Constructivism in the Middle School p.

1 Running Head: CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE CLASS Word count: 2,327

Constructivism in the Middle School Science Class

C.John Graves Monforton School, Bozeman, Montana; Department of Education, Montana State University Bozeman, Montana

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 2 Author Note C.John Graves, Monforton School, Bozeman, Montana and Department of Education, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana. I teach middle school science (grades 6-8) and am an adjunct instructor at Montana State University-Bozeman teaching courses in Elementary Science Methods at the undergraduate and graduate level. I also teach undergraduate courses in assessment. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to C. John Graves at 6001 Monforton School Road, Bozeman, Montana 59718. Voice mail phone number is 406-587-5376 x.234; fax number is 406-587-5049. Electronic mail may be sent to graves@math.montana.edu.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 3 The Constructivist Theory in a Practical Setting You've most likely encountered the term constructivism by reading professional journals or maybe it came up during a conversation with a colleague. But what is meant by the term and how does it apply to the classroom teacher? This article defines constructivism and bridges the gap between theory and practice and offers one strategy for implementing a constructivist teaching activity and assessment in an upper elementary/middle school science classroom. The Theory The term "constructivist" comes from the work of Jean Piaget (1964). It was his contention that learners construct knowledge from the raw data of experience. Knowledge, according to the constructivist theory, is not in the universe ready-made, but is the product of each learner based on the growing and changing experiences of the learner. As a result, an individual's knowledge is under constant review and revision as new data is received and interpreted. Because children have different acquired experiences, each child brings a unique understanding to any learning situation. Knowledge is different from one learner to the next. In this way, then, constructivism is "learner-centered" rather than "curriculum-centered" or "teacher-centered". In the field of education, constructivism is beginning to emerge as the dominant paradigm. This has direct and profound implications to classroom teachers as they develop methods to expand their teaching repertoire. To the science practitioner, constructivism makes sense. Many teachers can relate constructivism to personal experience. Take for example the development of a new course of study for students. This situation may occur when a school district adopts a new textbook and a teacher is using it for the first time. The teacher relies heavily on past experiences as they incorporate the new material, but as unfamiliar concepts are encountered, there is often a change

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 4 in strategies, and thinking--knowledge--about the topic grows. The teacher finds ways to "fill in the gaps" through consultation with colleagues, outside reading, or simply jumping in and using the new material. Hence, new knowledge on that topic has been constructed. More than likely the newly acquired knowledge base does not remain static, but continues to undergo revision as new bits of data are added. Another arena in which teachers interact with the development of knowledge is in the classroom. This can be witnessed through students, especially if they are engaged with a topic in some manner other than simple paper and pencil tasks. How exciting it is to visit with a student who grabbed ahold of a topic or idea and spent extra time on it outside the classroom. David, an 8th grade student, embraced the subject of simple machines and catapults and devoted several days to building a catapult at home. He brought in his contraption and was able to fully explain the physics of the lever he used for the catapult. His knowledge of angles, forces and projectiles far surpassed any material in the textbook. In addition, he told of the limitations of the objects that he could use as projectiles. He was excited about his learning and was willing to be guided into further areas of discovery. When he talked about how the catapult reduced the amount of work he had to do, a misconception surfaced. Through further exchange with the instructor, he was able to understand that machines change the force or the distance over which the force is applied, but do not change the amount of work being done. It became clear that even with his newly acquired knowledge, David had misconceptions about the fundamental understanding of simple machines. The area of misconceptions needs to be understood and addressed when utilizing a constructivist approach to teaching. Studies by Joseph Stephans (1994) and others have offered a number of practical techniques to assist teachers in the area of misconceptions.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 5 Moving From the Theoretical to the Practical If it is true that learners acquire knowledge through construction, then perhaps teachers should examine how classroom instruction is addressed. There are strategies that better accommodate the construction of learning for our students and it should not be surprising that many of these strategies are already being used in classrooms. When reflecting on classroom structure, one should be mindful of the following points: developmentally appropriate learning opportunities the use of discovery learning and hands-on the use of manipulatives the use of cooperative learning and small groups the implementation of authentic assessment the time factor for instruction the teaching of content material Allowing for the construction of knowledge does not imply, even remotely, the lack of need to teach specific skills. Conversely, teachers must be adept at utilizing multiple teaching strategies as well as understanding the nature of learning and students' mastery of content. Constructivism forces teachers to reexamine that common notion that students learn by having knowledge "crammed" into their heads. Content, be it science content or any other, must somehow fit within the realm of the individual constructions being made by student learners. Knowing when and how to put the content pieces into the construction puzzle is the major task of a teacher.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 6 How a Constructivist Lesson Might Appear The following activity is a constructivist lesson that has been designed for a 7th grade science class. The course of study is the physical properties of matter. Teacher Set Up and notes: Obtain a large number of "eye poppers." These are available at toy stores and sell for about $ .25 each. Each group of three students should have access to approximately 3-5 poppers of various sizes. Prepare the room by having equipment such as meter sticks, rulers, calculators, drawing paper, graph paper, markers, etc. available for the students. 1. Place students in cooperative groups of three. 2. Provide the students ample time to complete the activity. On an average this may take 2-4 days. 3. A sample scoring rubric has been included (appendix A). 4. Prepare and present the following to the students: The Problem: A toy company in our town has just developed a new product they call "eye poppers". These plastic disks look like half of a hollow ball. When turned inside out and placed on a surface, they reverse themselves and pop into the air. You will be given a variety of poppers of different sizes, colors and quality. The challenge for you is to determine which poppers are the best. As a group you will determine criteria upon which to judge the quality of the poppers. After conducting whatever experimental investigations you wish, your group will design an advertising brochure to market the poppers. The brochure must include a summary of your judgment criteria, a "how it works" section, and an explanation of why your group thinks

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 7 the popper you have chosen to market is the "best". You are free to rename the popper to aid in your advertising scheme. You will be working in cooperative groups of three. A Closer Look at the Activity: Checking the Instructional Criteria As mentioned in the article, there are certain considerations to be made when designing a constructivist activity. The following is a reflection on the criteria for this activity. The learning opportunities must be developmentally appropriate. This activity is developmentally appropriate for 7th graders (ages 9-11). According to Piaget (1964), most students at this age have moved out of the preoperational stage and are well into the concrete operational stage. Students have some mastery over conservation of length (necessary when determining how high their poppers pop), classification, seriation (placing objects according to certain attributes which is needed when identifying attributes for their definition of "best") and one-to-one correspondence. Further, some of the students at this age are beginning to develop formal operational skills such as deductive reasoning and are making statements such as, "This popper is the best because it is able to pop consistently higher from a number of different surfaces." The use of hands-on builds a cycle of discovery. The eye popper activity is discovery based. There was very little teacher input and the students are allowed to discover by working with the eye poppers. As a result they quickly become eye popper "experts". Success in discovery often leads to other questions and more discovery, which is key to constructivism. The use of manipulatives aids in the discovery.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 8 The eye poppers are the manipulatives in this activity. Students are able to manipulate the objects they are exploring. In addition there are other testing and measuring items such as meter sticks, rulers, graph paper, and calculators available for students to manipulate. The use of cooperative learning and small groups allows full participation by all students. This activity is designed to be completed in cooperative groups, paralleling many of the real-life working situations they will face as older students and adults. The individuals in the group have stake in the final product, it is not a solo performance. As a result of group interaction, the teacher needs to assure, through a variety of assessment techniques, that all students are actively engaged and participating in the activity. The implementation of authentic assessment makes the activity real to the students. The brochure designed by the students is assessed by the teacher. Students are accountable to explaining the judgment criteria they established, explaining how the popper works and why they believe the popper they have chosen is the best. By establishing the idea that the students are testing the poppers for a toy company and their results will be used in marketing, the constructivist activity is given a more lifelike quality. It may be helpful to remind students that companies hire people to test their products and some groups such as Consumer Reports and Consumer Reports for Kids are dedicated to providing consumer product information. The recognition by the teacher that time is an essential commodity that can not be sacrificed. Students must be given time to construct their knowledge in this activity. What constitutes an appropriate amount of time must be determined by the teacher. Students need to feel that they "have all the time they need," but encouragement to adhere to a time limit might also be used.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 9 Content is critical, although it may be "taught" differently. In a course of study on the physical properties of matter, a number of key concepts (science content) are important. These concepts will be covered in the popper activity, but not always in what is recognizable as a "traditional" method (textbook reading, lecture and discussion-type format). Textbook-type lessons often do not lend themselves to a constructivist activity. Because students are constructing their own knowledge, they need content when they are ready for it--when it fits into their construction. As a result, teachers may find it necessary to rethink the methods by which content is delivered to students. The following methods may be used by the teacher as a means of conveying content to the learners: * Instruction through questions--One of the realities of constructivist learning is that learners ask questions when those questions need to be answered. Much of the teacher's "instructional" curriculum, then, is student generated. Teachers must attend carefully to each group and the individuals within the group in order to know their needs for instruction. It may be necessary to keep some record of what has been taught so that unnecessary redundancy of instruction is avoided. Often a simple checklist or anecdotal accounting is all that is needed. * Outside Resources--Providing additional avenues of learning becomes an important task of a teacher. This may include directing students to other resources such as science trade books, library references, CD-ROM materials, or interaction with professionals via telecommunications. * Post-activity instruction--Using the instructional activity and the knowledge acquired as a foundation, the teacher can continue to add to the knowledge base of the students. This may come through class discussion, the development of more activities, student writing projects, or student presentations.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 10 It is critical to recognize the expertise required by the instructor. No longer is a teacher simply expected to present a lesson and then call it quits. A tremendous amount of attention to all learners, their needs, their understanding, and expression is needed. Coming Full Circle Many of the teaching strategies used in this activity have been around for several years. Cooperative learning, small groups, discovery learning, authentic assessment, and reflective thinking practices are all strategies that should be quite familiar to us. However, theory has often failed to make a clear connection to the practical. These strategies have arisen, in part, from the theoretical base of constructivism; therefore, it should come as no surprise that many of the "reform" issues in pedagogy fit under the constructivist framework. As we begin to construct a vision, the foundational base from which these practices arose, we are more confident in our use of these practices in our classrooms. Providing for the learners in our classrooms should be our primary goal. It is not easy, but the rewards of learning are worth the effort on our part. As learners ourselves, we continue to construct our knowledge of teaching and may find the use of constructivist activities a very effective arsenal in our ever-emerging repertoire of teaching strategies.

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 11 Appendix A Sample Scoring Rubric (can be used by instructor or students or combination) Eye Popper Activity Name:______________________ Scoring criteria: 4--Exceeds Expectations 3--Meets Expectations 2--Needs Improvement 1--Incomplete or missing Popper Testing ____ 1. Used experiment tools properly (meter sticks, rulers) ____ 2. Participated in group popper testing ____ 3. Worked as an effective group member ____ 4. Asked appropriate questions ____ 5. Showed evidence of new knowledge through discussion, questions, insights ____ 6. Used time effectively Score: _______ Comments:

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 12 Brochure ____ 7. Includes judgment criteria ____ 8. Includes "how it works" section ____ 9. "How it works" is scientifically accurate ____ 10. Includes definition of "best" popper that is supported by evidence ____ 11. Overall appearance Score:______ Total Score for Popper Testing and Brochure:______ Comments:

Constructivism in the Middle School p. 13 REFERENCES Carson, R.N. (1994) Constructivist theory in educational practice. Knowledge Base of the College of Education, Health and Human Development. Unpublished manuscript. Montana State University at Bozeman. Carson, R.N. (1995) Constructivist and liberal education. Knowledge Base of the College of Education, Health and Human Development. Unpublished manuscript. Montana State University at Bozeman. Koch, J. (1993). Face to face with science misconceptions. Science and Children, 30 (6), 39-40. Matthews, M.R. (1994). Constructivism and science education. Science Teaching. (pp.137-161). New York: Routledge. Piaget, J. (1964). Cognitive development in children: Development and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2 (9), 176-186. Stephans, J. & Veath, M.L. (1994). How do students really explain changes in matter? Science Scope, 17 (8), 31-35 Woolbaugh, W. (1995). Those jumping disks. Montana Science Teachers Association Newsletter, 12 (3), 30.