the tube bank and in isolation. The slope of cooling curve at different throttle openings is measured from the plot of ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) against t, or calculated using Equation (12). A typical cooling curve corresponding to maximum and minimum air velocities is illustrated in Figure 2. The figure shows a slight increasing curvature especially after ln(T T a ) /(T 0 T a ) = 2.0 . This suggests that there may be a radiant component or heat losses contributing to heat transfer. This issue has been neglected in the present analysis. The mean heat transfer coefficients are deduced using Equation (8). The Nusselt numbers are evaluated based on the above heat transfer coefficients. The velocity distribution upstream of the tube bank is sensibly constant and is established by a single measurement of the static wall pressure downstream of the bellmouth (upstream of the working section). The relationship between the velocity head H1 upstream of the working section and the static pressure drop H3 across the tube bank is established. The result of such a test is shown in Figure 5. This shows that in this instance: H1=0.22H3. It is then more accurate, at the lower flow rates, to observe H3 and calculate H1 from this relation. Once H1 is established, the velocity upstream the working section (V1) is determined using Equation (11). The mean velocity past the single tube or past the tube bank (V) is then calculated. This mean velocity is then used to calculate the Reynolds number. The information of Nusselt number and Reynold number permit to establish the relationship between Nu and Re. This relationship is given in Figure 3 with the heated element in each of the four rows of tubes and with ten different throttle openings. The data of Figure 3 can be represented as:
Nu = 0.6 0.3Re0.6

when the heated element is in the first row of tubes, and

Nu = 0.82 0.3Re0.6

when the heated element is in the second row of tubes, and

Nu = 1.00 0.3Re0.6

when the heated element is in the third row of tubes, and

Nu = 1.05 0.3Re0.6

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when the heated element is in the fourth row of tubes. It is observed that the heat transfer coefficient increases, though at a diminishing rate, in successive rows of tubes. This is caused by the increasing level of turbulence as the air passes through the tube bank. This experiment permits calculation of the drag coefficient, representing the pressure drop imposed on flow by each successive row of tubes expressed as a proportion of the velocity head. Since the mean velocity past the tubes is twice the mean upstream velocity, and since all tubes are in position (four rows of five tubes), we may based on Equation (2) write:

H3 / 4H 1 = 0.28 . 4

The velocity distribution downstream of the tube bank is explored as a plot of V2 against the horizontal distance between two consecutive tubes, as shown in Figure 6. Having five consecutive distances in the front rank of tubes, gives five such velocity distributions downstream of the tube bank, illustrating the high level of non-uniformity of flow that exists in a heat exchanger of this kind. 8. UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS The accuracy of air flow heat transfer coefficients is affected by radiant or other heat losses, the accuracy of thermocouple system, and the accuracy of evaluating the slope of cooling curve. The flow velocity has also considerable influence on experimental results, because the rate of cooling is increased at higher velocities. Since the flow velocity is not measured directly, as far as the temperature measurement is concerned, every error in this respect is included in the thermocouple system. On the other hand, however, the flow velocity controls the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number, together with the Nusselt number govern the thermal characteristics of the heat transfer system. Thus, from this respect, the accuracy of flow velocity affects the accuracy of overall thermal characteristic of the system. The flow velocity is determined from Equation (11), based on measured values of H and Ta (assuming Pa has a fixed value). The radiant and other losses from the electrically heated element are about 4% of the generated heat. This, however, includes the error caused as a result of lumped system assumption. It is estimated that the thermocouple system including the thermocouple wire variations, digital voltmeter characteristics and all associated measurements, communications and transformation procedure is able to give readings of 0.1oC about the true temperature. The air temperatures are measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer and the readings are about 0.5oC for the true temperature. The velocity head is measured by an inclined manometer having a range of 75 mm H2O. The head readings are about 0.25 mm H2O about the true pressure. Thus for a typical medium temperature run, where the temperature difference between the heated element and surrounding air is about 20oC, the air temperature is about 25oC and the pressure head is about 30 mm H2O, an error of about
0.2 1 0.5 (0.04) 2 + + + = 6% 20 25 30
2 2 2

is expected for the overall heat transfer characteristic of the system. The errors are greater when temperature differences are lower, or the surrounding air is colder, and or the pressure heads are smaller. 9. CONCLUSIONS Lumped system analysis along with measuring the rate of cooling of a solid cylindrical copper element gives the average heat transfer coefficient of a forced convection heat transfer system when the heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be constant. The same analysis, however, may result in an analytical solution for the rate of cooling when the heat transfer coefficient of the forced convection flow is known. A comparison of experimental results with predictions of a standard correlation shows that the two sets of data are in close agreement. When four rows of five tubes are present, the experimental data show a linear relationship between the velocity head upstream the tube bank and the pressure drop across the bank. The slope of such a linear relationship is used to calculate the drag coefficient; in the present case it turns out to be 0.28. This corresponds to 100% throttle opening (Re =40126).

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REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] E. Achenbach, T ffect of Surface Roughness on ransfer from International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 20(1977), pp. 359369. y ir,

A. Zukauskas and J. Ziugzda, Heat Transfer of a Cylinder in Cross Flow. Washington D. C. : Hemisphere, 1985. E. S. Gaddis, and V. Gnielinsky, Pressure Drop in Cross Flow Across Tube Bundles, International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 25(1)(1985), pp. 115. S. Kakac, and Y. Yener, Convective Heat Transfer. New York: Middle East Technical University, Distributed by Hemisphere, 1980. A. Zukauskas, Convective Heat Transfer in Cross Flow, in Handbook Kakac, R. K. Shah, and W. Aung. Canada: Ottawa; Wiley-Interscience Publication 1987. E. S. Gaddis, Pressure Drop in Cross Flow over Tube Bundles, Chapter Ld, in 1996. W. H. MacAdams, Heat Transmission, 3rd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954. ransfer d. S. . Berlin: VDI Verlag,

NOMENCLATURE A A1 a Bi b C d h H1 H2 H3 k L L1 m M N NR Nu Surface area of element, m2 Effective surface area of element, m2 Lateral spacing ratio (Xt/d) Biot number Longitudinal spacing ratio (Xl/d) Specific heat of copper element, J/kg.K Diameter of element, m Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K Upstream velocity head, cmH2O Downstream velocity head, cmH2O Static pressure drop across element, cmH2O Conductivity of air, W/m.K Length of element, m Effective length of element, m Mass of element, kg Slope of cooling curve Number of tube rows in the bank Number of main resistances in the direction of flow Nusselt number (hd/k) P1 P2 Pa Pr Q Re T Ta To V V1 V2 W Xl Xt Upstream static pressure, Pa Downstream static pressure, Pa Barometric pressure, Pa Prandtl number ( c p / k ) Rate of heat transfer to air, W Reynolds number ( V d / ) Temperature of element at time t, K Temperature of air, K Initial temperature of element, K Mean velocity past element, m/s Upstream velocity, m/s Downstream Velocity, m/s Velocity, m/s Horizontal pitch, m Vertical pitch, m Density of air, kg/m3 Viscosity of air, kg/m.s Pressure difference, Pa Drag coefficient

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