Fuel Cells

FUEL CELLS

PRESENTED BY:

KARTHIKEYAN.G.REDDY( Kran_handsome@hotmail.com )

&

MAHESH. M . REDDY

Registration ID 175

MECHANICAL BRANCH

VIDYA VIKAS INSTITUTE OF TECH

(SHABAD RING ROAD,C HEVELLA)

ABSTRACT :

It is expected the world's fossil sources will eventually run out within the next few decades, and because of
this many researchers are trying to develop new methods of providing energy to the world. The problem
that most researchers are facing is developing a new method that is not costly, but highly efficient at
providing energy to its source. Some research has been done on the use of hydrogen and methanol as a
way of providing fuel and energy. Differences between the two is that hydrogen is a gas and methanol is a
liquid, however both can be used as a source of energy by undergoing the fuel cell process. In this paper I
have discussed in detail about the operating principle and the working and the applications of the fuel cells.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF FUEL CELL :

A fuel cell consists of the fuel electrode (anode) and the oxygen electrode (cathode) which are
interconnected by an ion-conducting electrolyte. The electrodes are electrically coupled to an electricity
consumer (for example an electric motor) by external metallic lines outside the cell. In this section of the
electric circuit, the electric current is transmitted by the electrons whereas in the electrolyte the current
transfer is effected by means of ions.

At
low temperatures, these may be protons in acidic electrolytes whereas hydroxyl ions are predominantly
involved in alkaline electrolytes. In a higher temperature range in the so-called solid oxide fuel cells, which
operate between 600°C und 1000°C , , the ionic conduction is either realized by the C O 2- 3 carbonate ions
or the negatively charged O 2- oxide ions. Figure shows the principle of a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell with
acidic electrolyte. The anode is supplied with hydrogen as the fuel gas which is electrochemically split into
protons and electrons at the electrode/electrolyte interface. The electrons which perform electrical work in
the outer electric circuit are passed into the cathode where they reduce the oxygen into water at the
electrode/electrolyte interface.

The required protons come from the anode through the electrolyte. As can be seen from the schematic, the
electrodes must also be permeable to gas, i.e. porous. A fuel cell reaction normally requires all three
phases to be present: the solid phase (electron conductor), the liquid phase (ion conductor) and the gas
phase (electrode pores). One speaks in this connection of a three-phase boundary. In the fuel cells with
liquid electrolyte, which operate below the boiling point of water, an electrolyte circulation system with
external water removal (e.g. evaporation) should be present. In fuel cells operating with a solid electrolyte
the water formed is directly passed from the electrolyte into the cathodic gas compartment and removed
there.

FUEL CELLS :

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity from a combined chemical reaction and
electrical charge transport that occurs within the fuel cell. This is very similar to the way a battery produces
electricity. However, unlike a battery, a fuel cell only produces electricity while fuel is supplied to it. The
reaction is at relatively low temperatures, and no combustion takes place in the fuel cell. The primary fuel
used in fuel cells is hydrogen. When hydrogen is supplied, a chemical reaction, between hydrogen and air
produces electricity, pure water and some heat. The electrical power available is proportional to the rate of
fuel flowing into the fuel cell, limited by the physical size of the fuel cell.

2 kW (2.5 Horsepower)
PEM Fuel C ell

There are five primary types of fuel cells, each distinguished by the type of the electrolyte that is used to
carry charge between the fuel and the oxygen in the air.

Because fuel cells produce power without combustion, they are considerably more efficient than their
internal combustion engine counterparts. Gasoline engines in automobiles are approximately 13 to 25
percent efficient. That's right, 75 to 87 percent of the gasoline you put in your tank does not participate in
moving your automobile. A fuel cell attached to an electric motor can be in excess of 40 percent efficient.
Today, fuel cells that can be used in automobiles and other vehicles are being produced with efficiencies of
45 to 58 percent.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS :

Fuel cells are generally categorized by their electrolyte—the material sandwiched between the two
electrodes. This material's characteristics determine the optimal operating temperature and the fuel used
to generate electricity. Each comes with its particular set of benefits and shortcomings. The different types
of the fuel cells are:

• POLYMER ELEC TROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL C ELL

• ALKALINE FUEL C ELL

• PHOSPHORIC AC ID FUEL C ELL

• MOLTEN C ARBONATE FUEL C ELL

• SOLID OXIDE FUEL C ELL

Fuel C ell
Electrolyte Anode Gas C athode Gas Temperature Efficiency
Type
Polymer electrolyte
solid polymer pure or atmospheric 75°C
Membrane hydrogen 35–60%
membrane oxygen (180°F)
(PEM)
Alkaline pure below
potassium hydroxide hydrogen 50–70%
(AFC ) oxygen 80°C

Phosphoric Acid atmospheric 210°C

Phosphorous hydrogen 35–50%
(PAFC ) oxygen (400°F)
Molten C arbonate Alkali- hydrogen, atmospheric 650°C
40–55%
(MC FC ) C arbonates methane oxygen (1200°F)
800–1000°C
Solid Oxide hydrogen, atmospheric
C eramic Oxide (1500–1800° 45–60%
(SOFC ) methane oxygen
F)

POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL :

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells—deliver
high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells. PEM
fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum
catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive
fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or
onboard reformers.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low
temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in less wear on system
components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically
platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum
catalyst is also extremely sensitive to C O poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to
reduce C O in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds
cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to C O.

PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary applications. Due to
their fast startup time, low sensitivity to orientation, and favorable power-to-weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are
particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.

A significant barrier to using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen storage. Most fuel cell vehicles (FC Vs)
powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen onboard as a compressed gas in pressurized tanks.
Due to the low energy density of hydrogen, it is difficult to store enough hydrogen onboard to allow
vehicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refueling, typically 300-400
miles. Higher-density liquid fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and
gasoline can be used for fuel, but the vehicles must have an onboard fuel processor to reform the
methanol to hydrogen. This increases costs and maintenance requirements. The reformer also releases
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), though less than that emitted from current gasoline-powered engines.

ALKALINE FUEL CELL :

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC s) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were the first type
widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These
fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-
precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High-temperature AFC s operate at temperatures
between 100ºC and 250ºC (212ºF and 482ºF). However, more-recent AFC designs operate at lower
temperatures of roughly 23ºC to 70ºC (74ºF to 158ºF).

AFC s are high-performance fuel cells due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell.
They are also very efficient, reaching efficiencies of 60 percent in space applications.

The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (C O2). In fact, even
the small amount of C O2 in the air can affect the cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the
hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also
affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to cost.

C ost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to effectively
compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to become more cost
effective. AFC stacks have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000
operating hours. To be economically viable in large-scale utility applications, these fuel cells need to reach
operating times exceeding 40,000 hours. This is possibly the most significant obstacle in commercializing
this fuel cell technology

PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL :

Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte—the acid is contained in a Teflon-
bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical
reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC ) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of
the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This
type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFC s have been used to
power large vehicles such as city buses.

PAFC s are more tolerant of impurities in the reformate than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by
carbon monoxide—carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing the fuel cell's
efficiency. They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but less
efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). This is only slightly more efficient than
combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at 33 to 35 percent efficiency. PAFC s are also less
powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically
large and heavy. PAFC s are also expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFC s require an expensive platinum
catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. A typical phosphoric acid fuel cell costs between $4,000 and
$4,500 per kilowatt to operate.

MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL :

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MC FC s) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power
plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MC FC s are high-temperature fuel cells that
use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert
ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of
650ºC (roughly 1,200ºF) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and
cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason MC FC s offer significant cost reductions over phosphoric acid fuel
cells (PAFC s). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably
higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is
captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MC FC s don't require an
external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which
they operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal
reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning"—they can even
use carbon oxides as fuel—making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Although
they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists are looking for ways to make
MC FC s resistant enough to impurities from coal, such as sulfur and particulates.

The primary disadvantage of current MC FC technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these
cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion,
decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well
as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL :

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC s) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte. Since the
electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration typical of other
fuel cell types. SOFC s are expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In
applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use
efficiencies could top 80-85 percent.

Solid oxide fuel cells operate at very high temperatures—around 1,000ºC (1,830ºF). High temperature
operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows SOFC s to
reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with
adding a reformer to the system.

SOFC s are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of magnitude more
sulfur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (C O), which can even
be used as fuel. This allows SOFC s to use gases made from coal.

High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and requires significant thermal
shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for
transportation and small portable applications. The high operating temperatures also place stringent
durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell
operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature SOFC s operating at or
below 800ºC that have fewer durability problems and cost less. Lower-temperature SOFC s produce less
electrical power, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature range have not
been identified.

WORKING OF FUEL CELLS :

While there are a few different types of fuel cells, all share the same basic setup. Layers of materials with
distinct electrochemical properties are sandwiched together to form a single galvanic cell. At the heart lies
a membrane that can only be crossed by charged molecules. Gas-permeable electrodes coated with a
catalyst adhere to this membrane, adding a layer on either side. These electrodes are in turn connected to
a device that can utilize electricity—a load—which creates a complete electrical circuit.

Hydrogen gas (H 2 ) flows into channels on one face of the cell and migrates through that electrode, while
the same occurs with oxygen gas (O 2 , typically from the ambient air) along the opposite electrode.
Spurred by a catalyst, favorable chemistry causes the hydrogen to oxidize into hydrogen protons and give
up its electrons to the neighboring electrode, which thereby becomes the anode. This buildup of negative
charge then follows the path of least resistance via the external circuit to the other electrode (the cathode).
It is this flow of electrons through a circuit that creates electricity

But this wouldn't continue for long without a complete electrochemical cycle. As the electrical current
begins to flow, hydrogen protons pass through the membrane from the anode to the cathode. When the
electrons return from doing work—lighting your house, charging a battery, or powering your car's motor,
for example—they react with oxygen and the hydrogen protons at the cathode to form water. Heat
emanates from this union (an exothermic reaction), as well as from the frictional resistance of ion transfer
through the membrane. This thermal energy can be utilized outside the fuel cell. To summarize:

Anode Reaction: H 2 —> 2 H + + 2 e -

C athode Reaction: ½ O 2 + 2 H + + 2 e - —> H 2 O

APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELLS

Cars,Trucks,andBuses :
Most vehicles today rely on an internal combustion engine (IC E) that burns fossil fuels to generate motive
force . While adequate, this system has many unpleasant side-effects . The IC E is also a poor fit to the
demands of a vehicle. Electric motors are much more suitable because they deliver their maximum torque
at low rpm, just when a vehicle needs it most. And when a driver heads downhill or puts on the brakes, an
electric motor can double as a generator to recapture that energy and covert it back to electricity for
subsequent use.

Unfortunately, the short range and tedious recharging of the 1st generation, battery-powered electric cars
have tainted the notion of an electrical vehicle in the public eye. But these problems can be overcome
when a fuel cell powers the vehicle's electric motor. A hydrogen tank can be refueled in about five minutes,
and has a similar range to a conventional automobile. While handling hydrogen gas requires specific
precautions, it is just as safe to fuel your car with hydrogen as with gasoline or natural gas.

BusinessesandHomes
Fuel cells are attractive in stationary applications for a variety of reasons. They deliver unparalleled fuel
efficiencies, especially in C ombined Heat & Power (C HP) applications where the waste thermal energy is
harvested for HVAC or industrial purposes.

In addition, their fuel cells offer a new level of reliability: if a blackout occurs, they will keep essential
mechanical components and external landmark signage online. This assurance of highly reliable power led
The First National Bank of Omaha to run their mission-critical credit card transaction unit with fuel cells.
Their managers know that blackouts aren't just annoying—they're expensive. Hewlett-Packard estimated
that a fifteen-minute outage at one chip fabrication plant would cost the company $30 million, or half the
plant's power budget for an entire year. In addition to clean, quiet operation, fuel cells offer highly reliable,
high-quality electricity.

Laptops,CellPhones,andotherElectronics
Fuel cells will find their first widespread use in portable electronics. These "micro fuel cells" offer far higher
energy densities than those of comparably sized batteries, allowing a typical laptop to operate unplugged
for ten hours or more. Micro fuel cells also offer the added appeal of eliminating the need for battery
chargers and AC adapters, as they require refueling instead of recharging. This process could be done via
"hot-swapping" whereby the device does not need to be turned off to get a new full tank of energy.

REFERENCES:

1 ^ http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage2336.html

2 ^ http://www.ecn.nl/bct/solupor.en.html

3
http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/FuelCellToday/EducationCentre/EducationCentreExternal/EduCentreDisplay/0,1741,History,00.html

4 http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/benefits.html

C reated by Department of C SE