Module - 5: Force & Friction

Introduction:
The science of mechanics is based on three natural laws relating force and motion. These were clearly
stated for the first time by Sir Isaac Newton [1642 – 1727] and were published in 1686 in his
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Newton’s three laws relate an object’s acceleration to its
mass and the forces acting on it. A modern wording of Newton’s laws follows:

I. Newton's First Law of Motion: Every object continues to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion
unless acted on by an external force.
This we recognize as essentially Galileo's concept of inertia, and this is often termed simply the "Law of
Inertia".
To say that something is moving always implies a specific frame of reference. An inertial frame of
reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion holds.
II. Newton's Second Law of Motion: Newton's second law of motion explains how an object will
change velocity if it is pushed or pulled upon.
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force acting on the
body.
Firstly, this law states that if you do place a force on an object, it will accelerate, i.e., change its velocity,
and it will change its velocity in the direction of the force.
It accelerates in the direction…………..
That you push it.
Secondly, this acceleration is directly proportional to the force. For example, if you are pushing on an
object, causing it to accelerate, and then you push, say, three times harder, the acceleration will be three
times greater.
If you push twice as hard………….. F∝a
It accelerates twice as much.
Thirdly, this acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. For example, if you are
pushing equally on two objects, and one of the objects has five times more mass than the other, it will
accelerate at one fifth the acceleration of the other.
If it gets twice the mass……………..
It accelerates half as much. a = F/m

III. Newton's Third Law of Motion:

The word force is used to describe the interaction between two objects. When two objects interact, they
exert force on each other. Newton’s third law states that these forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

For example, if you push on a wall, it will push back on you as hard as you are pushing on it.

If you push on it…………………

It pushes on you.

The full power of Newton’s second law emerges when it is combined with the force laws that describe the
interactions of objects. For example, Newton’s law for gravitation, gives the gravitational force exerted by
one object on another in terms of the distance between the objects and the masses of each. This,
combined with Newton’s second law, enables us to calculate the orbits of planets around the sun, the
motion of the moon, and variations with altitude of g, the acceleration due to gravity.

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The fundamental forces in nature:
All the different forces observed in nature can be explained in terms of four basic interactions that occur
between elementary particles:
1. The gravitational force
2. The electromagnetic force
3. The strong nuclear force
4. The weak nuclear force
The everyday forces that we observe between macroscopic objects are due to either the gravitational
force or the electromagnetic force.
Forces may be placed into two broad categories, based on whether the force resulted from the contact or
non-contact of the two interacting objects.
Action at a distance:
The fundamental forces of gravity and electromagnetism act between particles that are separated in
space. This creates a philosophical problem referred to as action at a distance.
Contact forces:
Many forces we encounter are exerted by objects in direct contact. These forces are electromagnetic in
origin and are exerted between the molecules of each object.
Normal force:
Consider a book on a table. The weight of the book pulls it downward, pressing it against the molecules
in the table’s surface, which resist compression and exert a force upward on the book. Such a force,
perpendicular to the surface, is called a normal force.
Frictional force:
Objects in contact can also exert forces on each other that are parallel to the surfaces in contact. The
parallel component of a contact force is called a frictional force.
Static friction:
Friction is a complicated, incompletely understood phenomenon that arises due to the bonding of
molecules between two surfaces that are in close contact. This bonding is the same as the molecular
bonding that holds an object together. When you apply a small horizontal force to a large box resting on

the floor, the box may not move because of the force of static friction, f s′ exerted by the floor on the box,
balances the force you are applying. The force of static friction, which opposes the applied force, can
adjust from zero to some maximum force f s, max depending on how hard you push. You might expect f s, max
to be proportional to the area of contact between the two surfaces, but this is not the case. To a good
approximation, f s, max is independent of the area of contact and is simply proportional to the normal force
exerted by one surface on the other:
f s, max = µ s Fn
where, µs is called the coefficient of static friction, a dimensionless quantity that depends on the nature of
the surfaces in contact. If you exert a horizontal force smaller than f s, max on the box, the frictional force
will just balance this horizontal force. In general, we can write
f s ≤ µ s Fn
Kinetic friction:
If you push the box hard enough, it will slide across the floor. When the box is sliding, molecular bonds
are continually being formed and ruptured, and small pieces of the surfaces are being broken off. The

result is a force of kinetic friction, f k that opposes the motion. To keep the box sliding with constant
velocity, you must exert a force on the box that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
force of kinetic friction exerted by the floor.

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The coefficient of kinetic friction µ k is defined as the ratio of magnitudes of the kinetic frictional force f k
and the normal force Fn:

f k =µ k Fn
where µ k depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact. Experimentally, it is found that µ k is less than
µ s and is approximately constant for speeds ranging from about 1 cm/s to several meters per second.

The plot of the frictional force vs. the applied force illustrates some
of the features of the frictional force. Note that the frictional force
equals the applied force (in magnitude) until it reaches the
maximum possible value µsN. Then the object begins to move as
the applied force exceeds the maximum frictional force. When the
object is moving the frictional force is kinetic and roughly constant
at the value µkN which is below the maximum static friction force.

Examples of kinetic friction:

♦ Sliding friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk
and moving it around is an example of sliding friction.

♦ Rolling friction occurs when the two objects are moving relative to each other and one "rolls" on
the other (like a car's wheels on the ground). The coefficient of rolling friction is typically denoted
as μ r.

♦ Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas. The
drag of air on an airplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid friction.

Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces

Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tensional Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force
Causes of friction:
Friction is caused by the roughness of the materials rubbing against each other, deformations in the
materials, and a molecular attraction between molecules of two surfaces.
1. Surfaces not completely smooth:
Most friction results because the surfaces of materials being rubbed together are not completely smooth.
If you looked at what seems to be a smooth surface under a microscope, you would see bumps, hills and
valleys that would interfere with sliding motion. Of course, the rougher the surface, the more is the
friction.
If both surfaces become ultra-smooth and flat, the friction from surface roughness becomes negligible,
but then friction from molecular attraction comes into play, often becoming greater than the normal
friction.

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 2. Deformations:
Soft materials will deform when under pressure. This also increased the resistance to motion. For
example, when you stand on a rug, you sink in slightly, which causes resistance when you try to drag
your feet along the rug's surface. Another example is how rubber tires flatten out at the area on contact
with the road.
When materials deform, you must "plow" through to move, thus creating a resistive force.

3. Molecular attraction:
There is another factor in friction, and that is stickiness caused by molecular attraction. This was
mentioned above where surfaces are so smooth that the materials stick together due to molecular forces.

Soft rubber is an example of a material that can have this type of friction. This factor is usually seen in
rolling friction. The stickiness will create a resistance to any motion. Although this force is the smallest, it
still can be a factor when the other causes of friction are low.

Reducing Friction:

A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, that is placed between the two
surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is
called tribology. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the
substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels - a very small
amount of frictional energy would be dissipated due to electronic and/or atomic vibrations.

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as
graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.

Component of the force acting on the object (Strings, pulleys, and inclines):

Figure: Block sliding down an incline

Figure: Block dragged over a horizontal surface

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Figure: Block suspended by a string
Figure: Block suspended by three strings

Figure: Block sliding over a smooth table,

pulled by a second block

Figure: An Atwood machine

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 Drag

The frictional force acts between surfaces. But an object moving through a medium such as a gas or a
liquid is also acted on by a resistive force. This force always points in a direction opposite to the direction
of the velocity of the object, but, unlike friction, its magnitude depends on the speed of the object.

For objects moving at high speed through air the magnitude of the resistive force is often proportional to
the square of the speed, and can be written as

R = (1/2)DρAv2.

Here A is the cross sectional area of the falling object in a plane perpendicular to its velocity, ρ is the
density of the fluid (liquid or gas), and D is the drag coefficient, which depends on the shape of the
object. For a spherical object D has a value of approximately 0.5.

For objects moving at high speed through air the equation of motion is

F = ma,

which leads for 1-dimensional motion in the vertical direction near the surface of the earth to

mg - (1/2)DρAv2 = mdv/dt

or

dv/dt = g - DρAv2/(2m)

The object again reaches a terminal speed vt. We find vt without solving the differential equation by
simply setting dv/dt = 0.

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Type of Force and
Description of Force
its Symbol

Applied Force An applied force is a force which is applied to an object by another object or by a person. If a
F app person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the
desk. The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.

The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massive body attracts
an object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon earth
Gravity Force (also experience a force of gravity which is directed "downward" towards the center of the earth.
known as Weight) The force of gravity on an object on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as given
F grav by the equation:

F grav = m * g
where: g = acceleration of gravity = 9.8 m/s2 (on Earth) and m = mass (in kg)

The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object which is in contact with another
Normal Force stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting
an upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the book. On occasion, a
F norm normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects which are in contact with each
other.

The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an
effort to move across it. The friction force opposes the motion of the object. For example, if a
book moves across the surface of a desk, the desk exerts a friction force in the direction
opposite to the motion of the book.

Friction Force Friction results when two surfaces are pressed together closely, causing attractive
F frict intermolecular forces between the molecules of the two different surfaces. As such, friction
depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed
together. The friction force can be calculated using the equation:

Air resistance is a special type of frictional force which acts upon objects as they travel
Air Resistance Force through the air. Like all frictional forces, the force of air resistance always opposes the
Fair motion of the object. This force will frequently be ignored due to its negligible magnitude. It is
most noticeable for objects which travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier)
or for objects with large surface areas.

Tensional Force Tension is the force which is transmitted through a string, rope, or wire when it is pulled tight
F tens by forces acting at each end. The tensional force is directed along the wire and pulls equally
on the objects on either end of the wire.

The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object
Spring Force which is attached to it. This force acts to restores the object, which compresses or stretches
F spring a spring, to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs (specifically, for those said to
obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of
stretch or compression

Consider the simple experiment from Figure 1.

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 Figure 1.

On the table there is a box. The gravitational force mg is compensated by reaction force FR as Newton’s
third law requires. We apply a force F to it, which is measured by the force gauge G. We slowly increase
the force and the box does not move. This means that frictional force Ff is increasing as well and is all
the time equal to F. At some value of the pulling force the box starts moving. For a moment it will
accelerate and we can decrease the pulling force F to the value resulting in motion with constant
velocity. Motion with constant velocity means that the net force acting on box is ZERO. This means that
while the box is moving the force of smaller value is required to compensate the frictional force.
The conclusion is, there are two types of frictional forces:
static frictional force FS
and
kinetic frictional force FK
The frictional force in the case of solids moving against each other are defined by Equations
FS = μS mg (1)
FK = μK mg (2)
where μS and μK are coefficients of static and kinetic friction.
Their values depend on certain properties of the moving bodies and on the quality of surfaces which
touch each other. This is obvious to every child. We cannot slide on our shoes on asphalt, but can easily
do it on ice.

The term surface means much more than the surface of a table, floor, road or any other surface from
our daily life. Later on we will discuss the frictional forces between molecules in liquid or gas and in such
cases the surface of molecules plays a role in the formulas defining these frictional forces.
A very important field related to friction is motion of solid objects in the air or in water. In this case the
frictional force is called drag force. In spite of a quite different name the drag force is also a frictional
force and only the mechanism which creates this type of friction is very different from the one creating
the friction between two solid objects.
More details concerning frictional forces will be presented in problems, as this physics tutorial is a kind
of classroom to help you understand physics through solving numerical examples.

Atwood machine - testing Newton’s Laws of motion:

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The Rev. George Atwood (1746-1807) developed a simple construction known as the Atwood machine
which gives students an exceptionally simple but excellent tool for testing and verifying Newton’s Laws
of Motion. The idea of the Atwood Machine is explained on Fig.1

A pulley is mounted about 2.0m from the ground on a stand with a scale on it to measure the positions
of attached objects. Two weights are attached to both ends of a long string which passes over the
pulley. In the free body diagram of the Atwood's machine, T is the tension in the string, m is the smaller
mass, M is the larger mass, and g is gravity’s acceleration. Assuming that the pulley and the string are
massless and the string doesn't stretch, and that there is no friction, the resultant force on M is the
difference between the tension and mg . The net force on M is the difference between the tension and
Mg. The resultant force exerted on both masses is
F = Mg - mg = (M - m)g (1)
and this force is accelerating both masses at
a = F/(M+m) (2)
Substituting (1) into (2) we get

(3)
If the difference M-m is relatively small, acceleration a is easy to measure with a simple stopwatch. If we
assume the knowledge of gravitational acceleration g, the Atwood Machine allows us to check Newton’s
Second Law of Motion.
When M = m we can verify Newton’s First Law of Motion. If we assumed Newton’s Second Law of
Motion as true, we can then determine, from Equation (3), the value of gravitational acceleration g. The
applications of the Atwood Machine are quite universal, especially for educational purposes.
Endless generations of students, including myself have learned Newton’s Laws of Motion with the
Atwood Machine. Some of the { Problems link do problems } included in this Chapter are classical
examples of the application of the Atwood Machine idea.
At the Atwood Machine web page you can see photos of many practical realizations of the equipment
described above. You can also read there some historical information if you are interested in such
matters.

Solved problems:

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1. A woman pulls a loaded sled of mass m = 75 kg along a horizontal surface at constant velocity.
The coefficient of kinetic friction µ k between the runners and the snow is 0.10, and the angle θ
is 42 o. (i) What is the tension T in the rope? (ii) What is the normal force with which the snow
pushes vertically upward on the sled?
FN
Solution: FT
[i] Ffk θ
x-component of the forces:
x
FT cosθ – Ffk = 0, ………[1]
y-component of the forces: mg
FT sin θ + FN - mg = 0, ………..[2]
We know that the force of kinetic friction Ffk can be written as
Ffk = µk FN, …..[3]
Combining [1] & [3], we get
FN = FT cosθ/µk, …..[4]
Combining [2] & [4], we get
FT [µk sin θ + cos θ] = µk mg

µ k mg 0.1x75 x9.8
Or, FT = = = 90.73 N
µ k sin θ + cos θ 0.1x sin 42 0 + cos 42 0
[ii]

FT cos θ 90.73 x cos 42 0

Normal force = Fn = = = 674.29 N
µk 0.1

2. A Crate of dilled pickles with mass m1 = 14 kg moves along a plane that makes an angle of θ =
30o with the horizontal. That crate is connected to a crate of pickled dills with mass m 2 = 14 kg by
a taut, mass-less cord that runs around a frictionless, mass-less pulley. The hanging crate of dills
descends with constant velocity. (i) What are the magnitude and direction of the frictional force
exerted on m1 by the plane? (ii) What is µ k ?

Solution:
[i]
FN FT
FT
X - component of the forces acting on the sliding block:

FT − F fk − mg sin θ = 0,.....[1] mgsinθ m

mgcosθ
Ffk
Y - component of the forces acting on the hanging block: mg
mg
FT − mg = 0,
or , FT = mg ,....[2]
Using [2] in [1], we get

F fk = mg[1 − sin θ ] = 14 x9.8 x[1 − sin 30 0 ] = 68.6 N

[ii]

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Y - component of the forces acting on the sliding block:

FN = mg cos θ ,.....[3]
We also know that

F fk = µ k FN ,
F fk F fk 68.6
or , µ k = = = = 0.58
FN mg cos θ 14 x9.8 x cos 30 0

3. A girl of mass mg sits on a toboggan of mass m t, which in turn sits on a frozen pond assumed to
be frictionless. The toboggan is pulled with a horizontal force F. The coefficients of static and
sliding friction between the girl and toboggan are µ s and µ k . (i) Find the maximum value of F
for which the girl will not slide relative to the toboggan. Find the acceleration of the toboggan and
girl when F is greater than this value.
Solution:
FN FN
FT FT
Ffk θ
Ffk θ
x
x
Girlmg
Toboggan
mg
[i]
The only force accelerating the girl forward is the frictional force exerted by the toboggan on the girl.
X - component of the forces acting on the girl and the toboggan can be written as:
 
f = mG a G
  
F − f ′ = mt a t
  
or , F = f ′ + mt at
 
Using f = f ′ , we get
      
F = f ′ + m t a t = f + m t a t = m G a G + mt a t
  
If aG = at = a = the common acceleration, then we can write
 
F = [ mG + mt ] a
Now
   
f f ,max = µ s FN 1 = µ s mG g = mG a max
 
∴ a max = µ s g
The maximum force for which the girl will not slide is then

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   
Fmax = [mG + mt ] a max = [ mG + mt ] µ s g
When the force is greater than this value, then the force of kinetic friction acts on the girl and the
toboggan. In this case, the horizontal force acting on the girl is that of kinetic friction.
Therefore,
   
f k = µ k FN 1 = µ k mG g = mG aG
 
∴ aG = µ k g
The horizontal component of the forces acting on the toboggan can be written as
  
F − f k = mt a t
   
 F − fk F − µ k mG g
∴ at = =
mt mt

Remember when the girl slips on the toboggan, the net force on the girl is constant [ µ k mG g ], so the
acceleration of the girl is constant.

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 Problems

1. A block of mass m = 15 kg held by a cord on a frictionless inclined plane. What is the tension in
the cord if θ = 27o? What force does the plane exert on the block?

2. Two blocks connected by a cord that passes over a mass-less frictionless pulley. Let m = 1.3 kg
and M = 2.8 kg. Find the tension in the cord and the magnitude of the acceleration of the two
blocks.
3. A sliding block of mass M = 3.3 kg. The block is free to move along horizontal frictionless surface.
This block is connected by a cord that warps over a frictionless pulley to a second block, which is
hanging of mass m = 2.1 kg. The cord and pulley has negligible mass compared to the blocks.
The hanging block falls as the sliding block accelerates to the right. Find (i) the acceleration of
the sliding block (ii) acceleration of the hanging block and (iii) the tension in the cord.

4. A sphere of mass 3.0x10-4 kg is suspended from a cord. A steady horizontal breeze pushes the
sphere so that the cord makes a constant angle of 37 o with the vertical. Find (i) the magnitude of
the push and (ii) the tension in the cord.
5. A 68 kg crate is dragged across a floor by pulling on a rope attached to the crate and inclined 24°
above the horizontal. (i) If the coefficient of static friction is 0.47, what minimum force magnitude
is required from the rope to start the crate moving? (ii) If the coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.29,
what is the magnitude of the initial acceleration of the crate?

6. Two children are pulled on a sled over snow-covered ground. The sled, which is initially at rest, is
pulled by a rope that makes an angle of 40o with the horizontal. The children have a combined
mass of 45 kg and the sled has a mass of 5 kg. The coefficients of static and kinetic frictions are
µ s = 0.2 and µ k = 0.15. Find the frictional force exerted by the ground on the sled and the
acceleration of the children and sled, starting from rest, if the tension in the rope is (i) 100 N and
(ii) 140 N.

7. A car is traveling at 30 m/s along a horizontal road. The coefficients of friction between the road
and the tires are µ s = 0.5 and µ k = 0.3. How far does the car travel before stopping if (i) the car
is braked with antilock braking system so that the wheels do not slip, and (ii) the car is braked
hard with no antilock braking system so that the wheels lock?

8. The mass m2 in Figure has been adjusted so that the block m1 is on the verge of sliding. [a] If m1
= 7 kg and m2 = 5 kg, what is the coefficient of static friction between the shelf and the block? [b]
With a slight nudge, the blocks move with acceleration a. Find a if the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the shelf and the block is µ k = 0.54.

9. A runaway baby buggy is sliding without friction across a frozen pond toward a hole in the ice.
You race after the buggy on skates. As you grab it, you and the buggy are moving toward the
hole at speed v0. The coefficient of friction between your skates and the ice as you turn out the
blades to brake is µ k . D is the distance to the hole when you reach the buggy, M is the total
mass of the buggy and m is your mass. [a] What is the least value of D such that you stop the
buggy before it reaches the hole in the ice? [b] What force do you exert on the buggy?

10. A block rests on an inclined plane surface. The angle of inclination is increased until it reaches a
critical angle Θ c , after which the block begins to slide. Find the coefficient of static friction µ s .

11. A woman at an airport is towing her 20kg suitcase at constant speed by pulling on a strap at an
angle of θ above the horizontal. She pulls on the strap with a 35N force, and the frictional force
on the suitcase is 20N. .
(a) Draw a free body diagram of the suitcase.

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 (b) What angle does the strap make with the horizontal?
(c) What normal force does the ground exert on the suitcase?
12. Determine the stopping distance for a skier with a speed of 20m/s on a slope that makes an
angle θ with the horizontal. Assume mk = 0.18 and θ = 5o.

13. A racing car accelerates uniformly from 0 to 80mi/h in 8s. The magnitude of the force that
accelerates the car is approximately equal to the magnitude of the frictional force between the
tires and the road. If the tires do not spin, determine the minimum coefficient of static friction
between the tires and the road.
14. A diver of mass 80 kg jumps from a slow-moving aircraft and reaches a terminal speed of 50m/s.
(a) What is the acceleration of the skydiver, when her speed is 30m/s?
(b) What is the drag force on the diver when her speed is 50 m/s?
(c) What is the drag force on the diver when her speed is 30 m/s?

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