Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

1. Origin of magnetism 1.1 Magnetism of free atoms and ions 1.2 Magnetism for localized electrons 1.3 Itinerant electron magnetism 2. Magnetic properties of ferromagnets 2.1 Magnetic anisotropy 2.2 Magnetoelastic effects 2.3 Magnetic domain walls and domains 2.4 Magnetization process 3. Ferromagnetic materials 3.1 Soft magnetic materials 3.2 Hard magnetic materials 3.3 Magnetic recording materials 4. Magnetic and tranport properties on advanced magnetic materials 4.1 Magnetism in small structures 4.2 Surface and thin-film magnetism 4.3 Electron transport in ferromagnets

K. Inomata

1. 1. Magnetism of free atoms and ions

History of magnetism
Three forces in natural world: Universal gravitation, Nuclear force, Magnetic force

Magnetic force is one of the oldest physical phenomena that human knows. The origin of the word Magnet
Magnetic ores (Magnetite, Fe3O4) were found in Magnesia, the name of a region of the ancient Middle East, in what in now Turkey. The Magnet was also found in China in BC 7. Magnet = , In Japanese, . = loving stone, love, treat tenderly, Attraction or friendship, similar to magnet

History on magnetism
1. Discovery of functionality of the magnet Loadstone compass : China (BC 3) 2. Discovery of electromagnetic field Oersted (Denmark, 1820): Current gives a force on a loadstone compass Establishment of Electromagnetism Maxwells equations 3. Relation between the substance and magnetism Ampere : Magnetism is based on the special molecular field (1821) Langivin : Angular momentum by electron orbital motion (1905) Dirac : Discovery of spin angular momentum (1928) Heisenberg: The origin of ferromagnetism is in the exchange interaction (1933)

Origin of Atomic Moment

What is the microscopic origin of magnetism in materials ? Magnetic moment of a free electron
Consider an electron which rounds an atomic nucleus with a radius r and an angular velocity : Magnetic moment by orbital motion, l is defined as l = 0Ai ( 1.1 ) A=r2 0 = 410-7 H/m: Permeability in vacuum i = -e= -e / 2 : Current By inserting A r 2 and i = -/2 to (1.1), we obtain l0 r 2-e 2 - e0r/2 While, angular momentum of an electron is given by Plm r Thus, magnetic moment by an electron orbital motion - (0e /2 m) Pl ( 1.2 ) r -e

A=r2

( 1.3 )

( 1.4 ) ( 1.5 )

According to the quantum mechanics electron orbital motion around an atomic nucleus is quantized. So, orbital angular momentum is given by using the orbital angular momentum number l Pl h l ( 1.6 ) h = h/2 1.055 10-34 Js Thus, magnetic moment due to the orbital motion of an electron is = 0(-e h / 2 ml = - B B0e h / 2 m = 0.927 10-23 [A m2] 1.165 10-29 [Wbm] : Bohr magneton On the other hand, magnetic moment by electron spin is given using spin angular momentum number s from the Dirack equation s= - (0e/m) Ps - (0e/m) h s = - 2 B s where Ps = h s, s = 1/2. ( 1.8 )

( 1.7 )

Thus, the total magnetic moment by an electron is = = - ( l 2 s) B = - gB = l + s : total angular momentum g: g factor g = 2 for l = 0 ( 1.9 )

Magnetic moment of an atom with multi-electrons

1) Pauli principle
Only two electrons can occupy one energy state including spin

2) Hund rule : Rule for electron occupancy

Total S is maximum Total L is maximum Ex) 3d6 : Fe2+ ion L = ml = 0 n=3 ml = 2 l=2
1 0 -1 -2

Principal quantum number Orbital angular momentum quantum number Magnetic quantum number Spin quantum number l = 0, 1, 2 ..n-1 ml = -1, - l + 1, - l +2, , l ms = +1/2, - 1/2

n l ml ms

Total L = 2, S = 2

3) Russel-Sanders coupling
How do the spin and orbital angular momenta combine to form the total angular momentum of an atom ? Spin-orbit interaction: -e ( 1.10 ) l
H

lsjj LS
S = sj L = j

+Ze

s s is antiparallel to l
L J S

If spin-spin and orbit-orbit couplings are strongest and spin-orbit interaction is not so strong, J = L + S = jj : Russel-Sanders coupling J = (L + S), (L + S 1), ( L + S 2) ,.. L S > 0 : L is antiparallel to S for less than half electrons < 0 : L is parallel to S for more than half electrons Magnetic moment = - BL2 S- g B J

g = [3J (J +1) +S (S+1) L (L+1)/ [2J (J+1)] Landes g factor Effective magnetic moment eff = g B

( 1.11 ) ( 1.12 )

J(J+1 )

Practice problems
Nd4f5s5p ml 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 L = 6, S = 3/2 J = L S = 9/2 g = 8/11 eff = 3.62 2 Tb3+4f95s25p6 ml 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 L = 5, S = 5/2 J = L + S = 15/2 g = 4/3 eff = 10.65

Effective magnetic moment:

theory and experiment
eff
eff = g B J(J+ ) 1
5s, 5p

3+ ion Metals

4f Modified calculation

Rare earth metals follow the RusselSanders coupling J is a good quntum number.
Ferromagnetic 3d metals Fe 2.10 Co 2.21 Ni 2.21 Number of 4f electrons Hund rule

Quenching of the orbital angular momentum

In 3d series of elements J = S has been found experimentally as shown in the table.

Electrons in such as 3d series cannot draw a definite orbit due to the interactions between electrons. This leads to the negligible orbital contribution to the magnetic moment.

L=0 Isolated atom

L=0 Solid

Thus, the magnetic moment in 3d magnetic materials is mainly caused by electron spin.

j-j coupling
There is other way of coupling to form the total angular momentum of an atom. j-j coupling
The orbital and spin angular momenta are dependent on each other. It assumes there is a strong spin - orbit ( l - s ) coupling for each electron and that this coupling is stronger than the l - l or s - s coupling between electrons.

J = ji = ( li + si )

( 1.13 )

This form of coupling is more applicable to very heavy atoms.

2. Magnetism in materials
The various different types of magnetic materials are traditionally classified according to their bulk susceptibility .

2.1 Diamagnetism
Closed shell of electrons: S = 0 Weak magnetism Negative magnetic susceptivility : = I/H ~ -10-5 Lenz law Changing magnetic field H induces an electric field whose current generates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the first H field. This field induces the magnetization I Cu Ag Al2O3 C (graphite) -9.710-6 -25 -18 -14

H r A = r2

-e Electric field is induced E = - d/dt = AdB/dt = - 0AH/dt : magnetic flux B: Flux density Current i=E/R induces opposite magnetic field

= - 1 : Perfect diamagnetism = Superconductor

2.2 Paramagnetim: Localized model

is small and positive, typically ~ 10-3 10
-5

Atomic magnetic moment = - (L + 2S ) B No interaction between atomic moments Zeeman energy: E = - H = - B (L + 2S ) H = - g B J H For H // z , E = g B Jz H = g B MJ H = EM where MJ is the eigen value of Jz Probability for occupying energy EM is determined by Boltzmann statictics P(MJ)exp (-EM/kBT) exp(-EM/kBT) Magnetization ( Magnetic moment per unit cell ) I = N = NgB P(MJ)MJ = NgBJBJ(x) ( 2.4 ) ( 2.3 ) ( 2.1 ) ( 2.2 ) MJ = -J Jz H=0

Random orientation of moment

MJ = +J

BJ(x) = [(2J + 1)/2J] coth [(2J + 1 ) /2J] x (1/2J ) coth (x/2J) : Brillouin function x = gJBH/kBT

( 2.5 )

High temperature limit

BJ(x) = [(J + 1)/3J] x

lim
x0

1/

Eq.( 2.7 )

I = Ng2B2J(J + 1)/3 kBT = [ Neff2/3kBT ] H ( 2.6 ) = I/H = C/T : Curie law C = Neff2/3kB ( 2.7 ) Slope = 1/C

High field limit

BJ(x) = 1 ( H )

lim

Is = NgBJ , Brillouin function Slope = C

Is = N s s = gBJ ( 2.8 ) N: Number of atoms per unit volume

Saturation
Is = N s s = gBJ

H/T

Experiments obey The Brillouin function

2.3 Ferromagnetism: Localized model

Weiss theory Molecular field Hw = w I Total magnetic field HT = H + w I E = - gB MJ ( H + w I ) I = N = NgB P(MJ)MJ = NgBJ BJ(x) = I0 BJ(x) I0 = NgBJ x = gJB (H + w I ) / kBT When H = 0 I / I0 = kTx/ N(gBJ)2w I/I0 = BJ(x) High temperature limit; x << 1 BJ(x) = (J + 1 ) x / 3 J kBT/ N(gBJ)2w = (J + 1 )/3 J, : Paramagnetic Curie temperature ( 2.12 ) = Neff2w/3kB ( 2.8 ) Hw

( 2.9 )

I/I0
( 2.10 ) ( 2.10 ) ( 2.9 )

T > in ( 2.10 ) ( 2.9 )

T < in ( 2.10 )

x
T = N(gB)2 J ( J + 1 )w / 3kB = C w = C = Neff2/3kB, ( 2.11 )

Temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization

I/I0

T/

T > Curie temperature ( )

For x << 1, BJ (x) = ( J + 1 ) x /3 J ( 2.9 ) I = NgB J ( J + 1 ) x / 3 = ( C/T ) ( H + w I ) I = C H / ( T-Cw ) = I / H = C / ( T- ), = C w Curie-Weiss law

I/I0
1 /

Molecular field approximation

Estimation of w
Ex) Fe = 1063 K, = 2.2 B, N = 8.541028/m3 J = 1 w = 3kJ/(J + 1 ) N 2 = 3.9108 [A m / Wb] Molecular field Hm = w I = wN = 0.85109 [ A/m ] = 1.1107 Oe = 11 [MOe]

This is quite large. The w is based on the quantum mechanical exchange interaction - J S1 S2 J is exchange integral

Summary: Types of Magnetism

Diamagnetism Paramagnetism S = 0, Orbital magnetic moment only S = 0 and no atomic interaction

Ferromagnetism

S = 0 and parallel coupling

-J S1 S2 , J > 0
J:Exchange Integral
Antiferromagnetism S = 0 and antiparallel coupling

- J S1 S2 , J < 0
Ferrimagnetism S = 0 , antiparallel coupling and different atomic moments

-J S1 S2 , J < 0 S1 = S2