MATERIAL AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR SEALED

LOW TRAFFIC ROADS

IN BOTSWANA
Based on experience during 1974 - 1981 with the Rural Roads Project
By Charles 0verby
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
BOTSWANA FACTS
THE ROAD NETWORK IN BOTSWANA
1. A DISCUSSION ON LOW TRAFFIC ROADS
PAVEMENT STANDARDS
A. Pavement design standards
B. Alternative road standards
(earth, gravel and sealed)
C. Construction costs
D. Maintenance
E. Present design standards,
are they applicable?
2. AVAILABLE PAVEMENT DESIGN MATERIALS
A. Kalahari sands
B. Calcretes
c. Other materials
3. THE RURAL ROADS PROJECT
A. Project background
B. Project achievements
4. THE LESSON TO LEARN (I)
A. Road deterioration in Botswana,
- what are the main factors?
5. THE LESSON TO LEARN (II)
A. Natural gravels
B. Problem soils
C. Cross-sections
D. Priming
E. Surfacing
F. Suggested pavement design -
Low Traffic Roads
APPENDIX 1. OODI ROAD
Summary of construction and pavement
Page
I
II
III
3
4
5
5
6
7
9
10
10
14
17
17
19
20
21
23
strength measurements 1978-1981 25
APPENDIX 2. SEHITWA - TSAU ROAD
Summary of construction and preformance
data for the trial section 1980-1981 29
APPENDIX 3. SELEBI PIKWE - MMADINARE ROAD
Summary of construction and pavement
strength measurements 1979-1980 35
APPENDIX 4. SEBINA - TUTUME ROAD
Summary of construction and pavement
strength measurements 1979-1981 36
APPENDIX 5. TSABONG-SEKOMA PAN ROAD
(section to MAKOPONG)
Summary of construction and pavement
38
strength measurements 1980-1981
REFERENCES
41
SYMBOLS
43
DEFINITIONS
44
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BOTSWANA FACTS
Government: Republic, multiparty democracy President Dr'. Q.K.J. Hasire.
Area: 560 000 km
2
population: 900 000 consentrated mainly in; the eastern part of the country.
Industry: Cattle and mining (diamonds, copper, nickel) with the mainstay on the cattle
industry with about 3.5 mill. heads.
Farminy: Crop farming limited due to irregular and poorly distributed rainfall.
Topography: Kalahari desert with scattered bush savanna, covers 2/3 of the country. The
Okawango river forms a massive swamp delta (15000 km
2
) in the north.
Climate: Mainly semi-arid, rainfall from 250 rom (south west) to 650 rom (north) in the
period October to t1arch.
Currency:
day } {+20
0
to +40oC 1
night' over the year -100 to +250C
100 Pula US$ 106 NOK 640 (1982)
Zambia
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BITUMEN SEALED ROADS
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THE ROAD NETWORK IN BOTSWANA
The development of the road network started rather late in Botswana. At the time of the
independence in 1966 only 10 kIn of roads had been bituminised. Today 1200 kIn of roads have
been surfaced (surface treatment).
The gazetted road neblOrk of 7500 kIn can be divided into two main categories
-eng. roads
{
bitumen sealed roads
gravel roads
-non
{
improved earth rOadS}
eng. roads improved sand tracks
1200 kIn
1700 "
4600 "
The standard of the sealed roads is generally high. However, the remaining road network is in
a rather poor condition. The sand tracks consist of both single and double tracks with fairly
deep furrows. A four-wheel drive vehicle is necessary when driving on these roads.
Most of the roads are carrying a relatively low volume of traffic ranging from practically
zero to 600 vehicles per day. 80 percent of the road network carry less than 200 vehicles.
Although, the permissible axle load is 8,2 tons, the number of standard axles per vehicle is
as low as 0,13. The annual vehicle growth rate is about 7%.
Main road between Palapye and Mahalapye villag-
es (6,7 m wide and with 1,5 m shoulders) 1980.
A doubZe lane sandtrack on the Jwaneng-Ghanzi
road 1979.
1. A DISCUSSION ON LOW TRAFFIC
ROADS PAVEMENT STANDARDS.
A. Pavement design standards.
Most of the present pavement design methods
are based on North American and European stan-
dards. Although these standards have been mod-
ified to suit different Southern African condi-
tions, the special materials and climatical
conditions met in Botswana, combined with
the general low traffic volumes, call for loc-
ally developed standards. Generally, the exi-
sting standards, even those modified to suit
conditions in Southern Africa, seem to be unne-
cessarily severe.
A new Pavement Design Standard for Botswana is
in progress and is expected to be completed
during 1982. This standard will, for Low Traf-
fic Roads, partly be based on experience gained
on the Rural Roads project during the years
1976-1981. with the complete lack of suitable
design standards, design criteria mainly from
neighbouring countries were adopted. These are
Road Note 31, Great Britan
- TRH 4 and TRH 14, South Africa
- Zimbabwe specifications
- Calcrete specifications, South Africa
(F. Netterberg)
Figure 1 gives a summary of the natural gravel
requirements for the base and subbase layers
from different countries, as well as a compa-
rison in the pavement design.
The figure shows thickness of base and subbase
layer required on subgrade soil with a CBR
value (4 days soaked at 93% Mod. AASHO) of 6
and 16 respectively. However, the figure
only gives an indication of the pavement thick-
nesses as they all represent different environ-
ment and can not be directly.
1
The main purpose with bitumen surface treatment
is to provide a 13
i) - durable all weather surfacing
ii) - protect the base to resist abrasiue
and disruptive forces of traffic
iii) - waterproof cover for the pavement
layers below
For low Traffic Roads an impermeable surface
will be of great importance. By preventing
water penetration into the base as well as
reducing the moisture migration in the pave-
ment layers due to evaporation, a considerable
service period can be Obtained, without a too
costly maintenance.
The main components in a surface treatment are
- binder
- aggregate
The different types of binder and aggregate have
advantages and disadvantages. The disadvantages
decrease with the number of layers applied, as
well as the costs increase.
The characteristics of the binder depends
largely on the refining process as well as
the solvent used. A "straight-run" bitumen
will usually have a higher durability than a
"cracked" bitumen as long as common solvents
are used. However, by using a solvent with a
less evaporability similar characteristics as
for a "straight-run" may be achieved.
2
BOTSWANA I<ENYA NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE TRRl Rood note 31 SOUtH ,AFRICA SOU1H AFRICA SOUTH AFRICA 111 AUSTRAliA BRAZIL 151 BRA21l lSI

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8) FI = PI . passing 0,425 mm
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% passing 0,425 nun is < 801" PI . passing
0,425 mm < 300. unsoaked CBR > 60, rainfall
< SOD mm, deep water table. Sealed or low
permeable shoulders.
11) Department of National Roads
12) 25,4 nun sieve
13) > 2 rnm fraction
14) De Castro 1963, 1969 swell test
15) SIR = Silica!sesquioxide
16} Rainfall mostly 1000-2500 rom
17) < 300 vehicle per day, 10% heavy
OESfGN CONOHIONS
Ro"tnfali: 500 mm
ESA : 0.15 mil! ! 60 kN I
Subglodoe I: CBft 6 f soake:d}
SlJbgrode IT: CSR Iii ! J;;ook!:-d I
1j 40-100 vehicles per day exceeding 3,0 tons. No rnlaxtions
2) Design traffic 0.25-1,0 mill. ESA. CBR subgrade at OMC in
areas with rainfall 500 mm on cerlni.n conclitions
n At Mod. 1\1\StlO accordingly 15 and 10 em below road surface
2) r Nettcrberg suggested intrim specifications
3} Fl =- Max. BAR LS %'passing 0,425 mm
3J Design traffic < 0,2 milL ESl\. Equal trnffic rc!axc.:l
after region factor depending on rainfall/cl imatc
4) Wheel load 40 kN. No relaxtions
5} Design traf:fic 0,15 mill ESI" The 5ubgradC' CDR value used
will be based on probable moisture content
51 Design 0,1-0,3 mill. ESl ... Equal traffic relaxed .,rtcr
regiotl fDctor dependinq on
7) CBR at OMC assumed to be 501, higher-
Figure 1. A comparison of natural gravel requirements and
pavement design criteria from different authorities.
All types of binders, whether it be penetrat-
ion or cut-back bitumen, have both advantages
and disadvantages. A penetration bitumen
",-_,viII provide an immediate adhesion to the ag-.
greg ate but gives less time allowance during
the construction procedure. A cut-back bitumen
gives more time allowance during construction,
but needs longer time to provide an adequate
binder/aggregate adhesion.
Normal grades of tar are not as durable as
"straight-run" bitumen and can be grouped
together with "cracked" bitumen. This group
is not recommended to use in the top layer,
although they can be used quite satisfactory
in the lower layers. Cut-back bitumen manu-
factured from "cracked" bitumen will be in
the same category.
Two types of emulsions are manufactured at
a wide range of grades depending on the
of water mixed in.
The emulsion types are anionic and cationic
where the latter is usually the most favour-
able. Cationic emulsion gives better adhesion
when aggregates such as granite, quartz and
felsites are used as well as qUicker braking
properties. It is also more suitable during
cold weather and when moist aggregate is used.
I Due to brittleness by oxidation, ultraviolet
sun-rays etc. the binder used should there-
fore be a bitumen manufactured from a soft
base product or by using a slow evaporative
solvent.
Figure 2. A cracked surface on the Oodi road.
Single sand seal by using EVT tar
50/55. These cracks occured about
pear after comrletion 1981.
3
A wide range of surface treatments are used
(both single and multiple), and the types
of treatments are basicly according to the
aggregate used. The following surfacings
are extensively used on Low Traffic Roads as
well as a combination of these.
- surface dressing
- sand seal
- graded gravel seal
(Otta seal)
- slurry seal
Common for all (except the graded gravel seal)
is that rather strict limits for grading,
cleanness, shape and strength is required for
the surfacing aggregate. This can result in
costly solutions which may be difficult to
justify for Low Traffic Roads.
B. Alternative road standards
(earth, gravel and sealed).
In most developing countries in Africa aids
often cover only the planning and construc-
tion phases, and the following maintenance
phase is often forgotten. This aspect is of
great importance as it is easy to forget the
required maintenance input to keep the vehicle
operating cost at the level estimated during
the planning phase.
In developing countries road maintenance is
often near to non - existing or poorly deve-
loped and apart from cost justification ap-
proach, other aspects should be considered.
These can be listed as advantages/disad-
vantages comparing the three types of roads
cons ide red 14
Engineered earth roads
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
- low construction
investment
- flexible utilization
of available natural
occuring material
- stepwise road
improvement possible
- difficult investment and
maintenance planning due
to undefines quality
standards
!
I
I
I
.1
- substnntial differences
in road pavement quality
locally and within each
road through the year
- roads possibly closed
during heavy rain
- surface susceptible to
rapid erosion
- high vehicle operating
cost
Figure 3. A typical view of an engineered
earth road during a rainy day. From
the MolepoloZe-Thamaga road 1978.
Gravel roads
Advantages: - fairly simple investment
and maintenance planning
- fairly simple
maintenance work
Figure 4. A gravel road about half a year
after completion (Kanye-Mmathethe
road). Note the difference in the
two types of gravel used (foreground
laterite and in the background
calcrete). 1277
4
Disadvantages:
Sealed roads
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
- strict material
requirements for the
gravel wearing course
- disintergration of the
gravel wearing course
- dust problems (traffic
hazard)
- a well developed
maintenance unit required
- simple investment and
maintenance plnnning
- low vehicle operating
cost
- better utilization of
natural occuring
material sources
- the need of bitumen or
tar
- high initial investment
- a well developed con-
struction unit, with
skilled personell
(laboures and super-
visors) required
Figure 5. A sealed road (Selebi Pikwe-
Mmadinare road) constructed by the
Rural Roads branch 1980.
C. Construction costs.
The construction costs for the different
types of roads will vary depending largely on
local conditions. However, the following may
serve as an indication.
- sealed road (bitumen) 100%
- gravel road 35%
- eng. earth road 15%
The costs involved for a gravel road may seem
low, but the costs are based on short hauling
distances (less than 5,0 km). 14
In areas with a complete lack of suitable
gravel wearing course materials within a
resonable hauling distance, the costs would
raise dramatically. Consideration must
fore be made to utilize the nearest avialable
material for a sealed road.
D. Maintenance.
The maintenance costs will depend largely on
the traffic volume and type of traffic as
well as climatic factors, particularly for
earth and gravel roads.
Occasional shaping by a grader,
bush-dragging and regular clearing of vegeta-
tion within the road area seems to be an eco-
nomical solution. In the more sandy areas a
towed track machine has been found to be
particularly useful in straightening the
winding furrows in the road caused by the
passing vehicles. Most of these roads are
only passable with four wheel drive vehicles.
Figure 6. A towed trackmachine is particularly
useful in straightening the sand
{urrowD. The trackmachine consisto
basicly of two main beams with three
blades welded in an angle to
the correct shape of the furrows.
The distance bo.tween the main beams
are equal to the width of medium
vehicles. (Tsabong area
5
Gravel roads
-------------
are greatly influenced by the
regularity of grader maintenance as well as
patching with gravel where the wearing course
has become thin. By bringing back the fines
from the verge of the road, the service life
can be extended considerably.
Figure 7. Bush-dragging is extensively used
on gravel roads in Botswana. The
effect of the bush-dragging may be
questioned, however some smootheninG
of the existing corrugation applies
at leaDt for a short period.
(Lobatse-Kanye road
A well constructed bituminised
road is much less susceptible to abration
caused by traffic (forces) and climate than
eng. earth and gravel roads. However, as the
tendency is to make some relaxations to pre-
sent designs requirements, it will become
more essential than ever to improve the drain-
age system and maintain an adequate re-sealing
frequency in order to maintain an impervious
surface.
The road maintenance budget is a yearly fixed
amount and in most cases far below what is re-
quired to keep the roads up to standard.
Maintenance cost for various road standards
will be rather variable and subject to the
road maintenance budget.
E. Present design standards,

are they applicable?
As the climate is likely to be more favourable
in Botswana than the design manuals presently
used ask for, the application of these stand-
ards may easily lead to overdesign in
- pavement thickness
- material requirements
- surfacings standard
The pavement thickness depends on the design
procedure adopted. However, most of the met-
hods presently used are based on a soaked CBR
subgrade value together with repetitions of
standard axles for the design period. The
use of soaked CBR values seems to be unduly
harsh if the subgrade (as well as the over-
laying layers) are unlikely to become satur-
ated during its service life. A CBR-value
reflected at the highest moisture content
that ,yill be attained by the subgrade (and
pavement layers) might be more attractive.
With a mean annual rainfall mostly less than
500 mm as well as a rather deep watertable
(perched), 4-5 m, it is doubtfull if any
saturation will take place. Even an optimum
moisture content may be rather unusual in
large parts of the country.
In the Kalahari were the sand is freely drain-
ing, flooding is rather rare even during
heavy showers dispatching op to 80 rom in a
few hours. Elswhere in the country there is
a risk of flooding, but this is limited to
local areas. However this do not comprise to
a higher road standard.
The location and utilization of materials con-
forming to standard specifications is becom-
ing increasingly expensive, and constituting
a large proportion of the construction costs
for Low Traffic Roads. To be able to utilize
local materials in Botswana without any sta-
bilizing agent, which is rather costly, there
is a need to review the material requirements
to suit the conditions to serve.
Obviously there are advantages and disadvan-
tages involved in using different seals (agg-
regates). In the case of Low Traffic Roads
200 vehicles per day) the main purpose of
the seal is to obtain an impermeable surface
The agening of the binder may therefore be a
more critical factor than the aggregate it-
self to maintain such a surface. However, by
using a dense and close matrix of aggregate
6
(like sand and graded gravel seals) such an I
impermeable surface may be obtained. Aqgrega-te
strength, shape and to some extent also the
grading requirements may therefore be relaxed
considerabely and still have an acceptable
performance.
Aggregate for sand seals and graded gravel
seals (crushed or uncrushed) are usually
available within reasonable hauling distance,
and the processing can mostly be limited to
screening. Aggregate for surface dressing is
obviously more difficult and more expensive
to obtain, and a good result depends largely
on the aggregate quality-.Slurry seals give
a very impermeable seal during the first yeam
in service, but become rapidly brittle and
extensive cracking may occur. A well equip-
ped and skilled unit is also required to ob-
tain good results.
Figure 8. Hanascreening of surface
aggregate on the Oodi-road.
Oversize of the basecourse
material (> 19 mm) hlas screened
out and the remaining material
used as a graded gravel seal
(Otta-seal). 1978
2. AVAILABLE PAVEMENT MATERIALS.
A. Kalahari sands.
The most widely spread materials is the
Kalahari sands which varies in thickness from
5 to 200 metres. Associated with them are
wide-spread deposits of calcrete formed by
semi-arid weathering processes.
Generally Kalahari sand has a grad-
ing curve, with 90 to 100% material passing
the 0,425 rom sieve. Soaked CBR values are
generally between 20 and 40. When confined,
the Kalahari sands can take heavy wheel loads.
When wetted under load, they may collapse.
Kalahari sands are usually identified by a
low in-situ density (below 1600 Kg/m)) .15
kglm
J
1800 \
\
\

Malr. pass. 0.600 mm = 100
0.425" 97
0.300 84
1725
0.IS0 2'
0.075 5
PI < 0.'25 mm = NP
PI <0.075" =NP
1
x
\
x

\
..

o 10 15 20
MOISTURE 'I.
Figure 9. Typical density curve for Kalahari
sand.
Optimum dry density for Kalahari sands varies
usually between 1740-1820 Kg/m) at an OMC var-
ying between 6-9%.
Figure 9 shows a typical density curve of
Kalahari sand.
Figure 10. Road building in the KaLahari
region (Tsabong -Makopong road)
where single size Kalahari sand
makes road building difficult,
both in construction and
desigmvise 1.781.
7
Although possessing a high strength meeting
the subbase requirements in strength the Kala- '(
hari sand is not used unstabilized in the sub-
base layer. This is mainly because of con-
struction problems which is rather difficult
in such areas with fine graded sands.
B. Calcretes.
Calcrete is a soil type, formed by cementat-
ion and replacement of a preexisting host soil
by carbonate. The material is classified in
six groups.
Figure 11 shows suggested sequence of calcrete
development (F. Netterberg 1969, 1971)
7
Parent material
shattered. cla.y? we9.thered r:Jck mixed texture
CAE'BOUATE POWDER CALeRETS CtITAUS SCATTER::D CALCRETE
III C"ACKS
1
CRACK
r
5
in calcareous
parent Co terial
IpO;;J)ER CALCRET, 1 110DllLAR CALCRETE
CALCIFIE:3 WE.4THE:REn
ROCK ===;-;:;==:J
I-sO:.rr....OER CALCRTS
clean sand ct'
gravel -t

GF.AINS
Figure 11. Sequence of cal.cre-tes deve lopment.
(After F. Netterberg)
Figure 12. A caLcrete hardpan formation
(Xhumo area 1980) which usualLy
is rather hard and requires
ripping or even bLasting before
uti Lization.
For road building purpose (base and subbase)
calcrete is normally the only material con-
sidered in the Kalahari area.
I
;i
11
I
Figure 13. Nodular calcrete (Tsabong ar2Q
1981) stockpiled in the borrow
pit. A well suitable material
in road construction.
It is rather difficult to locate calcrete
deposits in the often featureless bush-
covered Botswana country. Calcrete will
generally form on flattish land or in de-
pressions where moisture is able to accumu-
late. Calcrete is also found on ridges or
higher laying areas, however in this case
the surrounding materials have been eroded.
Methods and techniques have to be modified
depending on the area to be prospected.
Figure 14. Calcrete prospecting in such
a featureless area becomes
rather difficult. This borrow-
pit (on the Sehitwa-Tsau road
1980) is laying on a ridge more
or less unrecognizeable. One can
easily see how the shape of the
borrow-pit changes from wide
areas to rather narrow stripes.
Topography, soil colour and plants which may
be good calcrete indicators in one area, may
not give any disbursement at all in other
parts of the country.16
8
Figure 15. By using a rapid probe device
a good indication of the material
source can be obtained immediately.
road 1979)
By using remote sensing techniques, airphoto
interpretation and even air reconnaissance
during the prospecting, a corridor of
sources can be established. However due to
rather variation even within small
deposits, a local knowledge of the use of
plant indicatores and land form is essential
to be able to produce the best available mat-
erial in the area. Most calcrete deposits
are variable both laterally and vertically
and many borrow pits have been ruined by
less working and had to be downgraded.
Figure 16. These two plants both indicate
calcrete. However, each of them
are assosciated with the thickness
of the overburden. As the quality
of the calcrete very often depends
on the overburden present. Valuable
information can be obtained by the
use of plant indicators (Tsabong-
Makopong road 1981).
Figure 17. Overburden of Kalahari sand up
to about 2,0 m thickness are not
uncommon (Tsabong - Makopong
road 1981).
The only available aggregate for bitumen sur-
facing in the Kalahari area is found in small
and scattered deposits of out-cropping sil-
crete and quartzite.
Figure 18. Out-cropping deposits of
Waterberg quartzite in the
Tsabong area 1980. The stones
were picked by hand, loaded and
brought to a small crusher. The
stones were crushed down by
sledge-hammers to a size
suitable for the crusher ( m a ~
300 mm). ~ h e stones were to a
large extent weathered which
caused an excess of fines during
crushing.
C. Other materials.
The east and north east part of the country
(1/3 of the area) is mainly covered by a 0,5-
1,5 m layer of red brown silty granitic sand
as en "A" horizon and with a "B" horizon con-
sisting of decomposed granite, quartz gravel
9
and gneisses on top of the base complex.
Figure 19. A common soil profile in the eastern
part of the country (Selebi Pikwe -
Mmadinare road 1981). Under a fairly
thin layer of overburden a 10-15 cm
thick layer of quartzitic gravel are
laying above a porus layer of gneiss
which becomes more solid in depth.
Usually the material meets the grading re-
quirement specified, but fails in plasticity
and CBR requirement. The PI and CBR (soaked)
are mainly between 8-16 and from 30-70 res-
pectively. Very often a thin layer (10-15cm)
of good quality quartz gravel is laying on
top. Without a careful stockpiling, this
material will go to waste while removing the
overburden.
Certain rock types tend to weather faster
than others under the same environmental
conditions, and thus has to be considered
during selection of the material.
Chemical weathering occur in areas with a
relatively high rainfall, and where the pre-
sent material mainly is composed of gneiss
and granite with a fairly rich sodium con-
tent. The presence of sodium may develop
dispersive soils which is unsuitable in any
kind of road construction.
Expansive clays are not widely spread and
occur only in small, scattered areas. The
expansive potential is mostly from low to
medium heave.
Figure 20. An area of dispersive soil on
the -
road 1981. Most of these areas
contain a labyrinth of gullies.
Figure 21. Road construation in an area of
expansive soil on the Oodi road
1978. Fabric was used instead
of a drainage course layer.
In the eastern part of the country a fairly
dense cover of Mopane trees is present. The
best material occur where there is an opening
in the bushweld and often associated with a
ridge or a higher laying area which can be
more less unrecognizable.
In this area of the country a wide range of
surfacing aggregate is available. However,
(mostly below the requirements) processing is
normally required to meet the specifications.
10
3. THE RURAL ROADS PROJECT.
A. Project background.
The Rural Roads Programme started 1973 sub-
sequently to recommendations given in the
"Appraisal Report from the Norwegian Agency
for International Development (NORAD) Road
Mission to Botswana, December 1972". The
project was aimed at improving a major part
of the local rural roads in Botswana using
labour intensive methods.
The term "Rural Roads" in Botswana refers to
the type of roads included in the Rural Roads
Programme. These roads are generally secon-
dary or ungazetted roads, which are improving
or opening up communication lines to rural
areas. The Government of Botswana had re-
quested NORAD technical and financial assi-
stance because it had identified the need to
improve an integrated national road network.
Strict economical criteria,road users benefit,
internal rate of return could not be applied
because many road schemes would not show
satisfactory justification compared with
alternative government investments.
2
B. Project achievements.
The first step in the programme was a pilot
scheme on the Molepolole- Letlakeng road in
1975 using rather labour intensive methods.
Figure 22. Calcrete gravel road built in
the Tsabong area. A thin cover
of Kalahari was put on top
of the gravel wearing to
prevent traffic abrations. 'i'his
proved to he very successful.
19? g.
By 1977 four construction teams were in ope-
ration and about 350 km road had been built
o a gravel road standard. However, climatic
lack of maintenance and utiliza-
tion of unsuitable gravel wearing course re-
sulted in a rapid deterioration of the gravel
roads.
Figure 23. A rather unusual angel to view
a road. Houever, this roughness
is what a tyre can expect on a
badZy maintained gravel road
(view in one of the
tracks). Jwaneng - Pan
road 1981.
11
From late 1977 the labour intensive construction
changed to more machine intensive methods,
and during 1978 the first road was sealed
under the Rural Roads Programme. By December
1981 14,5 mill Pula ($ 17 mill.) have been
spent on the Programme and 623 km roads have
been designed and constructed departementally.
To suit local conditions the original design
has been continously modified during
tion and great benefits have been achieved.
Fi(Jure ,21. A section on the Oodi road 1981
a double sand seal without
prime. The second seal waG
in 3,5 m width and the
Firat in a m width.
The costs of a gravel and bituminised road
have been in the range of 10-20000 Pula and
35-50000 Pula respectively (1980 prices) .
Figure 25 gives a summary of the roads con-
structed under the Programme. 23
"

8
Q
Q
'"'
C!lelUi "'0
13:1
""'
0

"'<0
ROAD SECn-orr

iHl ::! "Ii!

""'0
...... 0
..,
'"
"'
<
'"
<0
i;l
"''''
'" '"8
'"
!&:!
:oJ
00", 0,"
"
OJ
"",..
"''''

'"
"'-
tlolepolole -Letlllkeng 6,
75 Grav. 10,5 GS+K C+Dq
Kanye-Ramatillbama 69 77 " 13,1 GC C+Dq
SE'!bina-Kalakernate 33 77 " 23,0 GS+GC Dq
Sebina-Tutume 49
77 Grav. 17 ,9-
e, Bit. 50,7
GS+GC Dq+C SS2
Tutume-Maiteng'le 47 78 Grav. 13,8 GS+GC Dq+Gn
Sehit'lla-Tsau 45 78')
Grav. 24,1
K C
Bit. -
GS1+SS1
Scfophe-Bobonong 53 79 Grav. 11,4 GS+GC Dq+Gn
Oodi-Modipane 18
{
76 Gra.v. 34,7
GS
79 Bit. 12.2 Dq+c Dirr. types
;'\odipane-Malolyone 37 76 Eng. 9,7 GG+GC Dq
Selebi PikYe-Mmadinare 13 80 Bit. 48,7
..
D'l"'Gn S1tI+SSl
tlopipi-Rakopo b)
..
K C CSI
Tsabong- McCartys 24 79 Grav. 12.3 K C
Tsabong-Makopong 3( 128) al
c
)
Bit. K C CSI
Tsau-Nokaneng 66 79 Spot. 9,5 K
Sebina-Kalakernate 26 79 Earth 11,5 CS Insitu
(Link road)
GS '" Granitic silty Z:lnd C = C:llcrete Stl, '" Sin/de surface
GC" " coarse material Dq '" Dec .gr.:lnite+ dressing
a) 13 km surfaced 11/81
h) to start 1t/82
c) 2S km surfaced 11/81
quarts S31 =: Single oea!
832 = Dout>le "
GS 1 :: Sinr,le gravel seal
GS2 -= Double "
Eng. .. E:nrdneered road
:3P()t. = Spot improvement
Earth = Earth road
All costs conv>:!rted to loAa prices. are not incl. (10-;'0:t7)
Figure 25. Roads constructed under the Rurat
Roads Programme during the period
1975-1981.
Two trial sections have been constructed under
the programme to gain experience with low cost
surfacings and the use of substandard pave-
ment material.
Since the project start in 1974 only gravel
roads had been constructed with a rather un-
satisfactory performance. The roads deteri-
orated faster than expected due to low main-
tenance capacity and lack of suitable gravel
wearing course in this dry climate.
To gain experience in surfacing techniques as
well as performance of different types of bi-
nder and aggregate, a set of 12 trial secti-
ons were constructed in 1978 on the Oodi road
which carried a fairly high volume of traffic
(120 vehicles per day.
The design was mainly based on the Road Note
" -,
31. However, relaxations both with respect
to material and pavement thickness were adop-
Appendix 1 gives a more detailed infor-
mation.
Because of a complete lack of suitable gravel
matel:ial the Sehitwa-Tsau road in the north
(45 km) deteriorated rather quickly (10 vehi-
cles per day) and steadily more attention had
to be paid to upkeep the road ..
Figure 26. Part of the Sehitwa - Tsau road
1979. where the gravel have
disintegrated completely. As a
result a sand track has been
formed only passable with four
wheel drive vehicles.
A trial section with bitumen stabilized base
and a single sand seal was constructed in
1978. The cattle, prefering the road to the
bush completely ruined the surfacing and part
of the base in a short time (months) .18
12
In 1979 a fourth gravel survey was carried
out. The combined use of air-photographs,
helicopter survey, plant indicators and port-
able rapid probing devices led to the locat-
ion of gravels (calsified sands, poor calcr-
ete) which had been missed earlier. Could
these gravels, although far below normally
specified material requirements, nevertheless
be utilized? Compared with bitumen stabili-
zation this would imply cost savings of about
24%. (P 400.000).16
The trial section was constructed during 1980
and Road Note 31 should basicly be followed
except for the material design criteria where
F. Netterbergs calcrete specifications were
adopted. However, the pavement design (thic-
kness) changed from Road Note 31 to one loca-
lly derived due to construction problems. 23
Appendix 2 gives a more detailed in-formation.

-.u> ....
,
Figure 27. Bitumen stab-ilized base sec L"on
on the Sehitwa - Tsau road 1980
with a single sand seal on top
by using Kalahari sand as
aggregate. The cattle ruined the
surfacing and partly the base
during a short time.
FiJure 28.
The trial section on the Sehitwa-
Tsau road. built "lith a stabilized
and unstabilized base.
was taken after about
35 000 LSA (80 kN) had passed over
the section during a 3 month time.
Note the flat side [l lopes Ofa:.:imum
1:6). 1981
Three other roads have been constructed as
bituminous roads
- Selebi Pikwe - Mmadinare (1979-1980) 20
- Sebina - Tutume (1979-1981) 21
- Tsabong - Makopong (1980 onwards) 22
The Selebi Pikwe - Mmadinare road is 12,9 km
long and was constructed with a 15 cm gravel
layer as base. Subbase material was required
in only a few sections. The quality of the
base gravel was below common specification
requirements. The surfacing used was a dou-
ble seal with surface dressing (13 mm chipp-
ings in the first seal and a sand seal on top
of this).
18 minor culverts have been constructed and
,>for the crossing of Letlakane river eight
Armco steel pipes of 2,7 m diameter were used
The cost of the road was approximately
P49000/km, the river crossing being responsible
for 12% of the total cost.
The Road Note 31 was used in the pavement de-
sign based on soaked CBR's. However, the
Zimbabwe material requirements were partly
used as a criteria. Appendix 3 gives more
detailed information.
Sebina-TUtume road
------------------
Following a decision to upgrade the 49 km long
Sebina-Tutume road to a bitwuen standard, a
throughout investigation of the existing road
was carried out. The construction started in
1979 to up-grade the road and only 1-4 cm was
left of the original 15 cm gravel wearing
course, although a maintenance team had been
working on the road during 1978 and 1979.
A new 15 cm gravel layer of quartz/decomposed
granite/laterite was used under a double sand
seal.
Compared with the original cost of P 18000/km
for the gravel road the regravelling (includ-
ing the cost of constructing 50 new box cul-
verts) amounted to P 26000/km: The cost of
the bitumen was P 6000/km, i.e. 25% of the
total cost of the reconstruction (all prices
converted to 1980-prices).
13
FiJure 2U. Sebina - Tutume road 1981. A double
sand seal by using screened
riversand as C!JJrsgate and SVT tar
40/45 au binder in the first layer.
Me 3000 was used in the second
layer.
Road Note 31 was partly used in both the mat-
erial and pavement design. However, both the
CBR, grading and plasticity requirements were
far below what was specified.
Appendix 4 gives a more detailed information.
Construction of the 254 km Tsabong-Sekoma Pan
road started in 1980, and by Nov. 1981, 23 km
of the road was completed.
The subgrade is mainly a dark red Kalahari
sand. A calcrete pavement cover consisting of
a 15 cm subbase and a 10 em base is used.
""",:
. , ...

..;
...
"f;'"a __

.'-}l::"', ...:
30. Sealing operation on the Tsabonq-
Makorong road 1980. The calcrete
base was primed and a oingle
graveL (Otta seal) u.oing
crushed aggreJate laid.
and well equirred diotributors uere
used.
I
Li
f
,
.; I
Sodium chloride (salt) is present in the pave-
ment material (calcrete). For the first 9 kms
the salt content built in was 0,3% in average
(singel values up to 0,54%) .
Both a double seal with a surface dressing and
a light sand seal on top as well as a single
seal of graded gravel ("Otta-seal") have been
used, the gravel being crusher run.
The pavement design was in the beginning carr-
ied out in accordance with the special report
no. 1 Zimbabwe. However, this was changed due
to construction problems. F. Netterberg spec-
ial calcrete requirements was later adopted.
7
Appendix 5 gives more detailed information.
4. THE LESSON TO LEARN (I) .
A. Road deterioration in Botswana,
-what are the main factors?
The road deteroration depends on two main fac-
tors
- type of roads
environment
Unsurfaced roads are much more susceptible to
the environment such as
- climate/materials
- traffic
than a surfaced road. As soon as a road is
protected by a membrane it can withstand traf-
fic abrations, erosion and softness caused by
water to a much higher extent. All those fac-
tors must be counted in a climate as in Bots-
wana. With the use of a bituminous seal such
a membrane can be obtained, and the necess-
ity to follow the same strict material requir-
ements as for a gravel road may be questioned.
Pavement strength will of course still be ess-
ential. However characteristics derived from
the field, and these are obviously more pro-
pitious than for a gravel r?ad, material of
lower quality would probably be applicable.
Measurements carried out on roads built under
the Rural Roads project indicate a rather high
pavement strength. Although built with mater-
14
ials far below common requirements, bearing
capacity problems will probably never affect
such Low Traffic Roads 200 v.p.d.).
What type of measures will affect a road to
surface rehabilitation or worse, to pavement
failures?
- agening or other conditions which
will cause surfacing cracks
exceptionally heavy axle loads
- overinflated tyre pressure
- cattle
- drainage
What type of precautions can be considered to
prevent the various types of road deterioration?
By applying a double surface seal rather than
a single seal one will improve the flexibility
of the binder. The binder is manufactured from
different base products and it is worth to know
which, as certain precautions or strategies
(resealing frequency, base course material qual-
ity) can be considered both during construction
and later in the maintenance period.
The evenness on top of the base is essential
to obtain maximum serviceability of the road.
An uneven base will result in weak spots as
the compaction equipment only will apply full
forces on parts of the base. The following
traffic will then cause small depressions and
the surfacing may crack as well as water start
ponding. Patching up these spots prior to
surfacing will improve the serviceability of
the road.
Figure 31. Patching of the primed base to
avoid waterponding 071 the complete:!
aurfacing (Qadi road 1978).
Heavy axle loads, say> 12,0 tons will produce
more destructive forces on a pavement than
thousands of vehicles of more commercial cate-
gory < 3,0 tons (an ESA/vpd. factor of abo-
ut 0,13 is common on Low Traffic Roads in
Botswana). The destructive effect of heavy
axle loads may to some extent be exaggerated
in Botswana, as the tyre pressure also will
play an important part (due to fairly thin
pavement thicknesses) .
The tyre pressure will affect the upper part
of the pavement (approx.0-15 em) and the des-
tructive effect will increase with higher tyre
pressure as the radius of curvature becomes
smaller. In other words, a 7,0 tons axle
load toqether with high tyre pressure (> 100
lbs) may actually cause more destructive eff-
ect to the road than an axle load of 10,0 tons
with a tyre pressure of, say 80 lbs.
As long as there are no restrictions regarding
over inflated tyres, axle load restrictions on
such thin pavements my therefore be of less
importance. (Such restrictions are,however.
essential for bridge structures.)
Figure 32. Extremely heavy axle loads are not
uncommon in developing countries.
Turkana road Kenya 1980.
An assessment of such a philosophy for the
design procedure, (which basicly is based on
repetitions of ESA during a specific period)
would probably indicate an economical saving.
15
Cattle
With about 3,5 mill. head cattle in the coun-
try, problems arise both under and after the
construction. The cattle hooves and manure
often ruined both unprimed and primed bases as
well as certain types of surfacing seals. The
largest problem arose during the priming pro-
cedure in keeping the cattle off the road. By
using a rapid drying prime some advantages can
be obtained. However, employing watchmen or
establish fencing of the section concerned by
branches have given fairly good results.
Figure 33. In the rural areas traffic of
various ca tagory occur. 7'he amoun t
of cattle in these areas can be a
serious problem for sealed roads
unless certain precautions are not
taken. From the trial section on
the Sehitwa - Tsau road 1981.
Sand seals by using Kalahari sand as aggregate
have deteriorated in a few months time. How-
ever, on top of a surface dressing or a graded
gravel seal, such a light seal has been very
successfully used. Sand seal based on river
sand as aggregate (> 8 mm screened out) has
given a very good performance in cattle areas.
However, a traffic volume of more than 50 v.p.
d. are preferable, as the traffic causes move-
ment of the cattle and wears out the manure.
There are two view points which must be con-
sidered when dealing with drainage.
- flooding
culverts and river crOSSings
The rainy season in Botswana is limited to a
few months time, and is following a thunder
storm pattern. Thunder storms depositing 80
mm or more (during 1-2 hours time)lis not un-
common.In the months between, the weather is
dry and hot making the ground hard and dense,
(except in the Kalahari region). As a conse-
quence, the water run-off will be rather fast
causing flooding and erosion. Narrow should-
ers and flat slopes, overgrown by grass has
shown to withstand erosion, together with a
flat crossfall and wide flat ditches. v-
shaped ditches should be avoided.
Because of the water run-off soaked ground
conditions will likely never occur, and a de-
sign based on OMC may be more applicable.
In the Kalahari region flooding is rather sel-
dom due to the freely draining sand. However,
flooding may occur on pans. Drainage in the
Kalahari region is no problem, and ditches can
be neglected.
Depressions which can cause waterponding shouhl
be avoided within the road area.
Figure 34. View of a section on the Dodi road
(1981) about 3 years after
completion. Shoulders (0,5 m) and
slopes are covered by a short but
fairly dense grass cover. Very
little erosion has taken place and
the drainage system has proved to
be sUfficient.
16
The questions in the decision phase, of where
and how the culverts should be constructed are
rather difficult when all types 6f drainage
systems (creeks, small and large streams as
well as river) are dry most of the year. By
using simple methods such as aerial photog-
raphs, a classification between different dra-
inage lines can be put up and a priority made.
Figure 35. A typical river-crossing during
the dry season. Branches laid on
the dry river bed provide
sufficient load distribution and
prevent the vehicles to get stuck
when crossing. {Linkroad Kalakemate
1979).
Figure 36. Irish bridges have shown to easily
get clogged by branches (Sebina-
Tutume road 19BO).
Box culverts produced from bricks and simple
form work have been successfully used. The
flexibility in size and length by adding
elements has been of great advantage.
Figure 37. The water has flooded over the
river crossing and caused major
erosion on both sides leaving the
crossina as an island in the
middle ;f the river. (Sebina-Tutume
road 1978)
Figure 38. Box-culverts on the Sebina-Tutume
road. The size of the culvert can
be extended by adding elements.
By using this method the work was
simplified for the labourers and
Zess supervision was required.
Sebina-Tutume road 1981.
Figure 39. [ranch fences can be of great
advantage if they are constructed
properly. If not, this can be the
renult. (Sebina-Tutune road 1980)
17
Irish bridges (a battery of square or circu-
lar small culverts boxed in with concrete,
designed to both act as a culvert and drift
with low and high water level respectively)
have caused a lot of problems due to rather
small openings. The openings easily got clog-
ged by branches, and due to this the bridges
have more or less been washed away.
At river-crossings simple concrete slab brid-
ges with four metres span-width have shown to
be more economical than Armco-pipes in rein-
forced concrete. As well as for the Irish
bridges, the pipes easily got clogged by bra-
nches or rather trees causing erosion on the
sidewalls.
A branch fence has shown to catch up trees
and branches, however, if not properly con-
structed and foundated they may easily be
damaged by erosion, especially down streams.
5. THE LESSON TO LEARN (II) .
A. Natural gravels.
There are many well known problems associated
with the use of naturally occuring road build-
ing materials. The degree of difficulties in
locating these deposits are rather high due to
the lack of features as well as material. Tile
variability within small dep?sits can be sig-
nificant. The thickness of a gravel layer
can be from 10-100 cm and a close supervision
during the stockpiling is essential. Many
borrow-pits have been ruined by careless sto-
ckpiling. The cost involvment of the gravel
material is about 70% of the total costs of a
bituminised road with normal hauling distan-
ces. By ruining a borrow-pit the economical
aspect becomes obvious.
B. Problem soils.
Three types of soils can be defined as problem
soils
Kalahari sand
- expansive soils
dispersive soils
.' ~
I
I'
I
Kalahari sands have a structure which collaps
when wetted under load. To prevent such fail-
ures a minimum density of 90% Mod. AASHO be-
tvleen 0,5 - 1,0 m depth has commonly been
specified. However, when dry and confined,
it can take a considerable load, and only re-
quires a 15 em cover. Because of construction
problems such as inaccurate levels, construc-
tion traffic, rapid abration of the roadbed,
detour problems as well as difficulties to
achieve lateral support, it is advisable to
construct a 10 cm working platform which can
be used by the construction team.
The deep compaction requirement (min. 90% Hod.
AASHO at 50 cm depth) should be omitted due to
the lovl rainfall and freely draining sand.
Saturation is not likely to occur and if - the
settlement would be acceptable for these types
of roads.
When dealing with expansive clay, different
alternatives have been used according to the
heave (or volumetrick change) potential.
70
~ 6 0 -
><
w
~ 50
>
=: 40
u
"'
'" :s 30
"-
o
~ 20
r
'" W 10
:;:
-
o
o
~
~
,3
;.:
;.:
-
<0
~
;.:
.c.
01
/'
E
~
I
;:I
'0
~
i:'
V V
..
'" :L r >
/ ~
~
/
~
V
./
V
low< 2-,.
20 40 60 60
CLAY CONTENT 21'm) (1.)
Figure 40. C. Van Der Merve swell potential
graph.
18
By using the Van Der Herve potential;4 four
categories for swell can be used, namely low,
medium, high and very high. Less attention
has been paid to the clay content due to the
fact that it is very difficult to control a
hydrometer test, the test being highly sensi-
tive to temperature. The plasticity index,
CBR-swell and visual inspection in the field
have been the major factors. The following
design relating to expansive clays has been
used within the Rural Roads project:
Figure 40 gives the swell potential graph
(after C. Van der Merve).
,he work should preferably be carried out du-
:ing the rainy season or immediately after.
19
) ,ersive soils contain a high proportion of

:xchangeable sodium, and causes the clay frac
tion of the soil to disperse when wet. These
50ils have an impermeable subsoil and relativ
21y poor cover of vegetation, which give a
high rate of rainfall run-off!5 These condi-
tions favour erosion, and misuse of disper-
sive soils can lead to considerable drainage
problems as welJ as erosion of fills on com-
pleted roads. 26
The identifications of dispersive soils are
rather difficult and different tests should
therefore be performed on the material. 27
However, the presence of iuch soils are limi-
ted to the eastern part of Botswana and usual-
ly occur in small pockets. The problem with
dispersive soils should not be exaggregated.
Nevertheless careful 1 engineering and know-
ledge of the materials behaviour will be ess-
ential to achieve a good result.
C. Cross-sections.
The width of the surfaced Low Traffic Roads
built under the Rural Roads project has been
5,00 m and has proved to be sufficient to
allow two cars or one car and one truck to
meet without the necessity to move to the sho-
ulder. Furthermore, two trucks would have
sufficient width to pass without driving out-
side the surfacing limits, although with red-
used speed. By adopting a shoulder as narrow
as 0,75 m the maintenance has proved to be a
minimum and if required, simple maintenance
methods can be adopted without using large
graders.
The camber of the surfacing should not exceed
1,5 2,0% due to the water run-off which may
cause shoulder and slope erosion.
Within the Rural Roads project two cross-
sections have turned out to be adequate.
Figure 41 gives the two cross-sections used:
i) Kalahari region
ii) Other parts of the country
__________ Subbase
41. The two cross-sections uaed for
the RuraZ Roada .ProJect.
I In the Kalahari region.
Other par'ts of the
saaLed roads on
"
I
, ,
it
If
;'1
1
"
t
f
!
Figure 42. Shoulder and slope erosion on a
newly constructed main road in the
Kalahari region (Kanye-Jwaneng road
1980). Note the uneccessarily steep
crossfall of the slope.
Should the material be of such a quality that
it is not suitable as shoulder material, con-
sideration should be made to surface the sho-
ulder or to completely avoid the use of shou-
lders.
In the Kalahari region the pavement should be
boxed-in and the sides lopes constructed as
flat as possible. Ditches should be avoided
if possible and the surrounding terrain level-
led at least 15 m to each side of the road to
avoid water ponding .28
D. Priming.
The necessity of prime may be questioned, and
especially on a natural granular base. Exp-
erience from the Rural Roads has shown
that a double sand seal or a double gravel
seal without prime have the same performance
as a seal with prime!7 (3 years experience)
However, from a construction point of view
priming may be an advantage, especially during
the rainy season.
Both tar and bitumen can be used on a granular
base with the same results. MC 30 tar prime
3/12 and 1/4 are all commonly used. However,
1/4 tar prime has quicker drying properties
and can be useful in cattle areas were rapid
drying of the binder will be to an advantage.
20
On calcrete bases it is always adviseable to
use a prime. Tar should preferably not be
used because softness has occured while ex-
posed more than 4-5 weeks. However, if ex-
posed less than 3 weeks allowance may be made
to use a tar prime. Because of a higher ab-
sorbation of binder in calcretes a higher
application rate would be beneficial.
Calsified sand bases (non- plastic) should
preferably have a two coat prime. The first
prime will penetrate rather deeply into the
base and fill the voids in the lower layer,
leaving the upper layer of the base fairly
loose and hungry. The second coat will fill
the voids in the upper layer, and strengthen
the top of the base, and the total achievments
will be
- deep penetration which will improve
the bond between the base and the sur-
facing which is essential when using
fine graded materials
- strengthen the top of the base
- improve the impermeability of the
base which is of major importance
when using fine graded materials
By using this method armouring can be avoided.
However, there is no doubt that an armour co-
arse will strengthen the top of the base. A
higher viscosity prime should preferably be
used were soluble salts are present.
Soluble salts are present almost in any type
of calcrete, but in quite different amounts.
The most common salt in calcrete and water is
sodium chloride (NaCI) and a total soluble
salt content 0,2% has been used as a
A higher content is considered harmful in any
base. The mechanism of salt damages may be
many depending on type of salts. However,
dealing with calcrete the main is like-
ly to be crystallization and migration of the
compaction water as the base dries out. The
sympthoms usually occuring are:
30
i) blistering and heaving of surfac-
ings with resulting star cracking
ii) looseness, powdering, popping of
prime coates
iii)
loss of density of unbound bases
iiii)
i . iJ
10s3 of bond between surfacing
and base
white to brown salt stains on
surfacing, prime or base
21
Fi' re 43.
'--'
A typi ca l sa l t b li s ter caused bv
migration of soluble salts f r o ~ the
underlaying layers. The blisters
become loose and powdery, which
results in disintegration of the
bituminous seal. (Orapa airport 1979).
Different precautions can be taken to overcome
__ the migration of salts successfully. However,
each method adopted has to suit the conditions
to be served. They can be listed as follow:
I) use another type of calcrete with
less amount of salts
II) let the subbase and base dry out
completely and skim off 2-3 cm of
the top before priming
III) prime immediately with a heavy
prime application and surface as
soon as the prime is dry
Para. (I) can be overcome but would be far
outside the ecconomical frame for Low Traffic
Roads. Para (II) and (III) have both been
tried with different degree of success.
Usually the damages occur within a year after
construction, and the damages are more common
on roads with little or no traffic than on
more crowded roads.
The second prime should be applied as soon as
the first prime has dried up. The surfacing
should preferably be carried out as soon as
the prime has dried up. However, the necess-
ity of this may be questioned and a delay of
1-2 months may be accepted.
E. Surfacing.
Different types of surfacings have successful-
ly been used on Low Traffic Roads in Botswana.
However, it seems obvious that tar is not sui-
table as binder in the top layer due to britt-
leness and rapid hardening caused by athmos-
pheric oxidation and the suns ultra violet
rays!l Bituminous binder is therefore recomm-
ended in the top layer.
Kalahari sand should only be used as aggregate
in light sand seals on top of a graded gravel
seal.
A single seal is not recommended except when
applying a graded gravel seal. This is due
to the importance of an impermeable surface
and the rather poorly developed maintenance
frequency in the rural areas.
When prime is not used it may be an advantage
to use a binder of lower viscosity and a hig-
her application rate for the first seal. This
is to allow some penetration of the binder in-
to the base.
The following surfacing types are recommended
I
!'
I
.,'
.'J
\i
r
:.f
' .
'1
1
I
I
I
,ximum size of the aggregate used should be
,'S,O mm(screened riversand.)
The sand should be broomed back at least three
times and the first seal should be finally set
(min. 2 months) before applying the second
seal.
Single surface dressing with sand seal on top:
Experience has shown that it is difficult to
obtain a single surface dressing to stand up,
mainly due to errors during the surfacing.
Therefore it is not recommended to apply a
single surface dressing. However, a single
surface dressing 13,2 mm or 9,5 mm with a sand
seal on top have proved to be very successful.
The base should always be primed and the aggre-
Ite may not strictly follow the grading spec-
ification. This applies for the flakiness
index and the aggregate strength as well. A
flakiness and ACV value less than 35 and 30
respectively should prove sufficient. The
sand seal should be applied prior to any
traffic on the road.
Graded gravel seal (Otta-seal):
Both natural gravel and crusher run can be
used provided maximum size is 19 mm (prefera-
bly 16 mm) and the grading curve fits or al-
most fits into the envelope curve. Screening
may be required both to remove aggregate lar-
ger than 16 mm and the excess of fines. A
good rule of thumb is to be on the "coarser
side" of the envelope curve for roads with
light traffic, < 100 vehicles per day, and on
the more finer side for traffic> 100 vehicles
per day.
22
Figure 44 shows the recommended envelope curve
for a graded gravel seal (otta-seal):2
SAND
I
GRAVEL
100
200 100 50 30 15 8 4 3/4" 1-5"

eo
,k:::C::::

'" z
50
Ui
oJ)

L?:::
<>:
"-
40
k:::
;-: 0
20
v: V:: ;::;;::::
t:::::: -:7
./ f:=: %:: r:::::::
o
r::::8::::: 8:::
p
0,06 0-150/.250,6 U8 2 05 H2 37560mm
Figure 44. Recommended envelope curVe for a
graded gravel seal (Otta-seal). Note
that the acceptable area is fairly
wide.
Figure 45. As for the sand seals the aggregate
for a graded gravel seal (Otta seal)
can be applied with mechanical
spreaders as well as by hand. (Oodi
road 19? 8). ,------------------
~ h e rolling of the aggregate should start imme-
' - - ~
diately after spreading using a pneumatic rol-
ler with minimum 4 passes. Rolling is essent-
ial to produce a good surface and can not be
overdone. The surface should be opened to
traffic immediately, although speed limit shou-
ld be enforced if possible (max. 50 km/h) .
On roads with less than 30 vehicles per day it
is recommended to apply a light sand seal on
top to retain the stones.
F. Suggested pavement design
Low Traffic Roads.
Figure 46 shows the suggested pavement design
and material requirements for Low Traffic
Roads in Botswana.
23
i
I
I:
III
! 1
I p'
d'
! !
ill
PA VEMENT DESIGN
(NATURAL GRANULAR GRAVEL/CALCRETE)
Summary of Rural Roads Report No. 24
The subgrade conditions on the section were
fairly good with CBR values generally above
40. The final base thickness was approximate-
ly 15 cm. Most of the base material used did
not meet the usual requirements specified for
roads under a bituminous surface. (CBR, plas-
ticity and grading requirements).
Figure 48 gives the trial section layout, cro-
section and construction data.
Several types of surfacings (surface dressing,
sand seal, gravel seal) and binders (bitumen
and tar) were used as well as single and doub-
le seals with and without prime.
Since the completion in late 1978 the road has
carried about 120.000 vehicles (16000 ESA 80
kN) for the first 7 km and about 60000 vehicles
(8200 ESA kN) for rest of the road.
No major signs of distress or failures on the
pavement or surfacings have been recorded.
However, tar is obviously not suitable as bin-
der in the top layer. The heavy prime section
was actually written off during the construc-
tion due to difficulties with the ripping of
~ base.
During April 1981 the following characteristi-
cs of the surfacings were given.
section 1 (!" chipping, 150/200 penti. bitum-
en + sand seal, Me 3000)
Between km 0,1 and km 0,3 both tra-
nsverse and longitudinal hair crac-
ks were apparent over the entire
width of the road. For the rest of
the section no surface failures we-
re recorded and the general charac-
teristics of the surface were very
good.
, . .1-
. Appendix 1
'Section 2 (Double gravel seal MC 3000, + Me
800)
Figure
No surface cracks were recorded.
The surface appeared hungry, except
in the wheel tracks where the surf-
ace appeared dense. A few stones
had been whipped off mainly due to
the softness of the stones. The
traffic tends to break down the la-
rger stones instead of whipping th-
em off. A fair amount of oversize,
(greater than 19 mm), was apparent.
Generally the surface is fairly go-
od.
4Z After 2t years in service the
graded seaL has performed well.
Note the width (3,5 m wide) of the
second seaL (Qadi road 1981)
Section 3 (Single gravel seal, MC 3000)
Same comments as for section 2.
Section 4 (Double gravel seal without prime,
MC 3000 + MC 800)
Same comments as for sections 2 and
j.'
."-.,/.
26
GENERAL LAY OUT
SURFACING TRIALS
OODl-ROAD

..
,.
" "
..
i i i i i i
I I I I I
l'
I 1 . 1 .1 ,
.. '.
.'
:1 .'.;.,,
" ' I.
,
..
' ... -,
@'
.' , .


Os
' ..
SECTION N,
,
2 3
,
S

7

i
" ,
" --
.. se COURS[ Dte. vronl ond bl.ritt grtritt ..,d luI,rUt CoIertf.
"15""
""'>I[
3/
12 P TAR
"'-
""""
p",m.
Me I!OO
3'12 P TAlI
I
'1 p
,
Sod 1501 200 e-ntr. bitum.,..
1 SIal Me JOXl t Sod Me JOOO Me XlOO
,
Blt'lCER
2. Sod Me
"""
2.Sed Me em .O,BY. dlomlne wilh o.e". diamlne Me 3000
'.0' d;
,
Sod U ch,pp'f'9 Orubl. 0110 - Singlt
40110 _
Double "otto '7
R,,,,
llo<.tio om<! ....
AGGREGATE 2. s.or
"'"
..... surfoc.t"' """,,' surfou" .ond ,- ""d
.... -
lS20m 2180m 2000m
""'"
2SCDm
lENGTH' WIDTH
5000m S.OOm SOOm S.OOm , 500,"
S,OOm
5.00111 J.5Dm 3,SOm
350m
REMARKS: F .. d 100111 2nd HOt TAR 50155$
if
2.SOm
, 2.50m
50cm'
I-ShoUlder
._ .. _- .
SECTION
,
2 3
,
5

7

9 10
Gt(7liUc Coaru Granitic. Granltie Granitic Gronitic Granitic Grorilic Gr.onitic Granitic
SUBGRAOE Type sond 9fOVtl sond sand sond sond .ond sand sond SGlld
PlY.

HP SP 5 HP HP SP 7 8 12
CBR .,.
"
51
"
S. 55
,.
"
SO 34 53
p.o._,.
Dec.granilt' Deegrtlnilt' Oee.9'"cnilt' Dec.9fCl ni1e okt.!e olerete
BASE
T""
1 lalerite tatt'rite
PI/. 13 NP SP SP

13
"
12
"
12
F.ld dlfOli ty COR,.
" "
OS .. 83
'"
S. 51 L1 57
CQJ.P./. 9S.t 9U '00 ".0 9fHI 9n 98.1 95.9 9fi.0
1----nllckn!t5S em
15.4 15.4 15.8 14.1 15.0 15.5 15.2 11. 7 15.4 14.5
PRIME Type
3 .. '12
3
12
3/
1
2
-- - Me eoo
3/
,2 ", '",
rate 'M 0.9S 0.12 D.GS - -- 2.50 '.66 0.157 0.77 o e2
Me 3000 MCJOOO MC3000 Me 3000 TAR
tsl Bindltr type
'S<liOO 08."""" .. """",
I-iC3000 MC 3000 Me 3000 S)SSS
AppI. foIl' !.m
2
Q> t.JJ 1.1.9 1.fi6 1.20
--
1.0L 1.1.8
AGGREGATE Type

Natura Naturel Natural River River Rivet'" Rivet
9rovt'1 oroyel qrowl s",d s:ond s-ond 'ond
Am.rete 'lm
2
as 11..0 11..0 11..0 .0 11. .0 '.0 80
2nd Binder type
J.(C 3000 MeMO -- Me SOD J-.C3000 -- Me 3000 Me 3000
11m'
1.13

-- 0.92 US Ap.pI. rolt '.18
--
1.13
AGGREGATE Riyers:ond Natura! -- Hotural River -- Riyt'r River
9
rove
'
>,,"', sond sond .ond
A.oI ..... '.0 1S.0
-- ' .0
S .
--
'.0 ...
t,! and cons
the' t ri a Z se e t ion s O1i:, the" 0 0 d i
1.17
RN!!'r River
s",d r.ond
7.0 . 0
-- --
-- --
-- --
- --
_ land
"DO",
!.Q)m
11 '2
Granllic. Granitic.
sand s-ond
5 6
"
33
olc.retlf lolltfite
"

55

9fi.9 91.5
15.5 13.9
'1. It.
073 0_83
T.R "R
SO/SSS 5<1-
555
0.9S 0
River Riyf't
s:ond 1;ol'ld
.0 M
TAR TAR
LS"sO ,''so
, 0' 1.0]
Rjyi!'f Ri..,.r
sand r.ond
e.o '.0
,.
" "
... Ie"' '.1
.. ,
,
'; .. ,'
I
!

n u
I
ld .... le
T ..
Q
!O / ! 5S TAR

-
_ ....
I
,_land
3000",

1S'lm
Section 5
Section 6
(Double sand seal without prime Me
3000 + Me 3000) i
No surface 'cracks were recorded
the very dense
" n" t ..
.. , ,,,",.'
(Heavy prime, Me 800)
This section was very bad and the
ruts caused by ripping have still
not closed up even with the exten-
sive patching operations carried
out. A sand seal was applied about
a year ago to improve riding quali-
ty and impermeability but only suc-
ceeded in giving a more dens sur-
face.
Section 7 and 8 (Double sand seal, Me 3000)
Section 9
The surface was found to be in ex-
cellent condition and only a few
hair cracks were recorded being lo-
cated between km 13,8 and km 14,0,
but with the outer 0,75 m (single
seal) exhibiting more frequent cr-
acks. Some whip off of the overs-
ize aggregate has occured but the
quantity is negligible. There is
no difference in the surface per-
formance for these two sections,
(decomposed granite, laterite and
calcrete) .
(Single sand seal, Me 3000)
Only a few hair cracks were recor-
,ded, mainly over the clay/culvert
section (km 14,2 14,3) which is
caused by pavement movement.
ts of the section look hungry.
-- Section 10 (Single sand seal, tar 50/55)
This displayed
hair cracki in a
mosaic pattern (5 x'5 cm) over mo-
st of the section; however no dir-
ect failures were recorded.
Section 11 (Double sand seal, tar 50/55+45/50)
The section exhibited extensive ha-
ir cracks to major cracks on the
outer 0,75 m, (single seal), but
'2.1
:;' ,.
Section
only a few cracks were
"ere, the ,second seal was applied.', ".,
12 (Double
"

is dense
:<::"
'lodal' aro:[;--'(
be .. crac:ked batUy
necessary.
sand seal, tar
. !. .
,'J
,,'
The same performance' as for secti-
on 11 but with more hair cracks
,from km 17,5 to the end.
- Figure 49. A single graded gravel seal with
prime 3 years after completion.
Not a single pothole has been
observed on this section.(Oodi
road 19B1}.
The strength of the road was measured during
34
April 1981 by using both the DCP and Benkel-
man beams (re-bound method) under a 8200 kg
axle load. The road was divided into sectio-
ns according to base classification.
Figures 50 and 51 give the average DCP and
Benkelman beams measurements respectively.
The mean annual rainfall is about 520 rom in
this area and during the years 1978 to 1981
the mean annual rainfall was 638 mm, 544 mm,
559 rom and 647 rom respectively.
Moisture conditions in the pavement were mea-
sured during May 1981 by insitu sampling.
The moisture content was 40 and 35 percent
below optimum for the base and subgrade respe-
ctively.
I
I
I 'I':
r
. !
1
28
No rutting was observed.
De'pth 0 - 15 cm Depth 15 - 25 'cm Depth 25 - 50 t:ri1
Chainage Km
Average Highest Lowest Average Highest Lowest Average Highest Lowest
CDR CDR CDR CDR CDR CDR CDR CDR CBR
,
0,0 - 4,2 270 > 460 52 253 460 49 93 290 It
I
>-
4,2 -10,2 Course granitic subgrade CBR value in excess of 100
10,2 -12,8 460
460 . J 460
180 230 140 Too hard'
..
11 ' .
...
12,8 -13,250 No meas rements
13,250-16,9 156 360
I
'32 62 100 30 31 70 10
16,9 -17,4 No measurements
17,4 -18,5 >
460 Only onl measuremt 110 58
I I
Figure 50. Average DCP-measurements.
Location Inner Track Outer Track
Chainage Km Average Highest
10m mm
0,0 - It,2 0,31 0,59
4,2 -10,2 0,50 0,90
10,2 -12,8 0,24 0,52
12,8 -13,250 0,19 0,27
13,250-16,9 0,38 1,00
16,9 -17,4 0,32 0,6S
17,4 -18,5 0,55 0,68
Figure 51. Average BenkeLman beam measurements.
Costs
The following costs have been calculated for
the different types of surfacings, (figure 52).
..
,
Lowest Average Highest Lowest
10m mm mm nun
0,13 0,58 1,59 0,26
0,20 0,68 1,12 0,27
0,14 0,45 0,97 0,09
0,12 0,42 0,99 0,18
0,04 0,76 1,59 0,40
0,04 0,55 0,91 0,20
0,16 0,75 1,03 0,41
PULA PER f\2
o 0,5 1,0 1,5
I I
GS2 + prime
GS2 no prime
SS2 no prime, 1,44
SS2 tar + prime 1,33
S'D 1 +SS l-+prime '1,28
GSl + prime
1,10 SS2 tar + prime
S8' 1,00 .... ,"
2,0
1,59
1,58
;urfac:e ..
SSl '!: Single sand seal'_',._. ", _. _c, senl,!:!
SS2 ;' Doubte ."nd seal:; c.. ,.
GS1 ,::: Singl@ of aggregate
GS2.'" Double gravel. by,hlind (except chipping). "
" :(10 r: .
the
br
(1980 prices), .
Summary of Rural Roads Report No. 23
Six sections, each 200 metres in length were
constructed (Dec. 1980) using materials from
different borrowpits. In two of the sections,
the base was lime stabilized. The subgrade
consisted of single sized Kalahari sand with
a CBR (soaked) value between 17-42. A 10 cm
thick subbase and a 15 em thick base layer was
constructed by using poor quality, none plast-
ic calsified sand and powder calcrete. The
',_,oase strength at 95% Mod. AASHO (soaked)
was between 28 and 61 and for the base layer,
between 38 and 79 for the untreated sections
and for the lime stabilized sections between
228 and 248. When using fine graded material
in the base, as under this trial, the bond be-
tween the base and surfacing was questionable.
33
Therefore both armouring (19-26 rom crushed or
uncrushed stone, rolled flushed into the base
with a spacing equal to about size of the st-
ones used) and heavy prime was used for each
of the sections.
Figure 53. Staking of the triaL section was
essentiaL to ensure adequate
. monitoring of the trial. (Sehitwa-
Tsau road 1980).
A graded seal followed by a light sand
seal {using both Me 3000 and emulsion) with
Kalahari sand was used throughout.
, obtain the confidence required (material
29
Appendix 2
and pavement design-wise) before embarking on
a full scale production, accelerated traffic
was put on (35000 ESA 80 kN). (Figure 58).
Figure 54. Two of the sections were Lime-
stabilized and the spreading of the
Lime was carried out by hand. The
base material was moistened to
about 1/2 of Que before appLying
the lime. (S u road 19
Figure 55. Mixing the lime and water were
carried out by both a discharrow
and a rotevator to ensure an
adequate and rapid mixing. Rapid
mixing was essential as the lime
and calcrete reacted more or less
immediately. (Sehitwa-Tsau road 1980t
Figure 56 gives the lay-out, cross-section and
construction data of the trial.
I
';i
,.)
I::
!i
.! :l
Ii
I
I il
",'
;\
i
I
'-../
. ;

.
::-
CON S T Rue T ION
SECTION
Subgrade type
<0,425
"'"
C
u
% Field density
Field CBR
Subbatie type
<0,425 m:n
C
v
.
Thl.ckness em
Field density
Field CllR
Ba!le type " .. "":-,,
E ;'. ! -/!; -'."-.
1
93
1,9
91,1
42
65
2,4
10,5
96,8
,57,':
RESULTS
RP SINGLE SIZE
9- 79
1,9 2,0
96,3 98,7
33 32
Me(} MSHO
9e% 'M:)[) ....I.sM:I
97% MOO AASfoIO
(AVERAGE VALUES)
KALAHARI SAND
Mixed vith
calcrete
77 89
2,1 1,8
96,5 97,0
32 36
NP CALCIFIED SAND
70. 63 61
3,2 2,6
9.9 10.'
99,2,
69
30
,-tOO ,-em 7"8:0
I I I
NEAT SUB -MSE ' .
'.
2 PRIMIHJ FEOUIREMENTS: .
SECTl00s 1-2-)-6 t4C 100 - 200
SECTICNS L - 5 . M: tOO AS ClRIHG MEMMNiO
J EACH SECTm IS SPliT INTO THO 0 crd 'b .
.a - SECttlNS WIll HAve J,I'f. a$lMtlR CXlARSE
b - SECTIONS Will t4AVE ,. HIiAVY mMt:,
SECTJJNS 1 -:) WIll HAVE A I=OG sPRA.Y ON lOP
l!S1t-(; EHtI.SIOH &:111.0 GRAOE. CATIONIC
SECTION ,- 15 w:u. ... UUHT 5Al ON TOP
usm Me XXlD
IOTM SECTIONS TO IE CI7w''R:D"MTH tw..NU.RI SN)
6
83
1,9 .'
97,5
31
62 '
;, '
2, i:.!
.13,4 "
;"' j . ,"; .,
i
,i.
I

-- "
31
:/ "'- ;. -". : 'I'
,..1'1:Nf",. r-_T-_....,...:....-,--...:....-r-_T""'_'-r._i c,,.' _";...' i';..;'... "..:-' ".:.;'
, . ", . _ . <I:' !f,<' . ; . ,_) ::: ,,:: ;-.:"::".; ,; '.' ,.;,;.. , ,"" -
The " ir
di
v Wri?
ferent sections .the' variclUs'seasons:in-:" ";':'/;>'30000 30000:1:
.' -
boths ide sexhibi ted.:,: .the highe st . de lection: du -::-:;J'J.', r2 '
. -. '-', .. :-1';_ ':'" ,',':'-'-'::'-::/(::, __ ", t c, 0
ring the month of sea-,.;',;'; 4: 20000 20000 '"
son).! '" It:1
on recorded:' "";, ., "'(:T,;H.I ., z
. \'.: . !. . t . '.
",. ""._,' < '-;"i,t,'_"
The deflection procedure used was the'rebound
?.. method. under an ,<?t: ,?qq The
lues measured were rather small and indicated
a high bearing capacity. Serious destructive
tensions will probably be negligible in the
years to come.
The last measurement (14/9-81) for all secti-
ons showed an increased deflection for the
right hand side inner track of about 0,1 mm
0, 25 The outer track on the same side
generally gave lower except for the
lime stabilized sections where a small increa-
se in deflection occured. For the left hand
side there were no significant changes in defl-
ection other than those obtained earlier for
the inner track. The outer track showed a
well defined decrease in deflection.
Figure 59 gives the average deflection measur-
for each section be for; and during the
time of accelerated traffic. '
". '.
, --
;:";.'-d!",: ___,-.. .
::r; .. E:it;:>
__ __ __ -L __ -L __
FEB. MAR, APR. MAY JUN. JUL AUG,SEP,T,',.,i,
,,1981 :
Cummulotivv ESA eo KN
all vehicles ---
Figure 58. Cummu lative number of ESA (80 kN)
and vehicles passing the trial
section (15/2-80 - 14/9-81).
In-situ CBR has been measured by the use of
DCP at different levels in the pavement. The
untreated sections have an in-situ CBR, (aver-
age values for the whole section) for the ba-
se layer of about 50 with the exception of
,section 1 where the lowest CBR value ,was 38.
During the period from the time construction
was complete at the end of November up to the
middle of March, all values decreased to about
30-40. This pattern changed by the middle of
'all section's s,"3.ve the
strength obtained since the road was completed,
with CBR values. of, about 60 ... ,., _,,_'
The same tendency was apparent for the subbase
layer, but surprisingly with higher values than
those achieved for the base layer. Values ob-
tained ranged 'from about '50-60 after
rising to about 70 - 90 by the middle of Sep-
telnber
For the underlying layers at 25 -:- 55,em,depth
and at '55- 85 cm depth a more stable CBR pro-
file 'was measured during the wholeperiocl with -:'i
values ranging from about 50 - 70 with a lowe-,,
ilng'of about 8 ,-' 10' in the middle
therea,Etertd'ir{ciease ta- thepreviolls' vaIues,;J2':
':" -. -:. ,,-;' : -, .; . .,. _., - :.. ,._. 'i. '" . ..,:'i'" -', ...;: .. iii.2 .
a 55;-'-85 cmdepth .the .values were between:
c
,':'
-,' '" '," ;"'., .'-- .. .;, j;};.
and 30 with a value negligibly lower::at: the'!; ,. -.
of March.
. . "r '. !,';t.-;.j .
,,", .
The Brne : stabilized sections obtained
"
ueS between 150 to 250 for the base
with more varying values for the '.subbase 1-'1'
,110). The subgrade strength appeared to have
32
:JEC1'ION GEGTION 2 SECTION 3 SECTION
DATE
.', (,
Inner
mm
Outer
mm
,:.' i'" LEFT SIDE
2/3-81

11{/9-31
SEC 1011
. Outer
mm mm
0,36 0,55
,0,33'
0,29 0,55
0,37 0,3;
Inner
mm
0,29
O.i6'
.0.33.:',
0.2G
o,3t
Outer
nun
0,66
0,64
0,35
Inner
nun
OUter
mm
,,0,25. .0,87 '.
0,27 0,71
0,32. 0,36
Iriner
mm
,0,26'
0,37
b,41
0,32
0,32
'Figure 59, _ Average BenkeZman beam defZections during the
period. (? /I - .. 14/9-'81)
'j'
Outer
mm
0,64
0,61
0,68,
0,59
0,39
SECTIOIl 5
Inner
mm
0,19
0,23
0,20
0,20
OUter
mm
0,81
0,58
.0,59
0,f5
0,45
SECTIOIl (>
Inner
l!'.m .
0,21"
0,28>
0,30
0,30
0,2R
0,27
Outer
mm
0,66;,
Outer
0,78
0,75
0,;2
SBCTION SECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION
1 ...... 2 3 5 Ii
DATF. .-'
15 25 55 85 15 25 5.5 ... 1l5. 15 25 55 85 15 25 55 85 15 25 55 8
e
, 15 20 5', 85
:.21/1 !,-BD 38 55 40 21 51 74 68 35 60 75 60 25 147 82 67 39 11),5153 126 08
5/2-81 36 48 42 24 53 37 50 58 51 23 215 35 35 21
No measurement,
too hartl 65 72 57 21
3/3-81 32 41 36 28 38 59 53 36 53 53 44 23 208 110 67 31 201 52 30 28 7" 9:0 ,1
15/3-81 27 36 35 20 35 49 46 31 42 55 37 18 239 33 39 23 252 142 27 14 59 72 55 21
1419-81 61 70 62 26 56 91 78 37 59 75 53 19
Figure 60. Average DCP-measurements during the period
(7/1 - 14/9-81).
'.he same tendency as for the untreated sections.
Figure 60 gives the average CBR values for ea-
ch of the sections and at different depths.
The moisture conditions in the pavement were
measured. three. times. (November.
September,198J) and no
moisture was. measured.
The moisture,decreased in
7 ,5,andu15 ,cm,andjbetween

from the'; surfacing edge' had a
.. '; 2%, at
, l .
No measurement
too hard
I J J
175 55 35 11 65 83 61 70
,:";
7,5 - 15 cm,to about 2%
"j.'
cm. For the .upper.7,5 cm
p:rof ile .' .
,
of .the
conditions
subgrade is connected withthelIllpermeable
rfacing and the road profile i. not:
allow.any water
;', T:: ::: :.. " ':j .:::<:::;;}/r h
A visual inspection of the sections were carr-
ied out in September 1981 and the following
comments were given.
Section 1 Both 'a' (armoured) and 'b' (unar-
moured) sections had a very smooth
and even surface. The surface app-
eared similar to a premix finish ex-
cept for the outer 0,5 m on each si-
de where it was possible to identify
the surface as a gravel seal, (this
was probably due to reduced traffic
on that part of the surfacing). Ve-
ry little difference between the ar-
moured an unarmoured sections was
apparent and there was no sign of
damage caused by the cattle hooves.
Also no sign of cracks was observed.
Section 2 Performance as for section 1, but
the surfacing appeared more coarse.
p.r.?;::; I','
doe s" :t,:.:,::'i:::.:
'. M

The reason why (untreated
'base), exhibited more-cracks than
sections 1 , 2 and 3 can possibly;be
related back to the more self-cement-
ing properties of the material.
It is known that some types of calcretes have
self-cementing if present it
would be of considerable importance to estah'::'
lish such favourable characteristics." the' ef-
fect of moisture was also 'considered
and tests were carried out to assess such pro-
perties.
36
.,'
"
Figure 62 and f'igure 63. give
ing effect of the base material and
of moisture.

I Section 3
Performance as for sections'1
but the surface appeared to.be more
coarse, especially from krii7 + 040
to km 7 + 100.. Y,ery little: differ;;;
ence between: the 'armoured and unar--
I
I
J
I
..... moured sections ;',: ."
Section 4 .... Surface performance generally as 'for
, .. " section 3.: Transverse cracks .0,5
",mm wide and 2,5
;. (' :-..... .. '. '....:. ."
.. -
. .' " 2 3 >
for the armoured section :<"; .';.' }: .::
,-;> '-';,. ., . .' '. . , ,', ... :L'-"'; :'DRYING'CYCLES
.i_ -,;,+.;.>.;;c'were observed while on the unarmour- ,,:: . ..,i;':-,,,, . :, , ..

.,' . to beL <,:;:"",.6-7'- .1 842
,', smoother ,:;', 2 ;-;sEtie ato f Be if
.. ,-" .;:.:'; .. >:.;, ::.j-:; 1.,_ . _ .. ". .,;.,:c; ; .:...., ... _, . '1" .' .. ;. . ' .. " . ..' "'; .. ".-:t.' ... '':..
.. -. ';0 ,,: - '::'.,.,
ever, less cracks were obser;ed on
the left hand side.
,
280
\
240
200
I/)
.... ..
\
.....
"
.:,
,
... ,
IIJ
'"
..J
160

>
It:
CD
120 u
1\
.... \ ""
".
.,
"
"
\ .. "
, ".
.........
,

80
K
r---
to- .........
l"""'o
I
I I I I
2 4 6 II 10 12 16
MOISTURE CONTENT %
Section 1
MOD' OMC 179B kg/rril I 12.8 %
2-'-'-'
leso I 13.2 %
3
IB90 I 9.6%
6----
1842 I 11.2 %
Figure 63. Effect of moisture.
The self-cementing tests have been confirmed
to a certain extent in that the material test-
ed displayed some self-cementing properties.
The conclusion is clear and is in fact to
some extent confusing.
The effect of moisture is shown by an increase
in strength of about 100% when the moisture
content is lowered by one third of the optimum.
This of is rather rare for
more granitic and quartzitic materials.
34
. .....
Summary of Rural Roads Report No. 26
During the years 1979 to 1980 the 12,9 km long
Selebi-Pikwe - Mmadinare road was constructed
as a bitumen sealed road under the Rural Roads
Programme.
The road was constructed with a 15 cm gravel
layer as base, subbase material being required
only for a few sections. Up to km 6,3 the top
of the base was very rough and uneven due to a
large amount of oversize material. The quali-
of the base gravel was below common speci-
iI;ation requirements. The surface used was a
double seal with surface dressing (13 mm chip-
pings) in the first seal and a sand seal on
top of this. The chipping was brought from
the Selebi-Pikwe mine and the sand was taken
from the Letlakane riverbed; the material over
8 mm being screened out.
by hand.
The sand was spread
18 culverts have been constructed with diamet-
res from 0,6 to 1,0 m. For the crossing of
Letlakane river eight Armco steel pipes of 2,7
m diametre were used.
The cost of the road was approximately P49 000/
km, the river crossing being responsible for
12% of the total cost.
CHAINAGE
KM
0-
-,
, - 3
3 - 4
4 - <
, - .
- 1
1 -.
- .
, - 10
.0
11 -11
11 -13
,""OISTURE
0-1Scm
.,.
6, ,
4,4
<.'
4.'
15
'.0
8ENKHt-IAN BEAM DEFlECTION OCP MEA5'JREMENTS
0.4') O.!-O 0.10 0.61 0.119 0,17 ~ "1.60
0./.7 0,78 0,26 Q.70 1,0"3 D,'SI 1.50 ho 126
0.401. O.St. 02'(' D.S] 1.17 Q1,1 130 83 3')
0,35 0,54 Ooll! 0,70 1,5' 0.19 35 JI, 37
o,a 0.36 0.11 0.6" 1,59 0,24 8l 67 29
0.10 0,6' 0.16 0,67 1,00 0,38 1 eo 100 71
0.11.8 0.7% OJI 0.53 1,11 0.25 eo 72
'4
0.54 O,St; (!.I.Q 0.L8 o,M O,tl I. liD 1",,0
"
0,&3 1.18 0,14 0.78 1,98 0.24 150 71
'0
!UJ 061 0.17 O.Ll!I 1,03 '0,10 230 210 ,eo
D,SJ 0.92 0.30 D,SO aBl 0," '"'460
0.42 0.71 010 Cl42 1)0 0,06 >'(.60
Q2, t,08 0,:2 D,H OM 0,22'" 60
Figure 64. Moisture and average values for
deflection and DCP-measurements.
Appendix 3
Deflection measurements on the completed road
shows low values, i.e. a high bearing capacity.
DCP - test (Dynamic Cone Penetration) also in-
dicates a high pavement strength.
Figure 64 gives moisture as well as average
values for deflection and DCP-measurements.
Figure 65. Even large sizes of the Armco pipes
(diametre 2,60 m) can under certain
conditions be insufficient. Selebi
(Pikwe-Mmadinare road 1981)'
A visual inspection of the road was carried out
in April 1981 and the following comments were
made.
The surface was smooth and even and no surface
edge deterioration had taken place. Some shou-
lder slope erosion had occured, mainly in conn-
ection w i ~ culverts and calling for immediate
attention.
It seems clear that the single surface dressing
covered with a sand seal has given a very den-
se and strong surfacing.
The traffic on the road is approximately 135
vehicles per day (1981).
I'
,I: . ,
I
.1
II
Ii'
I!
Ii
I
I
I
d
36
Summary of Rural Roads Report No. 25 -
During the years 1975 to 1977 the 49 km long
Sebina - Tutume road (just northwest of Franci-
stown) was constructed'as a gravel road under
the Rural Roads Programme. The cost was appr-
.... \
Appendix 4
do not seem to affect the road performance, th-
ey may present a future problem if moisture
thereby should be able to enter the! base .'-
oximately P 18000/kID. Figure 67 gives the average moisture conditio-
Following a decision to up-grade the road to a
bitumen standard, a thorough investigation of
the eXisting road was carried out. When con-
started in 1979 only 1 - 4 cm was
>teft of the original 15 cm gravel layer, alth-
ough a maintenance team had been working on
the road during 1978 and 1979.
A new 15 cm gravel layer of quartz/decomposed
granite/laterite was used under 5,0 m wide sur-
facing of double sand seal. Sand < 8 mm scre-
ened from river sand was used in the seal
The natural gravel base layer material was for
some sections below common requirements.
Compared with the original cost of P 18000/km
for the gravel road the regravelling (including
the cost of constructing 50 new box culverts)
amounted to P 26000/kID. The cost of the bitu-
men was P 6000/kID, i.e. 25% of the total cost
f the reconstruction (all prices converted to
"'-f980-prices) .
Deflection measurements on the completed road
shows low values, i.e. a high bearing capacity.
A visual inspection of the road was done in
Aug. 1981.
- Figure 66 gives the material properties both
for the subgrade and base layer as well as the
base thicknesses, divided into _, _
A visual inspection of the road took place dur-
ing October 1981 and the following comments
were made.,
:. ';: :$
Some haircracks in the surfacing had occured, "
mainly on the first 23 km. No surface edge
or slope erosion had taken
the observed haircracks at the moment
ns in the base and the Benkelman beam and DCP
results.
The traffic on the road is approx. 115 vehicl-
es per day (1981).
The total amount of traffic (Oct. 1981) today
have been estimated and the following figures
are given.
Up to Sebina (km O-kID 8,0) total
number of vehicles 48900
total number of ESA (80kN) 5400
Up to Tutume (km 8,0-km 49,0)
total number of vehicles 25900
total number of ESA (80kN) 2900
SECTION/KM
SUBGRADE BASE
BASE
PI/CBR PI/CBR
THICKNESS
CM
1 0-1,5 10/22 NP/98 13
2 1,5-6,5 22/3 6/62 13
3 8,0-9,5 11/35 14/144 15
4 9,5-11,0 10/34 '13/54 13
5 11,0-16,0 8/48 13/54 13
6 17,5-20,5 11/40 5/55 15,
7 22,0-23,5 8/53 5/112 14
8 23,5-31,0 10/24 SP/92 15
9 31,5-33,5 13/10 13/27 14
10 33,S-36,S' 8/38 7/47 16
11 37,5-40,0 SP/50 10/75 12
12 40,0-49,6 4/50 6/71
I
14
Figure 66. MateriaL properties for subgrade,
1 J base Layer and base thicknesses.
,\'
Figure 67.
- '--../'
JI
MOISTURE
BENKELMAN BEAM DEflECTION
SECTION INNER TRACK OUTER
Choinoge Average Highest Lowest Highest lowest Y<!roge
km, % % Y. l./MI imm
': '
I 0- l5 , 4.8 5.2
3. , 0.39 cr. 52 . 0.19 0.50
1
1. 5.5 3,5.\" ;1..5: .': .2.7 0.51 1.18 .0.12 0.73
,
; L' ,
.\,' ' .
3 8.0 - 9.5 3,9 4.2 16 0.40 0.58 0.25 0,57
,
9.5-
"
4.3 .. 3,9 0.28 . 0.55 0.13 0.39
1
5 11.0-16.0 5.1 5.7 4.1 0.31 0.92 0.14 . 0.45
6 17.5 - 205 46 5.0 4,2 032 0.69 0,11
1 22.5- 23,S 50 6.4 35 on 0,45 005 045
8 23.5- 310 4,8 ' 5.4 3.9 0;39 0.80 005 0.58
9 31.0 - 33.5 5.3 56 so 053 1,10 0.29 064
10 33,S - 3&5 4,8 2,2 0.50 1.07 0,25 an
11 37.5 - GO 3.9 4,6 3.1 0.42 1,12 0.11 075
12 40.0 - 49.5 5.1 a4 25 0,34 0,86 0,15 0,42
Moisure and average vaZues for defZection and
DCP-measurements.
TRACK
Highest LowC!st
&mm I mm
1.06 0.29
1.38 0.20
ll1 0,21
0.82 0.11
1.11 0.15
0,76 004
078 028
1,24 021
137 0;35
I/J 0,17
220 0.15
1.05 ODS
DCP MEASUREMENTS
Average values
o -15cm IS - 2Scm 25-SOcm
CSR CSR CBR
220 120 20
412 86 69
295 95 54
450
- -
297 235 75
383 180 49
>460
- -
200 114 35
140 149 59
245 215 42
278 236 62
311 120 75
i
I
Summary of Rural Roads Report No. 27
construction of the 254 km Tsabong - Sekoma
Pan road in the southern part of Botswana was
started in 1980. The road is constructed und-
er the Rural Roads Programme.
By Nov. 1981 23 km of the road was completed.
This report only deals with the first 16 km
(completed by Aug. 81). Cost data are not yet
available.
The road traverses on a dark red Kalahari sand
subgrade with CBR's between 20 and 45. A pave-
ment consisting of a 15 cm thick subbase and
10 cm base was used for construction reasons,
although the subgrade indicated a thinner cover
requirement. Base CBR values (soaked) as ob-
tained at field density varied from 30 to 90.
Figure 68. Because of the fLattish but
country road cuts had to be made
through the sand dunes, to provide
a more traffic safety road.
(Tsabong-Makopong road 1981).
38
Laboratory testing showed that it would be pos-
sible to improve the base material by
mechanical stabilization by mixing in Kalahari
sand. Figure 69 gives the relationship between
soaked CBR and proportions of Kalahari sand mi-
__ /}(ed in.
Appendix 5
Material with a plasticity of about 9% increas-
ed in CBR strength with about 30 after mixing
in 20% Kalahari sand and the plasticity decrea-
sed to 2-6%. Material with a plasticity as low
as 5-6% increased in CBR strength with about 12
with 30% Kalahari sand mixed in. The plastici-
ty at the same time decreased to about 3% and
the OMC was lowered with about 2%.
This led to an adopted design by constructing
an approximately 15 cm thick subbase layer and
a 10 cm thick base layer (mixed with 20% Kala-
hari sand).

20
o 20 30 50
SAND BY ,VOLUME C/.)
------ BP AGI slock pile C
---- .. AG3 C
.. AG3
.. AG3
E
G
Figure 69. Re lations hip calcrete gravel
strength increase (soaked CBR) and
proportions Kalahari sand mixed in.
Because of the construction and commercial tr-
affic on to? of the subbase over a certain per-
iod (1 month), prior to the construction of the
base layer, the top got loose and powdery due
to traffic abration. During this period the
subbase layer would have dried out and there-
by caused migration of the salts to the top of
1the subbase. A rough brooming with a mechani-
cal broom before constructing the base layer
was sufficient to remove the high saline mater-
ial on top of the subbase.
Figure 70. After the dozer had removed larger
trees etc. the graders levell.ed the
road bed without any probl.ems.
(Tsabong - Makopong road 1981).
Soluble salts were present in most of the cal-
~ e t e with a variable content. From krn 0,4
and up to km 9,0 the soluble salt content var-
ed from 0,10% to 0,54% with an average about
0,30%. From km 9,0 and onwards a much lower
soluble salt content was measured, 0,10 - 0,15
%
The presence of the high soluble salt. content
in the base material may be due to migration
39
of salts from the subbase layer as well as the
fact that the compaction water increased in sa-
linity over a period.
The base layer was at one stage allowed to dry
out (km 0,4 to km 0,5) and thereafter watered
and 2-3 em of the top was skimmed off. Due to
the rapid hardening of the calcrete it was ve-
ry difficult to obtain an even and smooth sur-
face after the skimming which resulted in an
. ~ xtensive patching after priming.
The method finally adopted was to prime the
same day as the base was completed and with a
heavy application rate. The shrinkage cracks
which occured frequently when the base was all-
owed to dry out also became more scattered.
MC 30 was used for the first 11,0 km and MC 70
thereafter. This change was due to the fairly
deep penetration (10 mm) of the MC 30 prime
which gave a hungry and porous surface even
with an application rate as high as 1,3 11m
3

At some places a second prime was required.
An application rate of about 1,0 11m2 using
MC 70 seemed to.give an acceptable performance.
Figure 71. The road bed was compacted and
tested before the subbase material
was imported. Vibrating rollers
were used (5-8 tons) and no
difficulties arose to achieve the
specified compaction requirement
( 9 5 ~ Mod. AASHO). (Tsabong-Makopong
roaa 1981/.
Figure 72. When dumping the subbase material
the road bed loosened up in the top
(thereof the necessity of the
subbase layer). (Tsabong-Makopong
road 1981) .
Up to km 8,0 (except km 4,0-5,4) a double seal
with a surface dressing (12 mm chippings) and
a light sand seal (using Kalahari sand) has
been used. From km 8,0 and onwards (and km
4,0-5,4) a single seal of graded gravel ("otta-
seal") was applied, the gravel being crusher
run. (ACV 30 and flakiness between 7-23).
Deflection measurements indicate a high bear-
ing capacity. DCP test results also indicate
a very high strength.
Figure 73 gives the average moisture conditions
in the base and the Benkelman beam and DCP re-
sults.
MOl ST- BENKELMAN BEAM DEFLECT
CHAINAGE URE% INNER TRACK OUTER TRACK DCP MEASUREMENT
KM 0-15 Av, HIgh Low Av, High Low 0-15 15-25 25-30 50-85
em mm mm mm mm mm mm em em em , em
o - I 7,3 0,38 QloS 0,28 0,60 0,810 0,50 210 7 28 38
a,s 7,1 >[,60
o - 2 7,2 0,31 0.52 016 0,55 0,67 0)2 >1.60
1,5 >60
90 68 34
2 - 3 7,0 0.17 0,29 0,07 029 044 0.18 >60
2,5 6,0 >l.GO
3 - 6,1 015 0,30 O.<J.O 017 0.2 0.0.1 '460 270 210 42
3.5 ~ 9 '460
l. -- 5
7.2 015 040 008 0.63 0,9Q MO 330 115 100 26
4;5 H
170 270 160 1 3
5 - 6 10.6 023 M2 0.13 QL.8 Q6S 006 82 210 62 30
~ S B,B 130 290 130 62
6 - 7 7.7 <>'3 058 022 Q58 090 0.10 190 180 160 62
6,5 13.3 78 130 66 9
7 - 10,7 QS! 0.67 OJO as8 C.'!, Q().O b8 105 74 14
7,5 10,5 58 S4 52 I B
8 - 9 8,' 026 OL2 0.10 0'9 0,65 0.27 110 84 SG 38
8,5 10,5 9Q 270 104 25
9 - 10 B,O OJ3 M' 010 0,58 O,7f. qt, L4 IBO 98 50
9,5 ao 92 106 52 28
10. - 11 7,9 0.22 030 0.10 0,51 0,54 048 120 2'0 160 60
10.5 10,6 460 , 9Q 64 36
II - 12 12,2 0.22 OJS 006 053 065 0.'2 110 ISO 8' 30
n,5 12,B QO 210 7L 64
12 -113 12,0 aJ5 056 006 Of.' 069 QII 210 300 82 20
123 9.8 190 400 160 !7
13 - 14 9.5 ~ 4 3 052 OOB 0.'1 0.61 018 160 160 45 6
13,5 8.1 190 300 68 28
14 - 15 5.L 0.46 0.68 030 0,46 0.60 028 330
1.5 7,9 320 2GO 78 27
15 - 15.6 65 Q25 0.40 030 OJ5 0.60 0/.2 460
15.5 7 ~ :>l.6Q
Figure 73. Moi sture and average va lues for
deflection and DCP-measurements.
The performance of the road (as per Aug. 1981)
is good. On a 500 m length, where very high
salt contents have been recorded a number of
potholes have occured. Generally the surfac-
ing is smooth and even with a very close text-
ure for both types of surfacings. Deflection
measurements indicate a high bearing capacity
in relation to the traffic, about 20 vehicles
per day. DCP meRsurements confirm this, indi-
cating in situ CBR values for both the base
and subbase generally well above 100.
Figure 74 Single (crushed) graded gravel seal
(Otta-seal) on top Of a primed
calcrete base. (Tsabong-Makopong
road 1981J.
40
No conclusion should be drawn at this stage
other than that the performance is as good as
can be expected. ,Also, indications are that
with an appropriate construction technique,
materials with salt content above the gene-
rally accepted 0,2% can be utilized.
,
i
1
r-nEFERENCES
-CAMBELL, The guide to Botswana,
Gaborone 1979.
Rural Roads Programme 1981 - 85, Loan
application, Roads Department May 1981,
Botsvana.
Road Note 31, TRRL, London, England 1977.
4. Structural design of road pavement, draft
TRH 4 Pretoria CSIR 1978, South Africa.
5. Structural design of interurban and rural
roads pavements, CSIR Pretoria 1980, South

6. Road Design Manual, Part F construction,
Salisbury 1979, Zimbabwe.
7. F. NETTERBERG, Calcrete in road Construc-
tion, NITRR Bulletin 10, Pretoria, CSIR
1971, South Africa.
8. Volume III Technical specifications for
road and bridge works, Roads Department,
December 1976, Botswana.
--- 9. Road design manual, Part III Materials
and pavement design for new roads, Roads
Department, Nairobi May 1981, Kenya.
10. General materials specifications, South
West Administration Roads Depart-
ment, Windhoek 1979.
11. Pavement and materials design manual.
Transvaal Roads Department, Materials Bra-
nch. January 1978, South Africa.
12. R.G. RICHARDS, Lightly trafficed roads in
Southern Africa: A review of practice and
recommendations for design. Technical re-
port RP/8/78, NITRR, CSIR Pretoria, May
1978, South
41
13. TRH 3. Bituminous surface treatments for
newly constructed rural Roads. NITRR, CSIR,
Pretoria 1978, South Africa.
14. T. GJ0S, C. 0VERBY, H. RUISTUEN. A cost-
benefit study for a sealing programme.
Rural Roads Project Botswana. Public Roads
Administration, Norway. Report B - 02 ,
November 1981.
15. H.H. WEINERT. The natural road construct-
ion materials of Southern Africa. NITRR,
CSIR, Pretoria 1980,south Africa.
16. F. NETTERBERG, C. 0VERBY. Rapid material
survey for a calcrete road in Botswana 1979.
17. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 24.
Oodi-road, Trial sections with substandard
base material different surface seals.
Constructed 1978 - 1979. Roads Department
November 1981, Botswana.
18. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 22.
Sehitwa-Shakawe road. Section Sehitwa-
Tsau. Trials with bitumen stabilization
of base 1978. Roads Department, October
1981, Botswana.
19. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 23.
Sehitwa-Shakawe road. Sehitwa-Tsau secti-
on. Trial sections with substandard sub-
base and base material and gravel seal
1980-1981. Roads Department, October 1981,
Botswana.
20. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 26.
Selebi-Phikwe-Mmadinare road. Construct-
ion of a bituminous road 1979-1980. Roads
Department, November 1981, Botswana.
21. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 25.
Sebina-Tutume road. Up-grading to bitumen
standard 1979-1981. Roads Department No-
vember 1981, Botswana.
22. C. 0VERBY. Rural Roads report no. 27.
Tsabong-Makopong road. Section km 0,0 -
km 16,0. Construction of a bituminous road
1980-1981. Roads Department. December
1981, Botswana.
23. C. 0VERBY.
14-15-16-18.
Botswana.
Rural Roads reports no. 5-13-
Roads Department 1978-1980,
24. D.J. WESTON. 1980 Expansive roadbed treat
ment for Southern Africa. Proc. 4
th
. Int.
Conf. Exp. soils Denver, 339-360.
25. P.J. DYE. of reclaiming and
improving sodic soils. Rhodesia argic.J.
Vol. 76 (2).
42
26. D.K. Mc COOK. The identification and treat-
ment of dispersive clay soils. AEG. 1980
Annual meeting, Dallas, Texas, USA.
27. R.J. SCHEURENBERG. Testing for and identi-
fication of dispersive soils. Ground Pro-
file January 1980,South Africa.

28. C. 0VERBY. Amendments to the material and
design recommendations for the Sehitwa-
Tsau road. Rural Roads project. Roads
Department March 1981, Botswana.
29. F. NETTERBERG. Occurence and testing for
deleterious salts in road construction
materials with particular reference to cal-
cretes. NITRR, RR 114 CSIR, Pretoria May
1970, South Africa.
30. F. NETTERBERG. Notes on salt damage to
roads and its repair. Technical note:
TS/5 /78 3r d March 1978 NITRR, CSIR, Pre-
toria, South Africa.
31. A.J. BRADY. Basic Chemical and physical
differences between, bitumen, coke-oven
tar and lurgi tar. Symposium on South
African roads tars 5-6 april 1979, Pre-
toria, South Africa.
32. E.K. HANSEN, G. REFSDAL, T. THURMANN-MOE.
Surfacing for Low Volume Roads in semi
arid areas. IRF. IV African Highway Con-
ference, Nairobi Januar 1980.
33. J.R. METCALF. The use of local materials
for Low Cost Roads in Australia. AEEB SO.
1978.
34. E.G. KLEYN. The use of the dynamic cone
penetrometer (DCP). Transvaal Roads De-
partment, Materials Branch July 1975,
South Africa.
35. F. NETTERBERG. Identification of poten-
tially selfstabilizing soils. Technical
Note 1977. NITRR, CSIR South Africa.
36. F. NETTERBERG. An investigation of-the
effect of moisture content on the streng-
th and volumetric stability of pavement
and subgrade aggregate mixtures. Techni-
cal Note 1977. NITRR, CSIR. Pretoria,
South Africa.
43
SYMBOLS
LL
PI
PL
LS
MDD
OMC
CBR
FI
GH
Nl'
SP
ACV
ALD
DCI'
nIC
PD
Cu
AFV
APV
ICE
LCE
AIV
10% FACT
UCS
ESA
ESP
SAR
PSI
Liquid Limi t
Plasticity Index
Plastic Limit
Linear Shrinkage
Maximum Dry Density
optimum Moisture Content
California Bearing Ratio
Fines Index
Grading Mo:1ule
Non plastic
Slightly Plastic
Aggregate CrJshing Value
Average Last Dilaension
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Field Moisture Content
Field Density
Coe:: f ic ient of Unif ormi ty
Aggregate Finger Value
A'Jgregate Pliers Value
Intennediate compaction Effort
Light Compaction Effort
Aggregate Value
10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Value
Unconfined Compression Strength
Equ. Standard
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
SodiuD Absorption Ratio
Present Serviceability Index
____________
!cfi_si 1.
A soil having a pH vaLle less than 7.0.

or soliJ material which , when
in relatively small proportions,
have a significant effect to improve the
adhesion betHeen the binder and aggregate.

Sol13 rna ter ial hav ing spec if ied particle
size gradation whicl1 forms the loaj
bear ing I vlear, and skiJ resistant portion
of a pavement. Aggregates used successfully
in slurry sealing may con3ist all or in
oart of the following:
stone; sand; expande1 shales or
clays; blast slag; black beauty
slag; calcareo:J.s materials such as coral
and sea shell; crushed waste materials;
among others too numerous to mention.

One laver of crusheu or uncrushed stone
(13-26' mm) rolled flushed into top of the
base, with a spacing equal to the size
used.

Obtaineu pr it:lar ill' as the least volatile
residue from the refining of oil.
Some naturally in the nearly
state. Other are oil-bearing shales
natural called rock asphalt.
Each asphalt molecule consists primarily
of a gr ea t nilr.1ber of carbon and hyjrogen
atoms. Bulk asnhalt is a semi-solid at
roar:! temperature. 1'Ihen converted into a
li'}uiu by any means, asphalt coats and
adheres very tenncioasly to most other
substances, those used as
aggregates in p.lvements.

A stable susDension of
substances, normally consisting of asphalt
droplets in a water matrix. Each droplet
of asphalt usually bears an electric charge.
If the charge is positive, the emulsion is
classified as if negative, tIle
emulsion is anionic. Some recent emulsions
ap?ear to be non-ionic in character.

The layer or layers of asphalt constructed
on top of the base, and, in some cases, the
shoJlders.

The pavement layer(s) immediately below
the bituminous surfacing. \'/hen more than
one layer of base is called for, the
uppermost is designated Base I, the next
lower Base II, etc., irrespective of
quality.

CO'llpr ise the measurements of def lection of
a pavement between dual wheels loaded to a
total wheel load of 4100 kg (8200 kg
axleload) .
44

The fifth wheel of a binder distributor is
a wheel with a solid rubber t}Te with a
circumference of 1000 mm and which is
mounted on the chassis of the distributor
on a pivoting bracket parallel to the
direction of travel of the distributor.
This wheel is used only when the
distributor is spraying (the wheel is then
lowered onto the road surface) to drive the
generator, attached to the wheel shaft
supplying the for, or the direct
cable drive to, the spraying speed
tachometer mounted in the cab of the
distributor.
EWE!!.
A viscous black liquid derived from
petroleum by a refinery process.

A material derived from petroleum bitumen
or coal tar.

The content of bitumen/tar in an aSPhalt
mixture expressed as a percentage bl' mass
of total mixture.

A road binder in which petroleum bitumen,
in finelydivided droplets, is dispersed in
the continuous water phase by means of an
emulsifying agent to form a stable two-
phase system.

A surface treatment (or seal coat) or layer
of premix which is directly subjected to
traffic forces.

A brown or black clay soil in which volume
changes due to swelling or shrinkage are
partcularly marked.

Gravel or crushed stone, premixed or
stabilised, with tar or bitut:len.

lin area .lithin designated boundaries,
_approved for the purpose of obtaining
borrow A borrow oit is the
excavated pit in a borrow

Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash
obtained from borrow areas, dumps or
sources other than cut within the road
crism and which is used in the construction
of the Works.
"-
Stones larger than 200 mm. in size.

A deposit of unstratified clay or sandy
clay of glacial origin containing
subangular stones of various sizes
scattered irregularly throughout its mass.
The stones are not necessarily all of
I'tbo.,,11der" size ..

A term used to describe the coalescence of
bitumen particles of. an emulsion evidenced
ini tially by an abrupt change of colour from
the brown of the to the black of
the bitumen, which occur soon after the
application of the bitumen emulsion or
hi tumen emulsion/stone mix ture on the road"

The process during which the suspended
droplets of asphalt in an emulsion become
attached to any available solids, such as
the particles of aggregate in a slurry.
During the break the asphalt replaces
moisture which may be present on the
surface of the aggregate particles. In
nature this process may be either physical,
chamical, or a combination of the two.

A structure erected over a deoression,
river, watercourse, rail\>lay line, road or
other obstacle for carrying motor, rail ...lay 1
oedestrian or other traffic, or services
.itnd having a length, !Y\easured between
abutment faces along centre line at girder
bed level, of 6 m or more except that
road-aver-rail or rail-over-road structures
are always classed as bridges.

The weight of a material solid
particles and-any contained water) per
uni t volume including voids
=-
Soil which have been of a
cementing or replacing carbonate, visually
calcite. Calcrete varying from almost pure
stone to calsified sand.

The areas normally travelled by vehicles
and consisting of one or a number of
contiguous traffic lanes, including
auxiliary lanes and shoulders.

A longitudinal drain or bank outside the
road prism for diverting water that would
otherwise flow onto the road prism.
Cement-stabilized sail, bitumen-or tar-

Soil in which stabilization has been
assisted by the addition of cement.
bitumen, tar or chemicals.

A soft limestone consisting principally
of the remains of marine animals.
"fpe
i
".9'
Singre size crushed aggregate used in
surface treatments.
45

ColloidallY fine, complex silicates formed
by the natural decomposition.

Consists essentially of a modified AASHO
compaction hammer fitted with a
piezoelectric accelerometer. The output
from this transducer is fed into a
peak-hold meter where necessary filtering
ensures that the peak reflects the
retardation due to the soil's
characteristics.

The aggregate fraction that is retained on
a 4,75 rom sieve.
00
Stones between 60 and 200 mm in size.
t!!' (Cu)
A term indicating the grading of a material;
it is the ratio of the sieve size through
which 60 per cent of the material passes to
the sieve size through which 10 per cent
passes.

Soils consisting of the finer products of
rock weathering. The cohesion is derived
from the large number of water films
associated with the fine-grained particles
in the soil.

Permeable, sandy soils of comparatively low
natural density kg/m
J
) occurring as
the horizon. They are liable to sudden
densification, with accompanying reduction
in volume, under load or vibration,
particularly when wet.

The process whereby the soil particles are
constrained, by rolling or other means, to
pack more closely together, thus increasing
the dry density of the soil.

The process whereby soil particles are
packed more closely together by application
of continued pressure over a period of time,
e.g., an embankment under its own weight or
the soil und er a build ing .

An asphalt mixture composed of mineral
particles which are evenly distributed in
size fractions from coarse and filler.

Preoared material placed to form a
continuous layer of the pavement.

A structure, other than a which
provides an opening under the
or median for drainage or other purposes.

Bitumen which has been rendered fluid at
atmospheric temperature by the addition
of a suitable diluent such as white spirit,
kerosene or creosote.
consists of a steel rod with a cone at one
end which is driven into the ground by
means of a sliding hammer. In effect this
measures the resistance to penetration on
the cone, the latter being recorded as
rnrn/blow.

The California Bearing Ratio value aSSigned
to a subgrade and used to determine the
required pavement thickness.

A period of years, e.g. 10, 15 or 20,
arbitrarily selected by the designer, for
which he expects a pavement to remain
serviceable before requiring strengthening
or reconstruction.

A design speed appropriate to the conditions
should be selected. For arterial roads the
normal design speed should be preferably
not less than 100 km/h and for collector
roads, preferably not less than 80 km/h.

The estimated number of equivalent SO kN
single axles which will be carried by the
lane subject to the greatest volume during
the design life of the pavement. In the
case of roads having a single surface lane.
the figure for traffic travelling in both
directions must be summated.

Soils which contain an abnormally high
proportion of exchangeable sodium. When wet,
the sodium causes the clay fraction of the
soil to disperse.

Natural or artifical means for the removal
of water from the surface or subsoil of an
area, usually by means of gravitation.

A process whereby the mineral aggregate is
heated and mixed with the bituminous binder
in the drum of an asphalt plant.
!Zr!i qe!!sft!i.
The weight of the dry matgrial after drying
to constant weight at 105 C. (GOoC),
contained in unit volume of moist material.

The relationship between dry density and
moisture content of a soil when a given
amount of compaction is applied.

The moisture content at any point in a soil
after moisture movements have ceased.
46

The standard axle load" to which all heavy
vehicle axles are equated in order to
estimate design traffic.

OVerburden within a borrow area which is
not required or unsuitable for use in
construction.
l:..
A soil in which changes of moisture content
produce volumetric changes of such
magnitude to transmit unacceotable
deformation of a pavement. -
Fabric.
Woven or non->loven tax tiles made from
plastic fibres. Used instead of a drainage
layer to separate materials with different
particle size distribution.

A slurry in >lhich aggregate that is already
coated with asphalt is suspended stably in
liquid matrix remaining after the break of
the emulsion.
FitL
Excavated soil, rock or refuse when dumped
for the purpose of filling a depression or
raising a site above toe natural
level of the ground.
EiU!!',-
Mineral matter composed of particles
smaller than 75

The aggregate fraction of an asphalt
mixture that substantially (at least 90
per cent) passes a 4,75 mm sieve, and is
retained on a 0,075 rom sieve.
Eo
A light application of bitumen emulsion
binder to the final layer of stone of a
surface treatment or to an existing
bituminous surfacing as a maintenance
treatment.

The surface of the ground in its final
shape after completion. of the earthworks,
and of consolidation, compaction or
stabilization in situ.

An asphalt mixture composed of mineral
particles _"dtt certain interrnejiate sizes
missing.from the size range, and filler.

This is the means by which the engineering
aspects are fed into the terrain evaluation
process. It is basically a geological map
containing only such soil engineering and
materials information as may significantly
-.- affect route location. A geotechnical
report must of course accompany the r.\ap.
Ql'qd'!.
The grade line is a reference line on the
drawings of the longitudinal sections of
the road indicating at regular intervals
the elevations according to which the road
is to be constructed. The grade line may
refer to the surface level on the completed
road, base or subgrade and may indic"a te the
elevations either along the carriage-way
centre line or along any designated position
on the road cross section.
Grading modulus (OU)
The cumulative percentages by mass of
material in a representative sample of
aggregate, gravel or soil retained on the
2,00 rnm; 0,425 rnrn and 0,075 rom sieves,
divided by 100.
GraveL
Rounded or Volater-'Horn stones of irregular
shape and size occuring in natural deposits
with or without some finer material.

That fraction of a soil composed of
particles beb!een 2.0 and 60 mm in size.
Liquid binder spread on top oe the base,
(primed or unprimed) followed by a layer
of crushed or stone (0-13 rnm)

The water which moves downwards under the
action of gravity, from the soil surface to
the water-table.

The water contained in soil below the
water-table.

A horizon of accJmulation that has been
thoroughly cemented to an indurated,
rock-like layer that will not soften when
wet.
rtey_",t,.=.
The water retained in the soil structure
above the water-table by surface tension
and adsorption forces.
me"'!.t
A tawed roller of approximately 10 t mass,
having four or more sides, so designed as
to produce compaction by impact.

Channels leading into or discharging
culverts, stormwater conduits and oinor
bridges.

A road uinder in which the water in
finely-divided droplets is dispersed in
the contlncus bitumen phase, by means of
an emulsifying agent to form a stable
two-phase system.

A battery of square or circular small
culverts boxed in with concrete, designed
to both act as a culvert and drift with
high and low water level.
47

Product of the weathering and
disintegration of the parent rock,
transported by wind and deposited in lower
areas. (Wind-blown aeolian sand).

The process by which soluble material in
soil is removed by the percolation of
water.
..
The difference between the natural
moisture content and the plastic limit
expressed as a percentage ratio of the
plasticity index.
f;i'?ufd_lfmy:..
Lot.
The moisture content at which the sail
passes from the plastiC to the liquid
state as determined by the liquid limit
test.
A sizable portion of ,;ork or quantity of
material which is assessed as a unit for
the purpose of quality control and
to represent material or work
produced by essentially the same process
and materials ..
Soil consisting of a natural mixture of
calcareous clay or calcareous silty clay.
..
The dry density of a soil obtained by a
soecified amount of compaction at the
optimum moisture content.

Soil to which imported sailor aggregate
has been added to obtain a desired
particle-size distribution and which has
been compacted to a-desired density.

The area between the two travelled ways of
a dual cariageway road. It includes the
inside shoulders.

Longitudinal drain situated between the
inside shoulders of a dual carriageway
road.

A metric unit meaning one millionth of a
meter. One micron = 0.001)04". Thus an eight
micron coating means a coating that is
about 0.0003" thick.
[i
Finely graded solids which form useful
additions to the aggregate by either
increasing the fines content, by increasing
the stability of slurries, and/or by
influencing the break of the emulsion. The
most commonly used mineral filler is
portland cement. Others such as lime, fly
ash and agricultural limestone are used
occasionallY. \llia tever I;tineral f iller is
usej, it is considered as an integral part
of the aqgregate, and the composition of
slurries, both cared and is
normally exorassej in weight gercentages of
the dry aggregate, including tria mineral
filler.

Drain constructed at an. angle to the centre
line of the road to divert water from the
side dr3ins. Hitre drains will include mitre
banks placed across side drains.

The concentration of each the primary
ingredients of a as a
percentage of the weight ot" the dry
aggregate the mineral The
weight percentage of asphalt to total dry
aggregate is deSignated as the mixture
ratio.

This may be a trailer, a or
selfpropelled vehicle.
f
The appro:Ci;nate mo1alus of elastici
determined frun the slope of the straight
line extenjing- from the origin to a given
strain on a stress/strain curve. US\.lally
expressed in lb/sq.in. or kg/cm
2
.
'-./ .,:!ou qI
The slope of the straight line ex tending
from the origin to a given deformation on
a stress/deformation curve obtained from
field bearing tests. Usually expressed in
lb./sq.in./in. or kg/cm
2
.

The loss in weight, expressed as a
percentage of the dry material, when a soil
is gried to constant weight at lOSoc.
(60 C)
.
Single surface treatment is repeated one or
more times i.e. for a double surface
treatment binder plus stone or
sand re?eated tvlice and for a triple surface
treatment repeated three times.
'N'
Numer ical values, based on rain! all
temoerature and evaporation, assigned to
climatic areas. Their use can permit
modification to pavement design.

soil consisting of the coarser products of
rock weathering in which the cohesive bonds
mainly associated with the snaller
fractions are largely absent.

An asphalt mixture composed of mineral
particles and filler so constituted to give
a high air voiJ content when in the
compacted state.

That moisture content at which a soecified
amount of compaction will produce the
maximum dry density.

The layer of soil which cover the selected
material.
48

The percentages of the various grain sizes
present in a soil as determined by sieving,
sedimentation, elutriation or other means.

The structural layers of a road between the
subgrade and surfacing which transmit the
traffic stresses to thesubgrade and
roadbed.

A pavement of inconsiderable flexural
rigidity or tensile strength.

All structural layers between the surfacing
and the subgrade. Individual layer thickness are
either 120 rom or 150 mm. These thicknesses are
practical for construction purposes and the
uniformity ensures simplification of design.
rigJ-4.
A pavement developing considerable local
flexural rigidity by reason of the "tensile"
strength of one or more of its courSes.

Dark, fibrous, spongy soil of vegetable
origin.

Nodular, concretionary soils in process of
natural cementation. They include laterites,
fericretes and calcretes.
The pF value of the held water in soil is
equivalent to the common logarithm of the
suction expressed in centimetres of water.
The pH of a soil is the negative logarithm
of the hydrogen-ion concentration in an
suspension of the soil.

Large stones, usually from 7 to 12 in. in
depth, when placed by hand and connected
by rolling to form a stable base coat with
small stones.
!aue!:.
An initial layer constructed over a weak
road bed using selected material to prov ide
a stable surface for the construction of
subsequent layers.
!:1.gs!:,ii"E.Y _
The numerical difference between the liquid
limit and the plastic limit of a soil.

Roller, usually two-ax led and self-
propelled, with a number of smooth tread
.tires spaced so their tracks overlap while
giving kneading action.
49

The Present Serviceability Index is a
method of expressing the general condition
and riding quality of a pavement. at any
given time, in terms of a numerical scale
ranging from 0 to S. A logical sequence is
followed, 1. e. the higher the index figures ,-'
the higher the rating of the pavement.
qoqt!-
A coat of suitable binder to a
non-bituminous qranular base as a
preliminarY treatment before the
application of a bituminous surfacing to
adhesion between the base and the
surfacing, and to assist in sealing the
voids and in binding the aggregate near
the surface of the base.

The ratio of the volume of voids to the
total volume of a including voids.

The pressure of the water in the voids of a
saturated soil.

The percentage ratio of the dry density of
the soil in 51 tu to the maximum dry density
of that soil as by the standard
compaction test.
!!e!iqut
The residual bitumen or tar remaining after
evaporation of any volatile constituents
such as oils in cutback binders or water in
bitumen emulsion.

The bitumen of a emulsion rema1n1na
after evaporation or separation of the -
aqueous or water phase. The residual
will contain emulSifying agent and
in cases some cutting back or fluxing
oil.

A surface treatment for maintenance
purposes.
!!odeq.
The final ground surface - after completion
of all clearing, cutting and excavating -
upon which the road structure rests&
!!o,!d_p!:i!!.m!.
That portion of the road construction
inc laded between the original ground level
and the outer lines of the slopes of
cuttings. fills, side fills and side drains.
It shall nat include selected subgrade.
subbase, base, surfacing, shoulders or road
bed.
ell!,!d:..
Small mineral particles from natural sources
usually regarded as being of such size that
all will pass No.7 B.S, Sieve, and free
from appreciable amounts of clay and silt.
In the particle-size analysis of soils
mineral particles between the sizes 2.0
an:l 0.06 mrn.

SAPH
Liquid binder spread on top of (primed or
un!>rimed b.",se) the base, followed by a
layer of sand 0-6,7 rom (8,0 rom).
- -
Single axle pneumatic roller. Axle loads
range from 30 t to 50 tan:! tyre pressure
is normally about 700 kPa but is not
critical.

A soil in which the voids are entirely
filled with water.

The lowest layer(s) of the pavement
controlled material, either in
situ or iQPorted.

The u!-'per loyers of the subgrade ',>Ihlen is
controlled both in quality ard density by
requirements more stringent tilan those for
It ma:! include suitable road bed material
compacted in situ.

The downwarj movement of a sailor of the
str'..lcture which it S.lp90rts, resulting from
a reduction in the voijs in the
strata.

The process involving settling of aggregate
and flotation of asphalt unsaccessful
attemts to a stable slurry.
of mineral filler and/or decreasinj the
percentage of water present often remedies
this undesirable condition.

(a) ,"Ihen referrina to this as a surface:
The area between the Qutsi1e edge of the
travelled. wai' an::i the shoulder breakpoint ..
(b) referring to this as a pavement
layer! The on top of the subbase or,
in the absence of a subbase, on too of the
sabgrade and lying between the edge
of the base and the sho.llder oreak?oint ..

The line along which the extended flat
planes of the surface of the shoulder and
the outside slope of the fill and pavement
intersect. This edge is normally to
a predetermined radius.

Open drain situated adjacent
to and at the bottom of or fill slopes.
:i!t:..
<1ineral ?articles naturally depOSited as
sediment in water and usually regarded as
of such a size that all will ?ass a 200 B.S.
sieve, and free from appreciable amounts of
clay.

In the particle-size analYSis of soils
mineral between the sizes 0"06
and 0 '002 mm.

An of bituminoas binder followed
by a layer of s tone or sand.

Unless otherwise stated, is given in terms
of the ratio of vertical difference in
elevation between any two points and the
horizontal distance between them.
This ratio may also be expressed as a
percentage.

llormally anior.ic in natare. Their break
occurs at a relatively slow rate, and is
characterized by the removal of water
vapor by evaporation.

A mixture of suitably graded fine aggregate,
cement or hydrated lime, bitumen emulsion
and water used for fillina the ':oids in the
final layer of stone of a-multiple surface
treatment, or as a maintenance treatment.

A machine designed specifically to properly
proportion, mix and spread a slurry over a
road base on a continuous basis. The
primary parts of a continuous-mix slurry
machine are: tanks and pumps for water and
for asphalt emulsion. bins for aggregate
and mineral feed mechanisms for
metering and supplying aggregate and mineral
filler at controllable rates. and a mixer
which forms the slurry and discharges it
into a spreader box or screed.
Soil.
Any naturally occurring loose or soft
deposit forming part of the earth's crust
and resulting from weathering or breakdown
of rock formations or from the decay of
vegetation.

This is a map on which is recorded the soil
engineering and materials information of use
for road design purposes. An accompanying
soil engineering report will give the
necessary details and recommendations. The
map and report are compiled after the route
has been selected. It is convenient to
divide the production of a soil engineering
map and report into three stages.

layer of soil discernible as a seoarate
layer in a vertical cros.s.ectian through a soil
formation. The uppermost stratum is known as
the 'A' horizon, the next lo ....'er, the 'BI
horizon, and so on.

The reduced pressure (below atmospheric
pressure). imparted to hold >later by the
forces retaining the water above the
watertable.

A vertical section showing the soil strata
at a given sitea
!:a!e!.
The number of litres of binder, at the
specified ap?lication temperature, required
to cover one square metre.
50
rEiI [Mgt!rialJ!.
Haterial originating from construction
operations and which is not utilised for
construction purposes.

A rectangular retaining box, the bottom of
which is prov ided with ru bber sgueegee
strips which contact the original pavement,
distritute the slarry where desired and
prevent its escape elsewhere, ideally, the
spreader box is to orovide for
crown in the road, and is eguipped with
powered feed screws or augers which
distribute the slurry laterally, even When
the surface is not horizontal.

The treatment of the materials used in
constr<lction of the road bed, fill or
pavement layers by the a:l.dition of a
cementitious binder such as lime or Portlan:l.
cement or the mechanical modification of the
material through the addition of a soil
binder. Concrete and asoilal t shall not be
considered as materials- that have been
stabilised.
_
Soil treated in such a manner as to render
its properties less affected by water or to
increase its load-bearing capacity_

Tandem or three-'1heel rollers with
cylindrical steels rolls that apply their
weight directly to the

Chrused aggregate having a single-sized
gradation.

The quantity of coarse aggregate retained
on a 2,3G mm sieve expressed as a percentage
by mass of total aggregate, including filler.

The pavement layer(s) lying between the base
and the subgrade. \'Ihere more than one layer
of sub-base is called for, the upper layer
is designated Sub-base I, the next lower,
Sub-base II, etc. irrespective of quality.
:.
All imported material between the pavement
and the roadbed (i.e. between the bottom of
the sub-base and the roadbed) and
incorporated into the road structure as
specified. Nhere no imported subgrade
material is required the top 150 mm of
roadbed is referred to as the subgrade.
!.
The undisturbed strata lying immediately
below the topsoil.
.v.rf'3. c i:71(l.
The course or above the base laid
in the form of a contiuous layer or layers
to proviJe a wearing surface, to protect
the base, or to add strength to the
pavement.

Liquid binder spread on top of a primed
base, followed by single size stone (19rnm,
1 2rnm , 19rnrn).

The sealing or resealing of the carriageway
or shoulders by means of one or more
successive applications of bituminous
binder or tar and crushed stone aggregate.

Covered drLlin constructed to interceDt an..!
remove subsoil water, inclujing any piges
and permeable material in the drains.

Tar.
A coat of suitable bituminous binder apolied
to an existing surface as a
treatment to promote the adhesion bet',;een
the existing surface and a subsequently
ap?lied bituminous overlay of surfacing.
A viscous black liquid from the
destructive distillation or coal.

This is a multidisciplinary exercise which
correlates the engineering and
nonengineering aSgects of the information
required for route-91anning purposes. The
in?uts required include data on agriculture,
ecology, economics, environment and
sociology, as Vlell as engineering.
t.
The uppermost layer of the "A" horizon
containing vegetable matter >;hich generally
imparts a distinctive colouration.

A distributor, intended for short
distances at low speeds, which would normally
be carried to a distant site en another
vehi:::le.
".au
That portion of the carriage>;ay including
the various traffic lanes and auxiliary lanes
but excluding

Soils (usually clays) containing thin
alternate layers of different particle sizes,
formed from seasonal deposits glacial
streams.

A vibrating roller or sledge having a minimum
mass of 3 t. It must be capable of achieving
the specified density. Lighter hand vibrators
may also be use1 to compact backfill.

The spaces in a material occupied by water,
or both water and air.

Material coneorming to the material
requirements anl placed on the shoulders of
sigle-lane surfaced roads. Similar material
is used for wearing course on gravel roads.
51

May be either anionic or cationic in nature,
and their break is accompaniej by the
expUlsion of at least a significant part of
the water present as liquid. The release of
liquid water is belieVed to be a chemical
reaction, since its rate is strongly
temperature dependent.
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