Firstly the steel needs to be cut shape, normally with CNC plasma cutting machines or industrial circular shears.

The method for producing the dished heads is either via a spinning process or pressing & flanging process (or a combination of the two).

Spinning
The steel disc is spun on a hydraulic lathe which is then pressed to a tool. This pressing and spinning motion determines the overall shape of the head. The tool can be set to have both the knuckle and spherical radius which allows for the dished head to be produced in one go.

Pressing & Flanging

The dished head is created by firstly being cold pressed into a spherical cap shape and then flanged which creates the knuckle radius and straight flange. The straight flange allows for the finished dished head to be welded to the pressure vessels main body.

Spinning & Flanging

Dished heads can also be manufactured using a combination of both processes, where the spherical radius is made via the spinning process and the knuckle is created under the flanging method.

Dished only heads tend to be used for atmospheric tanks and vessels and for bulk heads or baffles inside horizontal tanks or tankers.

A flat end with a knuckled outer edge. Most commonly used as bases on vertical atmospheric tanks and lids for smaller tanks.

The Hemispherical head is the most expensive to form, but this comes with great benefit as the Hemispherical heads allows more pressure than any other variety of head. The allowance depends on the size of the head and the thickness of the plate to be used.

Torispherical heads are typically the most economical head to form. It's the most widely used type of head.

2:1 Semi-Ellipsoidal heads due to their increased depth are stronger and able to resist greater pressures than a torispherical head. However these heads are more difficult to form due to this depth needed. As a consequence these are more expensive than a torispherical head, but can allow a reduction in material thickness as the strength is greater.

2:1 Semi-Ellipsoidal dished heads are deeper and stronger than the more popular torispherical dished heads.

The greater depth results in the head being more difficult to form, and this makes them more expensive to manufacture. However, the cost is offset by a potential reduction in the specified thickness due to the dished head having greater overal strength and resistance to pressure.

OD: Outside ID: Inside diameter diameter

SF: Straight Thk:Thickness R: Radius flange

ITH: Inside IKR: Inside ICR: Inside Tangential Knuckle Crown Height Radius Radius

In geometry, a torus (pl. tori) is, generally speaking, a doughnut-shaped object. More precisely, it is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three dimensional space about an axis coplanar with the circle. In most contexts it is assumed that the axis does not touch the circle - in this case the surface has a ring shape and is called a ring torus or simply torus if the ring shape is implicit. Other types of torus include the horn torus, which is generated when the axis is tangent to the circle, and the spindle torus, which is generated when the axis is a chord of the circle. A degenerate case is when the axis is a diameter of the circle, which simply generates the surface of a sphere. The ring torus bounds a solid known as a toroid. The adjective toroidal can be applied to tori, toroids or, more

generally, any ring shape as in toroidal inductors and transformers. Real world examples of (approximately) toroidal objects includedoughnuts, inner tubes, many lifebuoys, O-rings and vortex rings. In topology, a ring torus is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of two circles: S S , and the latter is taken to be the definition in that context. It is a compact 2-manifold of genus 1. The ring torus is one way to embed this space into Euclidean space, but another way to do this is the Cartesian product of the embedding of S in the plane. This produces a geometric object called the Clifford torus, surface in 4-space.
1 1 1

An ellipse is a smooth closed curve which is symmetric about its horizontal and vertical axes. The distance between antipodal points on the ellipse, or pairs of points whose midpoint is at the center of the ellipse, is maximum along the major axis or transverse diameter, and a minimum along the perpendicular minor axisor conjugate diameter.
[1]

The semi-major axis (denoted by a in the figure) and the semi-minor axis (denoted by b in the figure) are one half of the major and minor diameters, respectively. These are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the major and minor semi-axes, semiaxes,
[4][5] [2][3]

the major and minor

or major radius and minor radius.

[6][7][8][9]

The foci of the ellipse are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse's major axis and are equidistant from the center point. The sum of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to the major diameter ( PF1 + PF2 = 2a ). Each of these two points is called a focus of the ellipse. Refer to the lower Directrix section of this article for a second equivalent construction of an ellipse. The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by or e, is the ratio of the distance between the two foci, to the length of the major axis or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 (0<e<1). When the eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point and the figure is a circle. As the eccentricity tends toward 1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape. It tends towards a line segment (see below) if the two foci remain a finite distance apart and a parabola if one focus is kept fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away. The distance ae from a focal point to the centre is called the linear eccentricity of the ellipse (f = ae).