A. Photosynthesis 1.

Photosynthesis uses energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose in the formula: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2 2. Oxidation is the loss of electrons. 3. Reduction is the gain of electrons. 4. When hydrogen atoms are transferred to carbon dioxide from water, water has been oxidized and carbon dioxide has been reduced. 5. Input of energy is needed to produce the high-energy glucose molecule. 6. Chloroplasts capture solar energy and convert it by way of an electron transport system into the chemical energy of ATP. 7. ATP is used along with hydrogen atoms to reduce glucose; when NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) donates hydrogen atoms (H+ + e-) to a substrate during photosynthesis, the substrate has accepted electrons and is therefore reduced. 8. The reaction that reduces NADP+ is: NADP+ + 2e- + H+ = NADPH B. Cellular Respiration 1. The overall equation for cellular respiration is opposite that of photosynthesis: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy 2. When NAD removes hydrogen atoms (H+ + e-) during cellular respiration, the substrate has lost electrons and is therefore oxidized. 3. At the end of cellular respiration, glucose has been oxidized to carbon dioxide and water and ATP molecules have been produced. 2. In metabolic pathways, most oxidations involve the coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide); the molecule accepts two electrons but only one hydrogen ion: NAD+ + 2e- + H+ = NADH C. Electron Transport Chain 1. Both photosynthesis and respiration use an electron transport chain consisting of membrane-bound carriers that pass electrons from one carrier to another. 2. High-energy electrons are delivered to the system and low-energy electrons leave it. 3. The overall effect is a series of redox reactions; every time electrons transfer to a new carrier, energy is released for the production of ATP. D. ATP Production 1. ATP synthesis is coupled to the electron transport system. 2. Peter Mitchell received the 1978 Nobel Prize for his chemiosmotic theory of ATP production. 3. In both mitochondria and chloroplasts, carriers of electron transport systems are located within a membrane. 4. H+ ions (protons) collect on one side of the membrane because they are pumped there by specific proteins. 5. The electrochemical gradient thus established across the membrane is used to provide energy for ATP production. 6. Enzymes and their carrier proteins, called ATP synthase complexes, span the membrane; each complex contains a channel that allows H+ ions to flow down their electrochemical gradient.

7. In photosynthesis, energized electrons lead to the pumping of hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane; as hydrogen ions flow through the ATP synthase complex, ATP is formed. 8. During cellular respiration, glucose breakdown provides energy for a hydrogen ion gradient on the inner membrane of the mitochondria that also couples hydrogen ion flow with ATP formation. The Process of Photosynthesis 1. The net equation of photosynthesis reads: 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6 H12O6 + 6O2. 2. Photosynthesis involves oxidation-reduction, where the carbon dioxide has been reduced by hydrogen atoms and energy, and the water has been oxidized. a. Solar energy is not used directly, but rather converted to ATP molecules. b. Electrons required to reduce carbon dioxide is carried by coenzyme, NADP+. 3. In 1930, van Niel showed that O2 given off by photosynthesis comes from water and not from CO2. A. Two Sets of Reactions 1. In 1905, Blackman proposed two sets of reactions for photosynthesis. 2. Light reactions take place only in the presence of light. a. Light reactions are the energy-capturing reactions. b. Chlorophyl within thylakoid membranes absorbs solar energy and energizes electrons. c. When energized electrons move down an electron transport chain, energy is captured and used for ATP production. d. Energized electrons are also taken up by NADP+, converting it to NADPH. 3. Calvin cycle reactions a. These reactions take place in the stroma; the reactions can occur in either the presence or the absence of light. b. These are synthetic reactions that use NADPH and ATP to reduce CO2.